FACULTEIT WETENSCHAPPEN
Opleiding Master in de Geologie
Taphonomy, osteometry and archaeozoology of
the Pleistocene herbivores from the third
horizon of the Goyet cave, Belgium
Alexander Comeyne
Academiejaar 2012–2013
Scriptie voorgelegd tot het behalen van de graad
Van Master of Science in de geologie
Promotor: Prof. Dr. J. Verniers
Co-promotor: Dr. M. Germonpré
Leescommissie: Prof. Dr. Dominique Adriaens, Prof. Dr. Achilles Gautier
Acknowledgements
Prof. Dr. J. Verniers
For proposing this M.Sc. thesis subject and introduction to the
Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences
Dr. M. Germonpré
For reading and contructively criticising the manuscript and
answering my questions, as well as support in the practical
research .
Wilfried Miseur
Fot taking photographs of selected specimens
RBINS
For the opportunity to work with its Goyet collection
Summary
1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 Localisation .................................................................................................................................... 5
1.2 Stratigraphy and archaeology ....................................................................................................... 7
1.3 Spatial distribution of Chamber A, Horizon 3 .............................................................................. 10
1.4 Herbivore species ........................................................................................................................ 11
1.4.1 Horse .................................................................................................................................... 11
1.4.2 Auroch/bison ........................................................................................................................ 13
1.4.3 Woolly mammoth................................................................................................................. 13
1.4.4 Woolly rhinoceros ................................................................................................................ 13
1.4.5 Red deer ............................................................................................................................... 14
1.5 The prey of prehistoric humans and carnivores.......................................................................... 14
1.6 Traces .......................................................................................................................................... 15
1.6.1 Cut marks.............................................................................................................................. 15
1.6.2 Ochre traces ......................................................................................................................... 16
1.7 Problem statement...................................................................................................................... 16
1.8 Goal ............................................................................................................................................. 17
2 Material en methods .......................................................................................................................... 18
2.1 The Dupont collections................................................................................................................ 18
2.2 Identification and frequency distribution ................................................................................... 19
2.3 Measurements ............................................................................................................................ 19
2.4 Identification and ageing of the teeth......................................................................................... 20
2.4.1 Horse .................................................................................................................................... 20
2.4.2 Woolly mammoth................................................................................................................. 22
2.4.3 Woolly rhinoceros ................................................................................................................ 23
2.4.4 Red deer ............................................................................................................................... 23
2.5 Age distributions ......................................................................................................................... 24
2.5.1 Horse .................................................................................................................................... 25
2.5.2 Woolly mammoth................................................................................................................. 26
2.5.3 Woolly rhinoceros ................................................................................................................ 26
2.5.4 Red deer ............................................................................................................................... 26
1
2.6 Sexual dimorphism ...................................................................................................................... 26
2.6.1 Woolly mammoth................................................................................................................. 26
2.6.2 Red deer ............................................................................................................................... 27
2.7 Size reductions ............................................................................................................................ 27
2.8 List of the used abbreviations and categories............................................................................. 28
3 Results ................................................................................................................................................ 29
3.1 General ........................................................................................................................................ 29
3.1.1 Tables.................................................................................................................................... 30
3.1.2 Graphs .................................................................................................................................. 37
3.2 Detailed results per species......................................................................................................... 40
3.2.1 Equus ferus (Horse) .............................................................................................................. 40
3.2.2 Bos/Bison (Auroch/Bison)..................................................................................................... 77
3.2.3 Mammuthus primigenus (Woolly mammoth)...................................................................... 88
3.2.4 Coelodonta antiquitatis (Woolly Rhinoceros) ...................................................................... 93
3.2.5 Cervus elaphus (Red deer) .................................................................................................. 106
3.2.6 Ovibos moschatus (Muskox)............................................................................................... 111
3.2.7 Capra ibex (Ibex) ................................................................................................................. 111
3.3 Detailed representation of the different traces ........................................................................ 112
3.3.1 Ochre .................................................................................................................................. 112
3.3.2 Cut marks............................................................................................................................ 115
3.3.3 Gnawing traces ................................................................................................................... 118
3.3.4 Impact traces ...................................................................................................................... 120
3.3.5 Tools ................................................................................................................................... 123
3.4 Age distributions ....................................................................................................................... 124
3.4.1 Horse .................................................................................................................................. 124
3.4.2 Woolly mammoth............................................................................................................... 125
3.4.3 Woolly rhinoceros .............................................................................................................. 126
3.4.4 Red deer ............................................................................................................................. 127
4 Discussion......................................................................................................................................... 127
4.1 NISP and MNI in the top three horizons of the third cave from Goyet .................................... 127
4.2 Taphonomy................................................................................................................................ 128
4.3 Ratios ......................................................................................................................................... 129
4.4 Osteometry and general interpretations .................................................................................. 130
4.4.1 Equus sp. ............................................................................................................................. 130
2
4.4.2 Mammothus primigenius ................................................................................................... 132
4.4.3 Bos/Bison ............................................................................................................................ 133
4.4.4 Cervus elaphus .................................................................................................................... 133
4.4.5 Coelodonta antiquitatis ...................................................................................................... 133
4.4.6 Ovibos moschatus............................................................................................................... 133
4.5 Age distributions ....................................................................................................................... 134
4.5.1 Horse .................................................................................................................................. 134
4.5.2 Woolly mammoth............................................................................................................... 134
4.5.3 Woolly rhinoceros .............................................................................................................. 134
4.5.4 Red deer ............................................................................................................................. 135
4.6 Archaeozoology ......................................................................................................................... 135
4.6.1 Ochre .................................................................................................................................. 135
4.6.2 Cut marks............................................................................................................................ 136
4.6.3 Gnawing traces ................................................................................................................... 136
4.6.4 Impact traces ...................................................................................................................... 137
4.6.5 Tools ................................................................................................................................... 138
4.6.6 Comparison with the spatial distribution established by Dupont (published by Germonpré,
2001)............................................................................................................................................ 139
5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 141
6 Appendices ....................................................................................................................................... 143
6.1 Bibliography............................................................................................................................... 143
6.2 Abbreviations of the measurements ......................................................................................... 151
6.3 List of photographs of selected specimens ............................................................................... 154
6.4 List of figures ............................................................................................................................. 154
6.5 List of tables............................................................................................................................... 157
6.6 Labels of Dupont with each tray ............................................................................................... 161
6.7 Dutch resume ............................................................................................................................ 168
1
Introduction
The Goyet cave is one of the richest Pleistocene sites in Belgium. It is located in the southern edge of
the Namur Synclinorium, close to the Meuse valley and lies near the confluence of the Strouvia and
the Samson, a small tributary of the Meuse. Edouard Dupont excavated this cave in the 1860s and
unearthed ten thousands of bones. Most of these finds have a stratigraphic attribution (with five
3
horizons) but not a spatial provenance. The carnivores were studied in detail during the last two
decades (Depestele, 2005; Germonpré , 2004 ; Germonpré et al., 2009; 2013; Germonpré &
Hämälainen, 2007; Germonpré & Sablin, 2001). The herbivores from the first bone level (Germonpré,
1996, 1997; Dekeyzer, 2007), from the second bone level (Soenen, 2006) and the reindeer from the
third bone level (Dekeyzer, 2007) were examined during this period. The fossil fauna from Goyet
dates from the Pleniglacial and the Late Glacial (Table 1 and Figure 1). Not only faunal remains were
recovered from the cave but also stone and bone artefacts, left behind by prehistoric people. The
Palaeolithic industries at Goyet can be assigned to the Mousterian (Middle Palaeolithic), the
Aurignacian, the Gravettian and the Magdalenian (Upper Palaeolithic). Furthermore, not only
artefacts but also skeletal remains from neanderthals and anatomically modern humans (AMH)
testify of the recurrent occupations of this cave by prehistoric people (Pirson et al., 2012; Rougier et
al., 2012). The former industry is associated with neanderthals, the latter three with AMH. The
chronological and palaeoenvironmental context in Europe during the time of the Middle to Upper
Palaeolithic transition (MUPT), from 50 000 to 30 000 BP, is not accurately known and is currently
being studied (Conard et al., 2006). This is also the period of the transition from Neanderthals to
modern humans. Progress in the understanding of the MUPT can be achieved with the study of long
sedimentary sequences providing a semi-continuous record and with situating archaeological
remains in a reliable palaeoenvironmental and chronological framework (Pirson et al., 2012). The Spy
Neanderthals have recently been directly dated by 14C to 36 000 BP. The earliest credible age for the
Belgian Aurignacian is about 32 000-33 000 BP (Maisières-Canal and Spy) (Pirson et al., 2012; Semal
et al., 2009).
In general, the climatic trend in the Upper Pleistocene indicates the cooling temperatures of the
Weichselian glaciation. This period comprises the Marine Isotope Stages 5, 4, 3 and 2. The Saale
glacial includes MIS 6 after which the temperatures rise in the Eemian interglacial (the lower
boundary of the Upper Pleistocene). As shown in Figure 1, MIS 5(e) is warm (comparable with the
Holocene), MIS 4 represents a cooling event while in MIS 3 the temperature rises again. MIS 2
exhibits the lowest temperatures of this period, culminating in the Last Glacial Maximum. This is
followed by the Holocene interglacial.
MIS 5 (around 130 000 to 70 000 BP) displays climatic oscillations with a range of 8 000-14 000 years
and has been subdivided accordingly.A trend towards lower temperatures is present.The MIS 3
stage, ranging from around 60,000 to 30,000 BP, is characterised by 15 high-frequency climatic
oscillations (Greenland Interstadials, GIS). They have each a duration from 500 to 2500 years,
consisting of abrupt warming followed by slower cooling as recorded in the Greenland ice cap
(Andersen et al., 2007). These high-frequency variations are also present in the rest of the Upper
Pleistocene.
The so-called mammoth steppe is a well-defined paleoecological unit covering middle and southern
Europe, northern Asia and Alaska during the Upper Pleistocene cold phases. It was bordered to the
north-west and to the east by icecaps, and was characterised by a rather homogeneous faunal
assemblage dominated by Mammuthus, Bison and Equus (Guthrie 1982).
General ecological comparisons can be made between the extinct Pleistocene Mammoth steppe and
the recent African savannah (Vereshchagin and Baryshnikov, 1992). Ecologically variable conditions
4
prevailed across the mammoth steppe during the Pleistocene, with substantial regional differences in
precipitation and temperature (Szpak et al., 2010).
Figure 1 Northwest European chronostratigraphical subdivision and correlation with the marine isotope record, and
archaeological units of this study.Adapted from Hijma, 2012. Note the break of scale at 135 ka.
1.1 Localisation
The village of Goyet (Namur province, Belgium, 50°26’44’’N, 5°00’48’’E) is situated at the confluence
of two small rivers: the Samson (tributary of the Meuse river) and the Strouvia. The valley of the
Samson has a length of about 15 km with a maximum width of around 500 m. After a sinuous course,
through a plateau with a maximum height of 280 m, the Samson joins the river Meuse some 3 km
north of Goyet (Germonpré, 1997). The limestone cliff at Goyet contains a series of caves on the right
bank of the river Samson. These were excavated by Dupont in 1868 and 1869 (Dupont, 1869a, 1869b,
1872; Van den broeck et al, 1910). These caves are situated at an altitude of 130 m TAW in the Lower
Carboniferous deposits. The third cave is the most important one in size and fossil content. Its
entrance is located 15 m above the Samson.
5
The third cave runs very deep and is connected with the other caves by transverse galleries (Dupont,
1872; Ulrix-Closset, 1975). Dupont subdivides the cave in three parts: chamber A, B and C ( Figure 2
and Figure 3). Chamber A is about 26 m deep, 5 m wide and 3.8 m high with an entrance of 3.8 m
wide. The twilight zone stretches to the back of the chamber. Chamber B is connected to A by two
small galleries and has a length of circa 13 m. Chamber C is at a distance of 120 m from the cave
entrance (Germonpré, 2001). An extensive historic overview of the research at the Goyet caves is
given by Ulrix-Closset (1975), Otte (1979) and Dewez (1987). More recent excavations have been
performed at the caves of Goyet, from 1997 onwards. One of the objectives was to improve the
stratigraphic and paleoenvironmental knowledge of the sediments on the terrace and in the caves
(Toussaint et al., 2004).
Figure 2 Map of chamber A, B and C from the third cave of Goyet (Germonpré and Sablin, 2001). III stands for the third
cave.
6
Figure 3 Section of the third cave (Chamber A and B) from Dupont (1872). Although the figure seems to show more
horizons, Chamber A contains four layers (horizons one to four) and Chamber B contains two ( horizons four and five).
The scale mentioned by Dupont is three millimetres for one meter.
1.2 Stratigraphy and archaeology
In these chambers a large number of Middle and Upper Paleolithic artefacts were discovered along
with numerous remains of Pleistocene mammals (Dupont,1873) ) and Palaeolithic humans (Rougier
et al., 2009, 2012). Many of the fossil bones are broken, have cut marks, or display traces of ochre
(Germonpré , 1996; 1997; Germonpré and Sablin, 2001; Germonpré and Hämäläinen, 2007). The
Palaeolithic artefacts date from the Mousterian, Aurignacian, Gravettian, and Magdalenian (Otte,
1979), which indicates recurrent occupations of the cave. However, it is not always clear from which
horizon the artefacts and bones originate (Dewez, 1987; Ulrix-Closset, 1975). Remains from both
neanderthals and anatomically modern humans have been recovered (Rougier et al., 2012).
The bones occur in clayey-sandy loam which Dupont (1872) calls ‘limon fluvial’. The bone horizons
are according to Dupont (1873) separated by sterile ‘alluvial’ sediments. No detailed information on
the stratigraphy was published by Dupont. The total thickness of the excavated layers is more or less
1.2 to 2.5 m as deduced from the sediment remains on the walls of the cavern. Dupont (1873)
distinguishes three types of bone accumulations inside the cave. The first category concerns
carnivores like lion, bear and hyena which used the cave as den and all their skeletal remains are well
represented in the dark parts of the cave, sometimes in anatomical connection. The second category
is caused by hyenas, who introduced body parts of their prey, mostly herbivores, in the cave and the
bones of these are often gnawed upon. Finally, a lot of broken bones are often associated with bone
and stone artefacts and would belong to animals butchered elsewhere and partly brought to the
7
cave by prehistoric people. They are found in the lightened part of the cave. The bones carry often
traces of artificial manipulation and marrow rich bones show regularly marks of impact to split the
diaphysis (Germonpré, 2001; Germonpré and Hämäläinen, 2007).
Altogether, Dupont (1873) distinguishes five bone bearing horizons of which Chamber A holds four.
Unlike the normal geological order, the upper horizon is the first and the lowest horizon is number
five. The lower one is well developed only in the back of Chamber A and without Palaeolithic
artefacts. The upper three bone horizons are concentrated near the entrance of Chamber A and
contain bones from human refuse and Middle to Upper Palaeolithic artefacts. Aurignacian ivory
beads were discovered in Horizon 3 (Otte, 1979) which is thought to be a palimpsest of multiple
occupations (Miller, 2001). The sterile deposits separating the third from the second bone horizon,
and the second from the first have a thickness of resp. 10 to 30 cm and 10 to 15 cm (Dupont,
unpublished notes dating from 1906). Dupont mentioned in his unpublished notes the presence of a
‘colonne de stalagmite’, a speleothem, which covered the upper bone horizon and at its base
engulfed bones of horse, reindeer and rodents. A number of bones from this horizon are indeed
encrusted in calcite (Germonpré, 2001). The three upper horizons (1, 2 and 3) contain large
quantities of unidentifiable and broken remains (hundreds each) (Germonpré, 2001).
The bear and hyena assemblages from these horizons were located more to the back of the chamber
(Dupont, 1873) and have a different origin (Germonpré, 1996). It is not clear how the carnivore
assemblages from these three horizons are interrelated, but it seems probable that they are not
connected to the human refuse assemblages. Chamber A was used by a population of cave bear at 38
770 years BP ago; cave hyenas occupied Chamber A at least during two phases at 35 000 years BP
and 27 230 years BP (Germonpré, 1997; Van Strydonck et al., 2001). A fossil canid skull found during
Edouard Dupont’s excavations in the 1860s has an AMS age of around 32 000 BP. According to
Dupont’s unpublished notes, the skull was found in a side gallery of the cave in Horizon 4
(Germonpré et al., 2009; 2013). Table 1 with the AMS dates for all levels from Goyet was compiled
from the available literature and unpublished data. Different measurements done on the same
sample are all included. A total of 35 AMS dates are represented here, spread out over the various
horizons and chambers (except chamber C). The used abbreviations in the ‘Level’ section stand for
Chamber and Horizon. For example: A1 stands for Chamber A, Horizon 1.
The CalPal Online (Cologne Radiocarbon Calibration & Palaeoclimate Research Package) was used for
the calibration of the AMS dates,. This is a radiocarbon calibration program package which allows
calendric age-conversion (”calibration”) of 14C-data. 14C-dating has a complicated history with various
restrictions and corrections (Jöris et al., 2000; Jöris et al., unpublished). However the time range
involved in this study is adequate (Weninger, 1986) and satisfactory results should be obtained.
Weninger and Jöris are also two of the three authors of CalPal Online.
Most of the dates of the humanly modified bones of horse (Equus caballus arcelini) and muskox
(Ovibos moschatus) from Goyet (horizon 1) agree very well with the Upper Magdalinian age of the
human occupations of this level. This suggests that the occupations date from the beginning of the
Late Glacial (Germonpre, 1997), although several dates on humanly modified bones can be placed in
the Pleniglacial. The second bone level at Goyet contains artefacts which are also attributed to the
Magdalenian (Dewez, 1987). This is however not reflected in the AMS dates. Twiesselmann (1951)
assigns the artefacts from level 3 to the Mousterian and the Aurignacian, which is also reflected in
8
the age measurements. According to Otte (1979) mixing of the archaeological material of several
horizons occurred and each horizon could contain material from several successive occupations,
which could explain the older AMS dates of the second horizon.
AMS Goyet
Level
taxon
Element
Nr Dupont
A1
Equus caballus arcelini
MC acc
A1
Ovibos moschatus
Phalanx
A1
Equus caballus arcelini
A1
Lab. Code
Age, 14C yr BP
Age, cal yr BP
human
marks
Reference
2813-33
Utc-8957
12 560 ± 50
14 900 ± 290
cut & ochre
Van Strydonck et al. (2001)
2783-49
GrA – 3238
12 620 ± 90
14 980 ± 320
cut
Germonpré (1997)
Vertebra
2380-6
GrA – 3237
12 770 ± 90
15 210 ± 300
cut & ochre
Germonpré (1997)
Ovibos moschatus
Phalanx
2783
OxA – 12121
12 775 ± 50
15 240 ± 260
cut
Stevens et al, 2009
A1
Equus caballus arcelini
Metatarsus
2832-3
OxA–V– 2223-48
12 775 ± 55
15 240 ± 260
Stevens et al., 2009
A1
large canid
Femur
2812-10
KlA-25296
13 680 ± 60
16 800 ± 220
Germonpré et al. (2009)
A1
Coelodonta antiquitatis
Phalanx
2814
OxA-6592
16 320 ± 140
19 530 ± 330
cut
Stevens et al, 2009
A1
Coelodonta antiquitatis
Phalanx
2814-28
OxA-11291
23 560 ± 230
28 530 ± 430
cut
Stuart and Lister, 2012
A1
Crocuta crocuta
Calcaneum
2812
GrA – 3239
27 230 ± 260
31 910 ± 200
Germonpré (1997)
A1
Coelodonta antiquitatis
Upper M3
2814
OxA-12119
28 470 ± 140
32 860 ± 340
Stuart and Lister, 2012
A1
Coelodonta antiquitatis
M3
2814
OxA-12120
29 330 ± 160
33 740 ± 310
Stuart and Lister, 2012
A1
Equus caballus arcelini
Metatarsus
2832-2
OxA-V-2223-44
31 750 ± 200
35 690 ± 420
Stevens et al., 2009
A1
Crocuta crocuta
P4
2812
UtC-8958
35 000 ± 400
40 030 ± 870
Peigné et al., 2009
A1
Ursus spelaeus
Pisiforme
2811-43
GrA-9605
38 770 +1180-1030
43 110 ± 890
Germonpré (2001)
A2
Alopex lagopus
Humerus
2830-23
KlA-22275
12 380 ± 60
14 590 ± 340
Dalén et al. (2007)
A2
Megaloceros giganteus
M2
2769-31
OxA-11767
23 840 ± 260
28 750 ± 440
Hughes et al., 2006
A2
Equus caballus arcelini
Femur
2809-14
OxA-V-2223-49
29 420 ± 170
33 800 ± 310
A2
Ursus spelaeus
Pisiforme
2758-3
GrA-45325
29 800 ± 150
34 130 ± 200
A2
Ursus spelaeus
Pisiforme
2758
KIA-16289
34 920 ± 330-320
40 000 ± 850
A3
Ursus arctos
Jaw
2763
KIA-13550
10 640 ± 50
12 650 ± 70
Germonpré (2001)
A3
Ursus spelaeus
Canine
2773-23
KlA-18986
27 440 ± 170
32 030 ± 190
Germonpré and Hämäläinen, 2007
A3
Rangifer tarandus
Metatarsus
2211-1
KlA-22281
27 590 ± 170
32 160 ± 240
ochre
Germonpré unpublished
A3
Ursus spelaeus
Skull
2785-14
GrA-44539
27 920 ± 160-150
32 430 ± 300
ochre
Germonpré unpublished
A3
Ursus arctos
Tibia
2788-8
Goyet 1 -Uac Groningen
32 580 ± 250-230
37 120 ± 720
A3
Ursus spelaeus
Lower jaw
2763-4
GrA-38558
32 900 ± 240-220
37 390 ± 660
A3
Rangifer tarandus
Astragalus
2791-49
KlA-33600
34 670 + 900-810
39 740 ± 1040
A4
large canid
Lower jaw
2860-2
KlA-25297
24 780 ± 140
29 820 ± 320
Germonpré et al. (2009)
A4
large canid: Palaeolithic dog
Skull*
2860*
Beta-239920
31 680 ± 250*
35 600 ± 470
Germonpré et al. (2009)
A4
large canid: Palaeolithic dog
Skull*
2860*
GrA-44538
31 890 ± 240-220*
35 920 ± 390
Germonpré et al (2012)
B4
Ursus arctos
Tibia
2745-33
Goyet 2 -Uah Groningen
19 690 ± 100
23 540 ± 290
Germonpré unpublished
B4
Ursus spelaeus
Rib
2836-7
GrA-38560
33 470 ± 250-230
38 840 ± 1470
Germonpré unpublished
B4
Ursus spelaeus
Metacarpus 4
2742-4
GrA-9606
35 470 ± 750
40 280 ± 1060
Germonpré and Sablin, 2001
B4
Ursus spelaeus
Metacarpus 3
2857-20
KlA-23121
36 500 ± 980
41 040 ± 1100
Germonpré and Hämäläinen, 2007
B5
Panthera leo
Humerus
2704-3
KIA-22276
24 470 ± 210
29 240 ± 500
Germonpré unpublished
B5
Ursus spelaeus
Metacarpus 3
2741-23
KIA-23122
28 160 ± 365
32 650 ± 420
Germonpré unpublished
Stevens et al., 2009
ochre
Germonpré unpublished
Germonpré and Hämäläinen, 2007
Germonpré unpublished
Germonpré unpublished
cut
Germonpré unpublished
Table 1 Compilation of the available datations of the third cave of Goyet
Strauss and Otte (1995) consider Goyet to be a major residential site. According to Dewez (1987), the
first (upper) bone horizon at Goyet contains in general archaeological material dating from the Late
Upper Palaeolithic and represents Magdalenian occupations. A bone harpoon was discovered in this
horizon (Dupont, 1872). Other finds include a necklace composed of 26 teeth and two horse
fragments, ivory pendants and fragments of ochre (Van Wetter, 1920; Dewez, 1987).
Two bone layers were found in chamber B and are called (from top to bottom) bone horizon 4 and
bone horizon 5. These two horizons are dominated by carnivore remains. Horizon 5 is only present in
chamber B and holds remains of cave bear and cave lion. Somewhere in the range of 37 000-33 000
years ago the cave of Goyet (chamber B, horizon 4) was used as a den exclusively by cave bears for at
least three and a half centuries (Germonpré and Sablin, 2001).
9
Dupont (1873) does not mention how and why he correlated bone horizon 4 with the layers in
chamber B and C. In chamber C only one bone horizon occurred, assigned by Dupont (1873) to bone
horizon 4.
Near the terrace at the entrance of the multilayered caves, a small rock shelter was excavated in
1952 by Éloy and Kayser. A bone associated with the Gravetian workshop gave an AMS date of 24
440 BP (Éloy and Otte, 1995).
It is clear that Goyet is an important Belgian Paleolithic site. The collections, carefully excavated by
Dupont more than a century ago, are stored at the Royal Belgian Institute for Natural Sciences. These
collections can add substantial information on the history of the region.
1.3 Spatial distribution of Chamber A, Horizon 3
The field notes of Dupont are since long lost but unpublished notes from 1895 of a collaborator of
Dupont, Vincent, give us some indication on the spatial distribution of the excavations of this cave.
These notes also contain lists per species and per tray of each horizon (Germonpré, 2001). Spatial
distribution is an important tool to distinguish different zones in the studied area (Groenen, 2004),
but this is only possible if the horizon is undisturbed.
In chamber A, Horizon 3 (A3), some 3700 identified bones and hundreds of unnumbered unidentified
ones were excavated by Dupont (Germonpré, 2001). A small unpublished note from 1895 was found
in the list of ‘cadres’ by Vincent. It groups the numbers of the trays from horizon 3. The layout forms
a rectangular like the shape of the elongated chamber A. The numbers on top of the schema
correspond with the numbers of the carnivores which were found at the back of the cave. The
numbers on the bottom refer to the numbers of the bones from human refuse. Chamber A is
depicted by Dupont (1873) also with its entrance at the bottom of the page and the back of the
chamber at the top. The numbers of the bones from carnivores correlate with the back of the cave
and those from human refuse with a position near the entrance of chamber A. Thus, the layout is
here interpreted as a schematic representation of the spatial distribution of the fossil remains from
horizon 3. Gnawing traces and cut marks are also indicated. Cut marks are an indication of human
interference on skeletal elements, while carnivores can leave their tooth marks on bones as well
related as unrelated to bone accumulation by humans. Cut marks occur on bones from the first half
of the Chamber while gnawing traces are situated to the back. Many of the gnawing traces are from
cave hyena, bones of this carnivore are also found at the back of the chamber. The positions of a
typical Upper Palaeolithic prey animal (horse, Equus) are also given. Most of the horse bones are
situated in the first part of the chamber and were accumulated by humans, with many cut marks and
impact points on the bones, as noted by Dupont and Vincent. Hyenas were responsible for the
concentration of some horse elements at the back of the chamber. The abundant horse remains
were probably reshuffled over its spatial distribution according to type of skeletal element
(Germonpré, 2001).
10
Figure 4 Figure of the spatial distribution of the third horizon of the third cave of Goyet (adapted from Germonpré, 2001)
1.4 Herbivore species
1.4.1
Horse
There is evidence that grazing horses evolved a behavioural ecology and social organisation similar to
those of modern equids by the Middle Miocene (MacFadden, 1992). Horses live in a wide range of
habitats, with a preference for flatlands (Boyd and Keiper, 2005). They can survive in areas where
food is poor in quality and can tolerate cold, dry weather, although they are less resistant to cold,
wet weather and prolonged deep snow (Guthrie, 1982). Extant wild horses form breeding groups or
harems composed of a single stallion and several mares with their young, generally 2 to 20 animals.
Non-breeding males form smaller unstable bachelor groups. Bands migrate according to changing
11
environmental conditions or seasonality (Boyd and Keiper, 2005). The drier the environment, the
greater the distances travelled, due to the dispersed nature of resources.
Some environmental factors have an influence on the morphology of Pleistocene horses (Van
Asperen, 2010). Animals that survive on low-quality forage will have relatively large, wide molars. A
high amount of browse in the diet will lead to a relative increase in size of the premolar row. The
proportion of browse and grasses can also be derived from an isotopic study of the tooth enamel
(Hoppe et al., 2004). Because horses need a high and relatively diverse food intake, the length of the
growing season and the character of the vegetation may influence the size to which they can grow.
There were regional horse populations until the very end of the Pleistocene in Western Europe
(Bridault and Chaix, 2002). Other taxa also show this distribution, for example the morphological
studies on reindeer (Weinstock, 1997) reached the same conclusion: regional populations did exist
through Western Europe. These observations appear to confirm the persistence of a fragmented
structuration of animal communities, very likely in relation with continuation of the mosaic pattern
of vegetal communities.
Late glacial horses possess larger (third) phalanges than extant equids. Two reasons can explain this:
it can be an adaptation to heavy grounds or related to body size (Bignon et al., 2002). Bignon
compared the width of the phalanges with the length of the metacarpals to account for body size. He
concluded that the Late Glacial horse Equus caballus arcelini seems to have frequented heavy ground
habitats. A possible explanation for this common adaptation in contrasted landscapes is the
importance of two particularly developed habitats during this period: large river banks in valleys or
lakes and occurrence of local marshy environments (Zielinski, 2007). Important Magdalenian
butchery sites in Western Europe were located directly on river banks with extensive marshes in the
vicinity (Bignon et al., 2002). These habitats appear to favour the annual maintenance of a varied
vegetation suitable to horses (as in the Camargue, Duncan, 1992), which should be a crucial point in
the unstable Late Glacial climate (Guthrie 1982, 1984b, 1990)
The evolutionary history of European Equidae is closely related with major climatic changes and
substrates (Alberdi et al., 1995). The record shows that the first immigrant horses in Eurasia had the
largest known body mass. Small body sized species are basically correlated with warm climates and
biomas with an important wooded component (e.g. woodland-savannas) and hard substrates. By
contrast, large sized species are correlated with cold climates and open biomas (c.g. mosaic steppes
and grasslands) and soft substrates. Additionally, glacial horses have more robust limb bones to
prevent heat loss, while temperate phases induce more slender material (Van Asperen, 2010). Due to
this, Cope’s rule (large species evolve later in the phylogeny of a taxonomic group than small species)
is not valid for horses (Forsten, 1993). This is part of a global evolution to smaller body size of many
Late Pleistocene-Holocene mammals (Alberdi et al., 1995), such as Bison bison, Cervus elaphus,
Rangifer tarandus, Mammuthus primigenius and Equus spp. (Guthrie, 1985; Forsten, 1993). There is
no consensus in the literature whether this general decrease should be regarded as adaptation to
environmental change.
12
1.4.2 Auroch/bison
Aurochs (Bos primigenius) can be regarded as native to northwest Europe. They occurred here until
historical times but persistent human hunting and deforestation have resulted in their extermination.
The last auroch in Europe was killed in Poland in 1627 (Van Kolfschoten, 1995).
Bison and Bos indicate different palaeoenvironmental conditions (López González et al., 1999). Some
of the earliest individuals identified as Bison were found in the Villafranchian from India and China
(Kurtén, 1968). It is a non arctic steppe species, able of standing hard climates; it formed large groups
moving towards better habitats. Recent work however indicates that at least some steppe bison did
not migrate (Julien et al., 2012). Bos primigenius lived in great part of Eurasia, but it was not
abundant during the Pleistocene: its presence increases from the Postglacial onwards. It inhabited
meadow, steppe and open forest which results in a more stationary behaviour and more southern
range than bisons preferred (Kurtén, 1968).
1.4.3 Woolly mammoth
The biology and behaviour of the three modern elephant species are very similar, and their habits
and reproductive cycle are likely to apply to the extinct woolly mammoth (Germonpré et al., in
press). The recent elephant living on the African savannah can be compared ecologically with the
Pleistocene woolly mammoth (Vereshchagin and Baryshnikov, 1992). Recent African and Asian
elephants both have a maximum life span of about 60 years. The African elephant lives in family units
of ten to 20 individuals (Laws, 1970) while adult males live solitary. African elephants reach sexual
maturity at an age varying from 8 to 14 years. The distribution of the Late Pleistocene species
Mammuthus primigenius seems to have been limited to the northern regions of the continent or
near the glacial borders (Haynes, 1991). At the end of the Pleistocene, mammoths became extinct
(Van Kolfschoten, 1995). The presence of Mammuthus primigenius indicates glacial conditions and is
characteristic for the mammoth steppe.
1.4.4 Woolly rhinoceros
Rhinoceros and horse belong both to the Perissodactyla although rhinoceroses retained more
primitive features (Wood, 1949). Rhinoceroses during the Quaternary inhabited not only the
temperate latitudes of Eurasia, but also high latitudes with a cold climate. One of those rhinoceroses
adapted to a cold climate is the woolly rhinoceros (Boeskorov, 2012). The woolly rhinoceros was one
of the most abundant species of the Eurasian mammoth fauna: its fossils have been found on the
area spanning from the British Isles in the west to Chukotka and Kamchatka in the east. Together
with Mammuthus primigenius is one of the indicator species of the mammoth steppe.
Boeskorov et al. (2012) states some morphological and ecological features of the woolly rhinoceros.
It was a large animal, the second in size after the wooly mammoth among the North Eurasian
mammoth fauna. In the general body parameters, the woolly rhinoceros is comparable to the extant
rhinoceros species. The shortened protruding body parts (ears and tail) of the woolly rhinoceros as
compared with the extant species is an adaptation to cold climate of the North Eurasian Ice Age. An
analogous shortening in tail length and reduction in ear size as compared with the extant elephants
was also noticed in Mammuthus primigenius (Vereshchagin and Tikhonov, 1999).
The specific landscape and climate features of the Pleistocene were rather adverse conditions: a
sharply continental, mostly arid, climate; winters with little snow; solid soil surface; and
13
predominance of open landscapes with grass and shrub vegetation. The mammoth and other animals
of the mammoth fauna, including the woolly rhinoceros, were adapted to such conditions. The
woolly rhinoceros was well adapted to the cold and dry climate of the late Pleistocene, since it had a
thick and long coat and very thick skin. On the other hand, it had a considerable body weight
combined with short legs and a relatively small bearing surface area. Even a relatively thin snow layer
(35–40 cm) and the presence of snow crust were doubtless limiting factors for Coelodonta
antiquitatis (Boeskorov, 2012). At the end of the Pleistocene, Coelodonta antiquitatis became extinct
(Van Kolfschoten, 1995).
1.4.5 Red deer
Cervus elaphus is a highly adaptable species and associated with many climatic (glacial and
interglacial) and vegetational types (Van Kolfschoten, 1995). Red deer lived in the forest steppe and
has been part of the European large mammal fauna since the Middle Pleistocene (Sommer et al.,
2008). Large accumulations of faunal remains from European archaeological sites show that Cervus
elaphus was hunted and used as a natural resource by hominins since this time (Sommer el al., 2008).
A relatively large number of radiocarbon records supports the presence of red deer in Europe before
the LGM (i.e. 21.0 ka 14C BP). these records can not be assigned accurately to the rapidly alternating
oscillations of the Stadials (GS) and Interstadials (GI) of the Greenland ice core archives.Goyet was at
the northernmost edge of the area in which Cervus elephas occurred. During colder periods,
numerous Southern European records of red deer, either directly or contextually dated by
radiocarbon, indicate the restriction of Cervus elaphus to southern refugia (Sommer et al., 2008).
The distribution pattern of dated records of red deer indicates that the species was very widespread
between ca 60.0–21.0 ka 14C BP. The absence of the species further to the North is very probably an
artefact due to the later overriding of this region by the Fennoscandian ice-masses during the LGM.
In Belgium the species is attested throughout the period by directly dated specimens from Trou
Dubois (22 840 ± 420 BP) and Trou Walou (22 800 ± 400 BP) (Gautier et al., 1997; Sommer et al.,
2008).
1.5 The prey of prehistoric humans and carnivores
Diets of prehistoric humans have been identified using various methods, including analyses of stable
isotopes of bone and teeth (Bocherens et al., 2001) and analyses of faunal assemblages found at
Palaeolithic sites. Diets of Pleistocene carnivores have also been studied on the basis of stable
isotope analyses (Bocherens et al., 2011). These palaeodietary reconstructions are based on the
principle that food sources contain different isotopic signatures, which are passed along the food
chain to their consumers.
Prehistoric humans
Isotopic analysis on the diet of humans in Europe indicated that mammoth was a regular part of their
diet (Bocherens et al.: 2001, 2005), in contrast with the diet of other predators which does not
contain large quantities of mammoth (Bocherens et al., 2011; Germonpré et al., 2009). An increased
diet range (and particularly the consumption of freshwater/anadromous fish) is observed for
mid/late Upper Palaeolithic humans.
14
Carnivores
At Goyet, beside the bear, three large carnivores are present: the cave lion, the cave hyena and
canids. These are the predators who could actively hunt large prey, in addition to human hunters.
The following section will give the species on which they mainly preyed in relation to their
occurrence in Goyet.
The first carnivore at Goyet is the cave hyena. A recent study (Bocherens et al., 2011) showed that
cave hyenas in the Ardennes showed a isotopic range which could indicate that the hyenas had a
more homogeneous prey choice than the cave lions. Their usual prey comprised woolly rhinoceros,
bovids and horse (Bocherens, 2011; Diedrich, 2010)
Stable-isotope analyses of the diet of Pleistocene canids from the Ardennes indicate that these
canids preyed mainly on horse and bovids (Germonpré et al., 2009). They did not consume
mammoth, musk ox or reindeer on a regular basis.
Cave lions probably hunted horse, bison and smaller prey, but not full-grown mammoth and woolly
rhinoceros (Bocherens et al., 2011). Stable-isotopes analyses of the diet of cave lions from the
Ardennes suggest that these cave lions hunted alone: some hunted mainly reindeer, others preyed
mainly on juvenile cave bears.
An analysis of the diet of the three large carnivores present at Goyet suggests that neither cave lions
nor wolves preyed on mammoths. The picture is less clear with cave hyenas but it is unlikely that
cave hyenas preyed regularly on woolly mammoths When considering large prey, humans (and
animals) are not likely to move the entire animal to their camp site. Some parts of the kill are eaten
on the site (Levine, 1979) and only selected parts such as the limbs are taken to the cave.
Herbivores
Some species have been recognised as essentially grazers in the mammoth steppe context, based on
stomach content from frozen mummies and on tooth morphology (Guthrie 1990; Ukraintseva 1993).
These are horse and woolly rhinoceros (Bocherens et al., 2003), bison and auroch (Guthrie, 1982) and
woolly mammoth (Ukraintseva, 1993). Reindeer have a more varied diet of plants (Guthrie, 1982).
1.6 Traces
1.6.1 Cut marks
Cut marks are a clear indication of butchery activities by prehistoric humans. These marks are caused
by the contact with edges of cutting tools with the bones. They can easily be distinguished from
other traces as gnawing because of their straight characteristic traces. These marks occur in certain
parts of the animal skeleton to suit a certain task. However, these traces are unintentional as they
wear the tool down faster. The objective is to reach the desired animal part (meat, fat,…). Cut marks
are not the only straces of these activities: bones can be broken to reach the marrow inside (Charles,
1995).
15
1.6.2 Ochre traces
Middle Palaeolithic sites occasionally contain pieces of manganese and iron oxides, interpreted as
pigments, possibly for personal decoration (Roebroeks, 2012). From the Upper Palaeolithic record,
red ochre (derived from hematite, Fe2O3) is well known for its use in cave paintings and in ritual
burial contexts. Other uses of red ochre are known from the ethnographic record of modern huntergatherers, for instance, as (internal and external) medication, as a food preservative, in tanning of
hides, and as insect repellent (Roebroeks, 2012). Archaeological studies have identified ochre
powder as an ingredient in the production of compound adhesives (Lombard, 2007). For Europe, a
recent review mentions more than 40 Middle Palaeolithic sites with possible pigments from the
Marine Isotope Stage 6–3 range. These concern mostly manganese oxide finds and almost all sites
date to the end of the Middle Palaeolithic, between 60 and 40 ka. Some of these late sites yielded
considerable quantities of these materials. Solid evidence for the use of manganese and iron oxides
by Late Pleistocene Neanderthals is recorded from at least 60 ka onward (Roebroeks, 2012).
Recent finds at Maastricht-Belvédère are identified as hematite and hence the use of red ochre by
early Neanderthals can be pushed back in time to at least 200–250 ka (MIS 7) (Roebroeks, 2012).
They probably entered the matrix of the Maastricht-Belvédère site as drops from an ochre-rich liquid
substance during unknown application activities. The currently available evidence suggests a sporadic
use of red ochre by early Neanderthals, minimally from MIS 7 onward.
Hematite is present (albeit very sporadically) in Palaeozoic rocks in the Ardennes-Rhine Massif,
especially in quartz veins with hematite crystals. Neanderthal sites like Spy and Sclayn are amongst
the many Middle Palaeolithic sites in the Ardennes source area in the Maas basin.
The occasional transport of stone artefacts over distances up to 100 km is well documented for the
European Middle Palaeolithic (Meingen et al., 2009), and a hypothetical import of hematite over
such a distance fits with data on Neanderthal movements through Pleistocene landscapes.
Several Belgian Upper Paleolithic cave sites including the caves of Goyet contain bear bones with
ochre traces. At least some of this material is the result of intentional human manipulation and
Germonpré and Hämämäinen (2007) relate these finds to a proto-bear ceremonialism. In Europe, red
ochre is a traditional element of Gravettian and Magdalenian burials.
1.7 Problem statement
The herbivores of the third horizon of the third cave of Goyet have never been studied since Dupont,
who only identified them and gave a short general description, with the exception of the reindeer
remains, which have been studied by Dekeyzer (2007). The results of the latter author are
summarised when appropriate to give a complete overview of the herbivore fossil assemblage.
Earlier studies have also been performed on the carnivore bones (Depestele, 2005). 917 bone
fragments out of a total of more than 4000 reportedly found in this horizon (Germonpré, 2001) were
studied in our analysis. The remaining bones are either studied by Dekeyzer (2007), carnivore bones
or unidentified. Some parts of the collection which should have been present, appear to have been
lost in the archives, for example the upper molars of all excavated horse teeth.
16
These remains contain information on the taphonomy, the archaeozoology and the palaeoenvironment during the period of the Mousterian and the Aurignacian, the Middle to Upper
Palaeolithic transition. They can be compared with other sites and periods to study changes in the
species present.
1.8 Goal
Using the taphonomical, osteometrical and archaeozoological methods, it is possible to analyse the
macroscopic bones of the herbivores of the third horizon in the third cave of Goyet.
In general, the species and the location of the element in the skeleton, as well as the age and the sex
of the individuals may be determined. Dupont identified the remains and gave a short general
description. Where necessary, the species assignments by Dupont were corrected by us. Firstly, the
remains were identified to the species level and the position of the element in the skeleton was
classified.
The effects of the taphonomy have been studied here. Taking into account the taphonomical bias on
macroscopic fossil assemblages, the presence of certain species gives environmental information.
The distribution and quantity of the different elements can be interpreted and ratios can be
calculated to assess the preservation of the material.
Osteometry refers to the measurement taken, if possible. These results have multiple applications:
identification of the gender and the age of the specimens and comparison with other sites and
periods. Age distributions could be constructed for various species which can indicate human
influences on the fossil assemblage.
The study and analysis of animal bone assemblages, with the aim of deciphering the relationship
between humans and animals, is the focus of archaeozoology. The main tool in this research is the
study of human and animal traces on the fossil assemblage. These traces are: ochre traces, cut
marks, gnawing traces, impact traces and transformation into tools. Goyet was, as many Pleistocene
cave sites in Europe, used alternately by humans and carnivores. One of the objectives of this study
was to determine whether prehistoric humans or large carnivores were responsible for the presence
of large number of herbivore remains at the site. It is also possible to compose the spatial
distribution of cut marks and gnawing traces in comparison with the distribution given in the
literature.
Based on this, a reconstruction of the paleoenvironment around Goyet during this period can be
carried out.
17
2 Material en methods
2.1 The Dupont collections
Germonpré (1997, 2001) summarized the history of this collection. The material from Goyet, stored
since its excavation by Dupont in the Royal Belgian Institute for Natural Sciences, was subdivided in
an archaeological-anthropological collection and a palaeontological collection, which were curated in
the Section of Prehistory-Anthropology and the Section of Fossil Vertebrates respectively. The
palaeontological collections were organised in museum trays in the beginning of the century and
displayed in the then newly opened museum hall (the so-called Iguanodon hall). The accompanying
texts are signed by Dupont. These unpublished notes contain more detailed information than his
publications on the Goyet caves, which are more than thirty years older (Dupont, 1869a; 1869b).
According to Rutot (1910), Dupont completely reviewed his excavations from the Belgian cave sites
for the display in the new museum hall opened in 1905.
Each museum tray carries a different number, each bone in the tray has the same number written in
red ink and a label with the identification of the bone as to species and skeletal element. Sometimes
there is also a second label referring to the cave and horizon. The text of each tray (in appendix) gives
the provenance (cave and horizon), notes on the material, the number labelled on the bones, the
date and the initials of Dupont. The note details the material presented and points out the presence
of butchering or carnivore traces. It is not clear if the numbering of the trays corresponds with a
grouping by species, excavation date, distribution or is arbitrary, but in general, the trays are sorted
by species. Duponts identifications are very accurate. At a later date, the display trays were removed
to the store rooms of the Section of Fossil Vertebrates. Not all the material collected by Dupont was
put on display. Unidentified fragments and what Dupont called ‘collections d’étude’ were preserved
in boxes. These bones generally do not have a number, but a label indicating the cave and bone
horizon (Germonpré, 2001). The adult horse teeth are not stored in display trays, but all are kept in a
large wooden box with a glass lid in several carton trays.
Since the work of Dupont, the palaeontological collections from Goyet have not been studied until
the last two decades. In the past years a number of M.Sc studies were performed on this collection of
which this work is the most recent addition. The previous studies are Depestele (2005), Soenen
(2006) and Dekeyzer (2007). M. Germonpré (et al.) has also studied this material of which the
references are mentioned in the introduction. The palaeontological collections from Goyet are
relatively complete: Dupont and his team not only gathered and curated well preserved complete
bones, but the broken unidentified specimen as well. The palaeontological collections are
homogeneous, apart from a small percentage of intrusive Holocene material. Contrary to the
published opinion that ‘aucun enseignement valuable ne peut donc être tire de l’étude des restes
osseux récoltés à Goyet’ (Ulrix-Closset, 1975) they deserved further study (Germonpré, 1997). The
association of mammalian species as mentioned by Dupont (1872), which according to Dewez (1987)
and Ulrix-Closset (1975) are abnormal, are perfectly compatible within a Pleistocene context, if we
disregard the few intrusive elements.
18
The history of the archaeological collections is a very different one. Initially, the archaeological
material was also put on exhibit. Later, the archaeological specimens were removed from the display
trays and apparently reorganised. Most bone elements from this collection received numbers written
in red or black ink; the ones in black ink are according to the technician P. Cornand working in Section
of Prehistory-Anthropology, written by his predecessor P. Timperman. Some bones carry two
different numbers, one in red ink and one in black. The numbers in red ink are the original ones also
seen in the palaeontological collections. Hand-written attributions to bone level in black ink also are
indicated on the worked bones; sometimes, the number of the level was later corrected. Some
numbers are associated with two bone levels. All this gives the impression that the archaeological
collections of Goyet have been partly mixed. The archaeological studies, undertaken so far are
essentially typological analyses (Ulrix-Closset, 1975; Otte, 1979; Dewez, 1987).
Reexamination of the material has revealed additional Neanderthal bone remains (Semal et al.,
2005). Following this discovery, an interdisciplinary research program centred on Goyet’s “Troisième
caverne” collections started in 2008. Its aim is to reassess the palaeoanthropological collections from
the cave and to sort out the faunal collections from Dupont’s excavations to check for the presence
of human remains among them (Pirson et al., 2012).
2.2 Identification and frequency distribution
The identification of the remains was done with the reference material from the Royal Belgian
Institute for Natural Sciences (RBINS) and drawings from Pales and Lambert (1971a, 1971b). The
foetus remains of the horse were identified based on Prummel, 1987a, 1987b, 1988, 1989. These
publications do not include foetus of the woolly rhinoceros and because there is no reference
material present, these bones are classified as woolly rhinoceros only based on the identification by
Dupont. The tarsalia and carpalia of the horse have primarily been studied in comparison with
reference material. The terminology used here follows (Peters, 1987). Another reference work used
for the visualisation of the horse remains is Budras et al. (2009).
The distinction between Bos and Bison is made using characteristics indicated by Balkwill and
Cumbaa (1992), Schertz (1963) and Boessneck et al. (1963). Whenever possible, the distinction is
made, but the characteristic locations of interest are sometimes missing or ambiguous. Because of
their similarity, measurements often overlap and when considering small samples, it is often not
possible to separate these two taxa (López González et al., 1999). The elements that are frequently
used for distinguishing are the astragalus and the metapodials. This way, all but one of these
elements of Goyet have been attributed to either Bos or Bison. A comparison with the Bos reference
material at the RBINS was also possible.
The muskox was compared with Bos reference material to confirm the differences beween these
taxa. Vanlerberghe (1979) is used to identify the remains of muskox.
2.3 Measurements
For the measurements, the method of Von den Driesch (1982) has been used. The relevant
abbreviations mentioned in this publication are summarized in the appendices, as well as some other
19
abbreviations of the measurements. The abbreviations with a German explanation originate from
Von den Driesch (1982).
2.4 Identification and ageing of the teeth
Some herbivore teeth could be identified and given an age at death. This could be done with the
following species: horse, woolly mammoth, woolly rhinoceros and red deer. Other species have no
teeth present, or in the case of the bovids are not determinable to species level.
2.4.1 Horse
To identify the horse teeth, we used the reference skull present at the RBINS and Eisenmann et al,
1988. We used also the following sources to determine the age at death of the various horse teeth:
Habermehl, 1961; Levine, 1982; Levine, 1983. The following explanation is mainly taken from Levine
(1982, 1983).
Figure 5 indicates the position and classification of the horse teeth. The premolars and molars are
sometimes grouped together under the term cheek teeth or jugal teeth. As these teeth vary little
with those of the other herbivores (except woolly mammoth), the same classification is used for
these teeth.
Figure 5 Dentition of the horse, adapted from Budras et al. (2009)
20
When the exact identity of a horse cheek tooth can be established, that tooth can be aged with some
precision by means of the eruption and wear tables, until its occlusal face is worn flat. The age at
which this occurs varies from tooth to tooth, but all cheek teeth are worn flat by approximately 6
years of age. Even when isolated, upper cheek teeth can usually be distinguished from lower cheek
teeth. However, it is particularly difficult to separate P3 and P4 or M1 and M2, therefore, these teeth
are grouped together for the measurements. With older individuals, it becomes hard to distinguish
between the four of these type of teeth. Teeth can only be precisely given an age when they are
identified, but rough estimates can always be made.
The incisors are useful for ageing because they have a infundibulum, a deep invagination which
becomes partly filled up with cement. As the incisor wears down, the shape of the invagination and
the central ring of enamel surrounding it changes characteristically (Figure 6). By comparing the
different wear stages of the incisors within one jaw, that jaw can be aged quite accurately up to 8
years and for higher ages more unreliable up to 12 years. After this age the reliability deteriorates
even more. When considering isolated incisors, ageing is more difficult because this method relies on
relationships between different incisors. Moreover, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish the
different incisors: I1 and I2 are alike and also I2 and I3 are difficult to separate. Incisors are relatively
small, fragile and loosely held in the jaw and therefore tend to be underrepresented in fossil
assemblages.
Figure 6 illustration of incisor wear of horses ( Levine, 1982)
Cheek teeth and incisors do not show sexual dimorphism. And although only males have welldeveloped permanent canines, these teeth only begin to grow at the age of 2.5 years. Isolated
canines contain no precise age information once in wear. Because of their odd shape and relative
fragility canines will probably be under-represented in fossil deposits.
21
To age the incisors in our study, we used the eruption and wear patterns described in Habermehl,
1961. Illustrations of the incisors in a sequence from young to old are included (Figure 6) and are
useful to compare with the isolated incisors of the collection. No measurements are taken of these
teeth except for the general length. In contrast to this, measurements of the cheek teeth have been
taken (Figure 7) and, where the crown height could be measured, have been compared with the
crown height curves of Levine (1982). This is only possible in our material because the size of the
teeth is comparable with these used by Levine (1982). This method may not give an accurate
estimate of the age at death of the animal, but the general age distribution curve when all the data
are assembled is more reliable. Of course, not all teeth could be aged: some teeth were not well
enough preserved. For the incisors the preservation of the occlusal surface is essential, the main
issue with the cheek teeth is the measurement of the crown height.
Figure 7 Illustration of cheek tooth measurements of horses (adapted from Levine, 1982)
2.4.2 Woolly mammoth
Woolly mammoths were predominantly grazers (adaptations for the processing of grass set
mammoths apart from most other proboscideans) (Szpak et al., 2010). Their teeth are large blocky
masses made up of multiple enamel-covered and dentine-cored laminae, which are held together
with cementum. We performed the identification and ageing of these woolly mammoth teeth using a
reference jaw from the RBINS and tables with mammoth teeth measurements from Germonpré
(1993a).
Laws (1966) established 30 age classes for the African elephant, based on the progress of eruption
and wear of the jugal teeth and assigned real ages to these groups. Laws’ (1966) wear classes are
based on jugal teeth from the lower jaws. In a more recent study, all teeth (left, right and upper and
lower jaw) were used to validate these categories (Lee et al., 2012). Thus, these wear classes have
been used for all teeth. Woolly mammoths grow a total of twenty-four cheek teeth grow during their
life: six successive molariform teeth develop in each quadrant of the jaws. Therefore, this research
22
uses the terminology that numbers the jugal teeth according to their appearance starting from M1
and finishing at M6. The molars were identified using the measurements and number of plates,
following Germonpré (1993a). To obtain an age distribution for the mammoths, Laws’ (1966)
technique as modified by Craig in Haynes (1991) was used, as has been done by Germonpré et al.
(2008) and Bosch et al. (2012). Due to the low number of identified specimen (NISP), each molar was
counted, although it is possible that some molars represent other teeth of a tooth row from one
individual. We follow the same age assessment procedure which allows us to compare with more
certainty the results of Goyet A3 and the results of these authors.
The measurements taken were essential for the age assignment. The different measurements are:
crown height, length, and width, number of lamels and the lamellar factor (number of lamels per ten
cm). Based on these measurements, the tooth was assigned to one of the six successive teeth (M1M6). Most of the teeth could be assigned an age at death. This was however not possible where only
a fragment of the tooth remained (broken lamellae, a root fragment,…).
2.4.3 Woolly rhinoceros
We used a reference skull provided by the RBINS for the identification of the teeth. With this
information, it is possible to deduce the age of the animal at death using wear tables. LouguetLefebvre (2005) produced drawings of each teeth in different stages of wear, associated at different
age.
We used the method proposed in Germonpré (1993) and Goddard (1970) to age the teeth and to
construct an age distribution. This method is based on the stage of dental eruption and wear
patterns of the mandibular dentition. With the additional information of Louguet-Lefebvre (2005),
we could age all teeth. The total amount of teeth present in a woolly rhinoceros is 24, all of which are
cheek teeth (Friant, 1963. They are given the same identification as the horse (P2-P4 and M1-M3).
2.4.4 Red deer
Again, we identified the material using a reference skull. The age of the animal at death was
determined using eruption and wear patterns (Habermehl, 1961). Because most of the specimen are
isolated teeth, eruption patterns as described by Azorit et al. (2002) could not be used. This method
also allows to age young animals with an age up to 3.5 years. A consistent chronological eruption
sequence is an essential condition if ageing from wear is to have any validity (Brown and Chapman,
1991). Once a tooth occludes against a tooth or teeth on the opposing jaw, wear commences and the
age of the animal can be derived (Figure 8). As usual, the rate of wear may vary with the nature of
the nutrition, but as all the specimens from this study originate from the same locality, this can be
neglected for the age distribution.
23
Figure 8 Illustration of increasing wear with increasing age of red deer (Brown and Chapman, 1991). The first three jaws
still have the deciduous premolars in place, while the fourth shows these teeth before shedding (above) and the
permantent teeth (on the jaw).
2.5 Age distributions
One of the main tools to address animal exploitation by humans is the interpretation of mortality
curves. These analyses precede the zooarchaeological approach, by evoking population dynamics,
taphonomical conditions, and the effects of seasonality on the age structures of animal populations
(Fernandez and Legendre, 2003). Archaeological age structures of fossil assemblages, generally
constructed from dental material, are often associated to two main models (Fernandez et al., 2006).
The attritional model takes the form of a ‘‘U’’-shaped profile because young and old individuals
should be much more numerous in the fossil assemblage than mature adults. This is the result of the
vulnerability of these age groups. Catastrophic or mass mortality differs from attritional mortality by
being non-selective and representing the entire population during a very short time. With a
24
catastrophic mortality, the number of individuals in each successive age group decreases, forming an
‘‘L’’-shaped curve.
However, there are several complications to take into account. The first is the preservation of the
teeth of young animals, which is generally poorer than that of the adults (Levine, 1983). This leads to
an underrepresentation of these bones in the fossil assemblage and the disappearance of the peak of
young animals in the age distribution. Another issue is that these two models do not account for
some human hunting techniques. For example, the stalking model (Levine, 1983) leads to an
overrepresentation of a certain age (bell-shaped curve) because these are preferentially hunted. Not
only stalking but any method that allows to select the prey causes this distinctive pattern. Other
hunting methods (coursing, trapping and driving ) are given by Levine (1979) but these produce
signals similar to the attritional and catastrophic models. The combination of several models is also
possible.
The main parameters used to estimate individual age and interpret mortality curves are the ages
when the deciduous teeth are replaced by the permanent dentition, tooth crown height and the
degree of tooth wear. There are many factors which may constitute significant bias in the
construction of the mortality curves (Fernandez et al., 2006). For example, in the case of fossil
species, the timing of tooth eruption and replacement can only be estimated by analogy with
modern taxa. In addition, when using wear tables, large samples of known-age individuals
encompassing all age groups are needed, which is hardly ever the case. Food abrasion, which affects
the rate of dental wear, is assumed to be comparable between moderns and fossils species. It clearly
appears that absolute age is less important than the general form of the mortality profile using
standardized age classes when interpreting mortality in archaeological contexts. Ultimately, the two
main attritional and catastrophic models are based exclusively on the frequency of individuals and
provide limited information about population dynamics and biological factors that affect or regulate
the age structure of a population (Fernandez et al., 2006).
In each of the profiles, only the number of identified specimens of the ageable teeth was used. If the
range of the age estimation of the teeth was broader than the intervals of the distribution, the value
was divided over the intervals. For example: a teeth with an age at death estimate of 2 to 4 years can
be divided over two intervals (2 to 3 and 3 to 4 years). To each of these intervals, the value of 0.5
would be added.
2.5.1 Horse
Among the various equid species, there is a high degree of interspecific morphological and
behavioural homogeneity (Levine, 1982). The relatively small differences between equid races and
species relate mainly to size: a large horse has larger teeth than a small horse. However, despite
some degree of heterogeneity in the data, equid homogeneity is such that the techniques of ageing
by eruption and wear work as relative systems (Levine, 1982). These are particularly useful in
demographic analyses for comparing the individuals within a single population to one another. The
two groups of teeth present in Goyet (incisors and cheek teeth) are given in separate distributions (in
the results section) as they might give a different curve.
25
2.5.2 Woolly mammoth
The age profile of the mammoth molars was studied to ascertain the origin of the mammoth
assemblage at Goyet. Several authors have reconstructed the age distribution of mammoths by
comparing the eruption sequence and wear of their jugal teeth with those of the two modern
elephant species (Germonpré et al., 2012; Bosch et al., 2012).
The age profiles are compared with the four types of elephant age profiles described by Haynes
(1991, p. 216-220). In the Type A age profile, young animals (0-12 a.e.y.) predominate and the older
age classes are represented in decreasing proportions, which is to be expected in a stable or
expanding population. In a Type B age profile, young animals (0-12 a.e.y.) are abundant, greatly
outnumbering the mature animals that could have borne them. This could be explained according to
Haynes by selectively killing the calves. In Type C age profiles, young animals are rare and prime-aged
adults predominate and Type D corresponds to small assemblages containing the bones of few
individuals. Because the study performed by Haynes described elephants, the age at death is given in
African elephant years. A comparison with a similar study on the mammoths of Spy is made in the
discussion.
2.5.3 Woolly rhinoceros
the age distribution of woolly rhinoceros is constructed following Goddard (1970). This method also
uses the stage of dental eruption and dental wear. It was devised to classify black rhinoceros into 20
age classes and these are related to an age at death, given in black rhinoceros years.
2.5.4 Red deer
Following Habermehl (1961) to estimate the age at death, an age distribution could be established.
Due to the low number of teeth, the boundaries of the age classes were important. If the boundaries
are set too narrow (two year periods) no apparent trend is visible. Three year periods proved to be
suitable to express a clear age distribution.
2.6 Sexual dimorphism
Due to two reasons, the assignment of a gender proved seldom possible. First of all, some species
show very little sexual dimorphism (horse for example). Secondly, in species that have more
expressed dimorphism, the characteristic bones where the difference is visible were not preserved.
2.6.1 Woolly mammoth
In the case of woolly mammoth, no gender could be assigned, in fact, except for the teeth, most of
the bones could not be given an anatomical identification. Lee et al. (2012) mentions sexual
difference in the lower jaw bone, but these measurements could not be made in our material.
26
2.6.2 Red deer
Only the male Cervus elaphus has antlers (Hyvärinen et al., 1977). This method to determine the
gender of red deer is of course restricted by the number of antlers or antler-related elements found
in the fossil assemblage.
2.7 Size reductions
Some species underwent size reduction as mentioned in the introduction. Some measurements
could be compared with other sites and periods to study this trend.
Horse
These data are compared with several other data: Soenen (2006) on the herbivores of the second
horizon of Goyet, Germonpré (1993a) on the site of Zemst IIB and Germonpré (unpublished) on the
site of Spy. Goyet is already extensively presented in the introduction so only the association of the
second horizon with the Magdalenian period will be recalled here. The site of Zemst IIB concerns a
Early Weichselian site in the procince Vlaams-Brabant, Belgium (Germonpré, 1993b). It is an open air
site consisting of fluvially deposited sandpits. Additionally, some Mousterian artefacts have been
found. The site of Spy is a cave situated in the Namur province, Begium near the Meuse valley. The
remains belongs to the period of the Mousterian, Aurignacian and Gravettian (Germonpré et al., in
press). Where there was sufficient data to compare the third horizon with one or more of these sites,
a graph was constructed to illustrate the results. In one case, data was present for modern horses
provided by Bignon et al. (2002).
Following the method of Alberdi et al (1995), an estimation of the body mass can be made as a
further indication of body size. Alberdi states that the metapodial elements are better predictors of
body mass than cranial elements, and antero-posterior diameters of metapodial and first phalanx are
better estimators of body mass than lengths and breadths. Some skeletal dimensions have a close
relationship to body mass as a logical consequence of the fact that body mass is normally transmitted
through limbs to the substrate. Also, the values of maximal depths, as opposed to lengths and
breadths, of metacarpal and phalanx give better predictions, since the depths change in direct
proportion with body mass and the lengths and breadths present some independent variation. The
last variables are related to kind of substrate (Eisenmann and Guérin, 1984).
Other
There was fewer material and hence fewer measurements on the other species. This limited the
options for comparison. Auroch/bison was also compared with the site of Zemst IIB (Germonpré,
1993a) mentioned above. The woolly rhinoceros is compared with two sites. The first is also Zemst
IIB while the other data are provided by (Vercoutère et al., 2013). This publications gives data on
material found in the riverbanks of the Tobol and Irtych rivers in the Tioumen region, Siberia with an
age of around 14 000 cal BP. Musk ox measurements were compared with modern musk ox
measurements provided by Vanlerberghe (1979).
27
2.8 List of the used abbreviations and categories
RBINS: Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences
Left, right and ?: These categories indicate a element belonging to the right or left side (if two
opposite elements are present (for example the two humerus bones) or indicate that the fragment
originates from the left or right part of a single, central element (for example a left part of the pelvis).
‘?’ signifies the position is unclear.
The columns ‘Adult’ and ‘Juvenile’ indicate the age of the animal at death. Juvenile includes all
younger than adult: from foetus over young animals to almost adult.
‘Ochre’, ‘Cut marks’, ‘Impact’, ‘Tool’ and ‘Gnawing’ give the number of indicated traces of which the
first two and ‘Tools’ are the result of human handling and gnawing results from animal activity.
The remains were counted in Number of Identified Specimens (NISP), Minimum Number of
Individuals (MNI), which are measures of the relative frequency of species..
NISP stands for the number of remains that belong to a certain taxon or element.
%NISP relates to the amount of bones discovered in relation to the total amount found of that
species, unless otherwise specified. This is also shown graphically after the general tables to visualize
which elements of a species are abundantly present or absent.
The calculation of the MNI is described in Pawlowska (2010). In general, It gives the minimum
number of individuals based on the number of elements present. Identification of the elements is
needed as elements with a clearly different age, gender or deformation influence this number.
A list of the abbreviations for the measurements is also included in the appendices.
28
3 Results
3.1 General
Table 2 presents all species present with the NISP and MNI for the third bone level of the Goyet cave.
In the subsequent tables, each species is given with the elements present (Table 3 to Table 9). The
elements of all species are given in Table 10. The following section will contain the graphical
representation of these tables (Figure 9 to Figure 14), to illustrate wich elements are most
abundant. These graphs are expressed in %NISP. The reindeer data are not included here as they
have been covered by Dekeyzer (2007). However, unpublished data collected by this study of red
deer is included here to give a complete overview of this species in the third horizon of Goyet.
Own research and Dekeyzer, 2007*
NISP
%NISP
MNI
%MNI
Proboscidea
Mammuthus primigenius
Perissodactyla
Equus arcelini
Coelodonta antiquitatis
Artiodactyla
Cervus elaphus*
Capreolus capreolus
Rangifer tarandus*
Bison priscus/Bos primigenius
Ovibos moschatus
Rupicapra rupicapra
Capra
Capra ibex
Total
Dupont, 1872
MNI
%MNI
98
5,58
5
8,20
7
17,50
592
145
33,73
8,26
22
5
36,07
8,20
18
4
45,00
10,00
32
1,82
3
4,92
827
59
1
47,12
3,36
0,06
21
3
1
34,43
4,92
1,64
2
1
2
2
5,00
2,50
5,00
5,00
1
2
1
40
2,50
5,00
2,50
100
1
1755
0,06
100
1
61
1,64
100,00
Table 2 General distribution of the herbivores in Goyet A3, the taxa partially or completely studied by Dekeyzer (2007)
are marked with an *
29
3.1.1 Tables
Element
Cranium
Maxilla
P2
P3/P4
M1/M2
M3
Mandibula
P2
P3/P4
M1/M2
M3
Incisor
Canin
Milk tooth
Dentes indet,
Hyoid
Vertebrae
Atlas
Axis
Cervical
Dorsal
Lumbar
Sacrum
Caudal
Sternum
Os costa
Scapula
Humerus
Radiocubitus
Carpus
Metacarpus
Pelvis
Femur
Patella
Tibia
Tarsus
Astragalus
Calcaneum
Other
Metatarsus
Phalanx 1
Phalanx 2
Phalanx 3
Sesamoid
Metapoda
left
right
2
0
0
0
0
7
1
1
3
2
56
4
3
0
0
6
0
0
0
0
12
12
18
42
22
60
5
7
3
0
2nd and 4th metapoda
Indeterminata
SUM
?
0
2
0
0
0
0
10
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
21
2
Adult
5
10
0
0
0
0
31
13
19
45
24
116
9
0
24
2
Juvenile
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
0
0
Ocre
1
5
0
0
0
0
17
2
4
12
6
23
0
3
2
0
0
3
6
4
9
3
5
5
17
1
10
0
3
4
5
10
7
4
5
15
1
13
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
1
1
4
2
1
0
0
3
0
9
7
6
18
10
9
9
33
2
23
1
2
3
9
5
8
6
0
0
3
3
4
14
2
5
6
0
0
1
0
0
0
7
1
4
6
11
5
5
7
21
13
14
15
6
11
0
0
0
2
0
0
1
0
0
3
1
2
7
4
10
7
1
0
2
1
3
5
5
11
0
0
4
5
5
0
23
9
2
14
3
11
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
1
3
4
2
6
7
0
0
2
4
NISP
5
10
0
0
0
0
33
13
19
45
24
116
9
10
24
2
11
1
4
2
1
0
0
3
0
9
10
9
19
10
9
10
36
2
24
17
5
5
7
23
14
14
16
6
11
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
3
1
0
0
1
3
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
2
1
1
3
1
7
15
1
11
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
1
1
0
2
1
3
7
1
9
10
0
186
19
0
310
1
2
76
29
1
562
1
1
29
3
1
161
10
0
91
24
1
472
0
0
4
10
0
82
30
2
592
Table 3 Horse bones in A3
30
Cut marks Impact
2
5
4
10
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
12
33
0
13
0
17
0
37
0
21
0
67
0
6
0
9
0
24
1
2
Tool
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Gnawing
1
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
1
0
0
0
0
0
9
10
8
14
5
9
10
36
1
23
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
3
2
2
0
15
0
9
%NISP
0,84
1,69
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
5,57
2,20
3,21
7,60
4,05
19,59
1,52
1,69
4,05
0,34
1,86
0,17
0,68
0,34
0,17
0,00
0,00
0,51
0,00
1,52
1,69
1,52
3,21
1,69
1,52
1,69
6,08
0,34
4,05
2,87
0,84
0,84
1,18
3,89
2,36
2,36
2,70
1,01
1,86
MNI
2
6
0
0
0
0
14
12
0
0
22
18
3
3
0
1
5,07
0,34
100
9
2
22
1
4
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
8
7
10
3
4
6
15
1
8
3
3
3
9
4
7
5
1
0
Element
Cranium
Maxilla
P2
P3/P4
M1/M2
M3
Mandibula
P2
P3/P4
M1/M2
M3
Incisor
Canin
Milk tooth
Dentes indet,
Hyoid
Vertebrae
Atlas
Axis
Cervical
Dorsal
Lumbar
Sacrum
Caudal
Sternum
Os costa
Scapula
Humerus
Radiocubitus
Carpus
Metacarpus
Pelvis
Femur
Patella
Tibia
Tarsus
Astragalus
Calcaneum
Other
Metatarsus
Phalanx 1
Phalanx 2
Phalanx 3
Sesamoid
Metapoda
Indeterminata
SUM
left
right
0
1
5
5
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
3
0
1
1
0
5
2
0
0
0
0
0
?
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
Adult
0
0
1
7
8
0
1
1
0
8
3
0
0
0
1
0
Juvenile
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Ocre
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
3
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
12
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
2
2
3
3
3
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
3
3
3
3
0
0
0
4
1
1
0
1
0
3
0
0
0
0
24
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
28
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
3
1
1
0
1
0
3
1
0
0
0
58
Table 4 Bones of auroch/bison in A3
31
Cut marks Impact
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
0
5
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
4
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
Tool
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Gnawing
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
0
0
0
1
0
0
2
3
3
3
3
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
2
1
1
0
1
0
2
0
0
0
0
46
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
10
NISP
0
0
1
7
8
0
1
1
0
8
3
0
0
0
1
0
4
0
1
2
0
0
0
1
0
0
2
3
3
3
3
0
0
0
4
2
1
1
0
1
0
3
1
0
0
0
59
%NISP
0,00
0,00
1,69
11,86
13,56
0,00
1,69
1,69
0,00
13,56
5,08
0,00
0,00
0,00
1,69
0,00
6,78
0,00
1,69
3,39
0,00
0,00
0,00
1,69
0,00
0,00
3,39
5,08
5,08
5,08
5,08
0,00
0,00
0,00
6,78
3,39
1,69
1,69
0,00
1,69
0,00
5,08
1,69
0,00
0,00
0,00
100
MNI
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
2
1
2
1
3
0
0
0
3
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
3
Element
Cranium
Maxilla
M1
M2
M3
M4
M5
Mandibula
M2
M3
M4
M5
Incisor
Dentes indet,
Hyoid
Vertebrae
Atlas
Axis
Cervical
Dorsal
Lumbar
Sacrum
Caudal
Sternum
Os costa
Scapula
Humerus
Radiocubitus
Carpus
Metacarpus
Pelvis
Femur
Patella
Tibia
Tarsus
Astragalus
Calcaneum
Other
Metatarsus
Phalanx 1
Phalanx 2
Phalanx 3
Sesamoid
Metapoda
Indeterminata
SUM
left
right
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
?
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
58
8
0
Adult
4
0
0
1
1
2
1
0
2
0
2
0
58
8
0
Juvenile
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Ocre
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
46
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
7
54
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
17
88
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
17
97
Table 5 Woolly mammoth bones in A3
32
Cut marks Impact
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
2
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
58
0
8
0
0
Tool
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Gnawing
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
17
96
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
5
NISP
4
0
1
1
1
2
1
0
2
0
2
0
58
8
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
17
98
%NISP
4,08
0,00
1,02
1,02
1,02
2,04
1,02
0,00
2,04
0,00
2,04
0,00
59,18
8,16
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
1,02
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
17,35
100
MNI
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
Element
Cranium
Maxilla
P2
P3/P4
M1/M2
M3
Mandibula
P2
P3/P4
M1/M2
M3
Incisor
Canin
Milk tooth
Dentes indet,
Hyoid
Vertebrae
Atlas
Axis
Cervical
Dorsal
Lumbar
Sacrum
Caudal
Sternum
Os costa
Scapula
Humerus
Radiocubitus
Carpus
Metacarpus
Pelvis
Femur
Patella
Tibia
Tarsus
Astragalus
Calcaneum
Other
Metatarsus
Phalanx 1
Phalanx 2
Phalanx 3
Sesamoid
Metapoda
left
right
0
0
6
3
1
0
0
3
3
1
0
0
6
1
0
0
0
5
10
5
0
1
6
5
0
0
0
2
5
0
2nd and 4th metapoda
Indeterminata
SUM
?
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
29
0
Adult
1
0
0
11
13
6
0
1
9
8
1
0
0
0
35
0
Juvenile
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
0
0
Ocre
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
2
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
3
2
0
0
2
0
0
0
6
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
0
3
2
5
0
0
2
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
6
4
6
2
1
0
0
0
4
6
3
6
2
0
0
0
0
2
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
6
3
6
2
0
0
0
0
0
2
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
3
3
4
3
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
3
1
NISP
1
0
0
11
13
6
0
1
9
8
1
0
0
10
35
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
0
6
3
5
0
0
2
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
6
6
4
6
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
1
1
3
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
1
3
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
31
0
0
49
0
2
65
1
2
128
0
0
17
1
0
37
1
0
13
1
2
119
0
0
1
1
0
12
1
2
145
Table 6 Woolly rhinoceros bones in A3
33
Cut marks Impact
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
11
0
4
0
0
0
1
0
4
0
8
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
35
0
0
Tool
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Gnawing
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
0
6
3
4
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
1
0
0
0
0
0
%NISP
0,69
0,00
0,00
7,59
8,97
4,14
0,00
0,69
6,21
5,52
0,69
0,00
0,00
6,90
24,14
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
4,14
0,00
4,14
2,07
3,45
0,00
0,00
1,38
0,00
0,00
0,69
0,69
0,00
0,00
0,00
4,14
4,14
2,76
4,14
1,38
MNI
1
0
0
0
0
5
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
2
0
0
0,69
1,38
100
1
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
3
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
2
1
2
1
0
Element
left
Cranium
Maxilla
P2
P3
P4
M1
M2
M3
Mandibula
P2
P3
P4
M1
M2
M3
Incisor
Canin
Milk tooth
Dentes indet,
Hyoid
Vertebrae
Atlas
Axis
Cervical
Dorsal
Lumbar
Sacrum
Caudal
Sternum
Os costa
Scapula
Humerus
Radiocubitus
Carpus
Metacarpus
Pelvis
Femur
Patella
Tibia
Tarsus
Astragalus
Calcaneum
Other
Metatarsus
Phalanx 1
Phalanx 2
Phalanx 3
Sesamoid
Metapoda
2nd and 4th metapoda
Indeterminata
SUM
right
0
0
0
1
1
3
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
?
1
0
0
1
2
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Adult
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
2
3
3
0
2
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
5
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
7
0
1
0
0
2
0
0
17
0
0
11
0
0
3
0
0
31
Juvenile Ocre
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Cut marks Impact
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
3
3
0
2
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
11
0
0
8
0
0
26
0
0
0
Table 7 Bones of red deer in A3
34
Tool
Gnawing NISP
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
2
3
3
0
2
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
1
2
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
8
0
1
0
0
2
%NISP
MNI
3,13
3,13
0,00
0,00
6,25
9,38
9,38
0,00
6,25
0,00
0,00
3,13
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
3,13
6,25
3,13
6,25
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
3,13
0,00
3,13
3,13
25,00
0,00
3,13
0,00
0,00
6,25
0
0
5
0
0
32
0,00
0,00
100
1
1
0
0
2
2
3
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
6
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
6
Element
Cranium
Maxilla
P2
P3/P4
M1/M2
M3
Mandibula
P2
P3/P4
M1/M2
M3
Incisor
Canin
Milk tooth
Dentes indet,
Hyoid
Vertebrae
Atlas
Axis
Cervical
Dorsal
Lumbar
Sacrum
Caudal
Sternum
Os costa
Scapula
Humerus
Radiocubitus
Carpus
Metacarpus
Pelvis
Femur
Patella
Tibia
Tarsus
Astragalus
Calcaneum
Other
Metatarsus
Phalanx 1
Phalanx 2
Phalanx 3
Sesamoid
Metapoda
left
right
?
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Adult
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Juvenile
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Ocre
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2nd and 4th metapoda
Indeterminata
SUM
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
Table 8 Bones of Ibex in A3
35
Cut marks Impact
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Tool
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Gnawing
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
NISP
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
%NISP
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
100
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
MNI
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
100
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Element
Cranium
Maxilla
P2
P3/P4
M1/M2
M3
Mandibula
P2
P3/P4
M1/M2
M3
Incisor
Canin
Milk tooth
Dentes indet,
Hyoid
Vertebrae
Atlas
Axis
Cervical
Dorsal
Lumbar
Sacrum
Caudal
Sternum
Os costa
Scapula
Humerus
Radiocubitus
Carpus
Metacarpus
Pelvis
Femur
Patella
Tibia
Tarsus
Astragalus
Calcaneum
Other
Metatarsus
Phalanx 1
Phalanx 2
Phalanx 3
Sesamoid
Metapoda
left
right
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2nd and 4th metapoda
Indeterminata
SUM
?
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Adult
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Juvenile
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Ocre
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Table 9 Bones of Muskox in A3
36
Cut marks Impact
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Tool
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Gnawing
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
%NISP
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
100
0
0
0
MNI
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
NISP
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
100
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
Cranium
Maxilla
Mandibula
Dentes
Vertebrae
Ribs
Scapula
Humerus
Radiocubitus
Carpus
Metacarpus
Pelvis
Femur
Patella
Tibia
Tarsus
Metatarsus
Phalanges
Metapoda
2/4 metapoda
other
indeterminate
SUM
Horse
5
10
33
260
11
9
10
9
19
10
9
10
36
2
24
17
23
44
11
30
8
2
592
Bos/Bison Mammoth Rhinoceros Muskox
0
4
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
29
76
94
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
6
0
2
0
0
0
3
1
6
0
3
0
3
0
3
0
5
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
2
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
4
0
16
1
0
0
2
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
6
0
0
17
2
0
59
98
145
1
Ibex
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
Cervus
1
1
2
9
0
0
0
1
2
1
2
0
0
0
0
2
8
1
2
0
0
0
32
Rangifer Sum
287
298
0
11
48
84
130
598
5
20
7
22
15
27
12
32
30
58
9
28
26
40
4
14
11
49
5
7
21
49
52
74
102
134
42
108
5
20
9
40
2
16
5
26
827
1755
(Post) Cranial
991
738
21
917
Table 10 Sum and abundance of the different elements (NISP), part of the Cervus and all of the Rangifer are collected by
Dekeyzer (2007).
3.1.2 Graphs
The elements in between brackets of Figure 9 to Figure 14 are not present in the assemblage.
50
40
30
%
20
10
Cranium
Maxilla
Mandibula
Dentes
Vertebrae
Ribs
Scapula
Humerus
Radiocubitus
Carpus
Metacarpus
Pelvis
Femur
Patella
Tibia
Tarsus
Metatarsus
Phalanges
Metapoda
2/4 metapoda
other
indeterminate
0
Figure 9 %NISP of the horse
37
Cranium
(Maxilla)
(Mandibula)
Dentes
(Vertebrae)
(Ribs)
(Scapula)
Humerus
(Radiocubitus)
(Carpus)
(Metacarpus)
(Pelvis)
(Femur)
(Patella)
(Tibia)
(Tarsus)
(Metatarsus)
(Phalanges)
(Metapoda)
(2/4 metapoda)
(other)
indeterminate
(Cranium)
(Maxilla)
Mandibula
Dentes
Vertebrae
(Ribs)
Scapula
Humerus
Radiocubitus
Carpus
Metacarpus
(Pelvis)
(Femur)
(Patella)
Tibia
Tarsus
Metatarsus
Phalanges
(Metapoda)
(2/4 metapoda)
(other)
(indeterminate)
60
50
40
% 30
20
10
0
Figure 10 %NISP of Bos/Bison
90
80
70
60
%
50
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 11 %NISP of the mammoth, all teeth combined
38
Cranium
(Maxilla)
(Mandibula)
Dentes
(Vertebrae)
Ribs
(Scapula)
Humerus
Radiocubitus
Carpus
(Metacarpus)
(Pelvis)
Femur
(Patella)
(Tibia)
Tarsus
(Metatarsus)
Phalanges
Metapoda
2/4 metapoda
other
indeterminate
Cranium
(Maxilla)
(Mandibula)
Tusks
Other teeth
(Vertebrae)
(Ribs)
(Scapula)
Humerus
(Radiocubitus)
(Carpus)
(Metacarpus)
(Pelvis)
(Femur)
(Patella)
(Tibia)
(Tarsus)
(Metatarsus)
(Phalanges)
(Metapoda)
(2/4 metapoda)
(other)
indeterminate
70
60
50
%
%
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 12 %NISP of the woolly mammoth, tusks and other teeth separate
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 13 %NISP of the woolly rhinoceros
39
30
25
20
% 15
10
5
Cranium
Maxilla
Mandibula
Dentes
(Vertebrae)
(Ribs)
(Scapula)
Humerus
Radiocubitus
Carpus
Metacarpus
(Pelvis)
(Femur)
(Patella)
(Tibia)
Tarsus
Metatarsus
Phalanges
Metapoda
(2/4 metapoda)
(other)
(indeterminate)
0
Figure 14 %NISP of red deer
3.2 Detailed results per species
The following section will discuss the various elements found in the third horizon of Goyet in detail.
They are arranged by species and by order in the general tables.
3.2.1 Equus ferus (Horse)
Table 3 gives all bone material from this species.
Cranium
Five cranial elements have been found in this horizon: four occipital bones and one frontal bone.
These are small fragments (the largest is 13 cm long) and all are broken. Traces of ochre, cut marks
and gnawing traces have also been observed (Table 11). Four fragments have the same colour (light),
one is rather dark brown. Due to this, there are minimum two individuals.
Ochre
Cut marks
1
2
Gnawing traces
1
NISP
%NISP
MNI
5
0,84
2
Table 11 Traces, NISP and MNI of the horse cranium
Maxilla
Inventory
Ten fragments of the upper jaw have been recovered (Table 12). Four of them had still teeth
attached to the jaw and four had a fragment of the nasal bone (os nasale). Half of the upper jaws had
ochre and four had cut marks and one had root traces(Table 13). All the fragments are broken, adult
elements, so age is of no importance in the calculation of the MNI. With three right upper jaws with
teeth, the MNI becomes three (Table 14).
40
L
R
both
?
Juvenile upper jaw (no teeth)
0
0
0
0
Juvenile upper jaw (with teeth)
0
0
0
0
Adult upper jaw (no teeth)
2
3
0
1
2 x I2, 2 x I2, 2 x I3
0
0
1
0
I1
0
1
0
0
M1
0
1
0
0
M3
0
1
0
0
Adult upper jaw (with teeth)
Table 12 Position of the upper jaw elements of the horse
Ochre
Cut marks
Impact
Root traces
NISP
5
4
10
1
Percentage
50
40
100
10
Table 13 Traces found on the horse upper jaws
NISP
%NISP
MNI
10
1,69
3
Table 14 NISP and MNI of the horse upper jaws
Measurements
Table 15 gives the measurements taken from the horse upper jaw bone fragments.
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. Bone
L/R
Tooth
CL
CW
CH
LFd
Goyet
A3
2217
26
R
M1
24.86
28.38
-
12.70
Goyet
A3
2217
35
R
M3
29.71
25.20
46.69
13.49
Table 15 Measurements of the horse upper jaw fragments
Mandibula
Inventory
Most of the mandibles have no teeth attached, some of which lost their teeth, while most are from
the part of the jaw that contains no teeth (vertical ramus) (Table 16). Of the 33 elements found, only
five have teeth. All the fragments were broken with many bearing cut marks and ochre. A few have
gnawing traces (Table 17). The computation of the MNI (Table 18) is explained in the table: two
separate juveniles and eleven adult right jaws result in an MNI of 13. Many of the adult toothless jaw
41
are fragments near the temporomaxillary articulation. The word ‘both’ indicates that the fragment
comprises the area where the right and the left side of the lower jaw join (=symphysis).
L
R
both
?
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
3
11
3
10
2 x I1
0
0
1
0
P4
1
0
0
0
P2, P3, P4, M1
1
0
0
0
M3
0
1
0
0
Juvenile lower jaw (no teeth)
Juvenile lower jaw (with teeth)
C, P2, P3
Adult lower jaw (no teeth)
Adult lower jaw (with teeth)
Table 16 Position of the lower jaw elements of the horse
Ochre
Cut marks
Gnawing
NISP
17
12
3
Percentage
51
36
9
Table 17 Traces found on the horse lower jaws
NISP
%NISP
MNI
33
5,574324
14
Table 18 NISP and MNI of the horse lower jaws
Measurements
Following measurements (Table 19) on the in situ teeth were possible:
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. Bone
L/R
Tooth
CL
CW
CH
LFd
Goyet
A3
2218
1
L
P2
32.86
13.08
-
15.13
P3
19.90
14.87
-
-
Goyet
A3
2218
6
R
M3
31.80
15.61
-
13.80
Goyet
A3
2218
7
L
P2
30.25
18.09
-
13.98
P3
28.10
19.97
59.08
17.54
P4
27.24
18.80
-
15.02
42
Goyet
A3
2218
9
M1
25.21
17.71
58.37
13.63
P4
29.81
18.43
64.45
16.06
L
Table 19 Measurements of the horse upper jaw teeth fragments
Three photographs were taken of the horse upper jaw bone fragments (Photograph 1, Photograph 2
and Photograph 3). These fragments show ochre traces, cut marks and impact traces.
Photograph 1 Ochre and cut marks on a horse lower jaw fragment (2218-27)
Photograph 2 Detail of cut marks on a horse lower jaw fragment (2218-27)
43
Photograph 3 Lower jaw of the horse with premolars and one molar and an impact mark (2218-7)
Dentes
Incisors
A large number of isolated incisors was found (Table 20 and Table 21). Almost a quarter of them had
ochre on them. One upper jaw right second incisor has a bended root. The MNI is 18 because of the
presence of 18 upper right second incisors (Table 22).
L I1
L I2
L I3
R I1
R I2
R I3
10
13
4
11
18
5
Table 20 NISP of the six different horse upper jaw incisor teeth
L I1
L I2
L I3
R I1
R I2
R I3
8
12
9
5
8
13
Table 21 NISP of the six different horse lower jaw incisor teeth
NISP
%NISP
MNI
116
19,59
18
Table 22 NISP and MNI of all horse incisors
Canines
Nine canines were discovered of which five come from the upper jaw and four from the lower (Table
23). Because there are three right upper jaw canines, the MNI is also three (Table 24).
L upper jaw
R upper jaw
L lower jaw
R lower jaw
2
3
2
2
Table 23 Position of the horse canines
44
NISP
%NISP
MNI
9
1,52
3
Table 24 NISP and MNI of the horse canines
Milk teeth
The ten milk teeth are mostly incisors from the upper jaw (Table 25) and only one from the lower .
The MNI is set at three because there are three left second upper jaw incisors and three right third
upper jaw incisors (Table 26). Three teeth have ochre traces on them. In the table the upper jaw
teeth are classified, the lower jaw milk tooth is a right third incisor.
L I1
L I2
L I3
R I1
R I2
R I3
0
3
0
1
2
3
Table 25 NISP of the six different horse upper jaw incisor milk teeth
NISP
%NISP
MNI
10
1,69
3
Table 26 NISP and MNI of the horse incisor milk teeth
Molars and praemolars
Inventory
No upper teeth molars and premolars were found. The tray they are stored in probably went missing
Therefore, in what follows, only lower premolars and molars are described.
P2
13 second premolars have been retrieved of which 12 were right premolars (Table 27). Because there
are no juveniles, the MNI is thus also 12. Ochre was found on a few specimens.
L
R
NISP
%NISP
MNI
1
12
13
2,195946
9
Table 27 Position, NISP and MNI of the horse P2 premolars
P3/P4
It is difficult to separate the 19 third and fourth premolars, so they were combined into one group
(Table 28). Because of this, the MNI is not determinable.
L
R
NISP
%NISP
MNI
1
18
19
3,21
-
Table 28 Position, NISP and MNI of the horse P3 and P4 premolars
45
M1/M2
Because the 45 first and second molar are difficult to distinguish when isolated, they are grouped
together (Table 29). This group contains a large number of specimens (7.60 %NISP) and is
significantly larger than the one identified by Dupont. The group of P3/P4 is significantly smaller than
those established by Dupont. The distinction between these two groups is rather difficult. Two of
these teeth have a growth deformation of which one is shown in Photograph 4.
L
R
NISP
%NISP
MNI
3
42
45
7,60
-
Table 29 Position, NISP and MNI of the horse M1 and M2 molars
M3
The third molars are the most abundant single cheek teeth present and indicate a MNI of 22 (Table
30). Some of these teeth have ochre on them. One of the right teeth displays a growth deformation.
L
R
NISP
%NISP
MNI
2
22
24
4,05
22
Table 30 Position, NISP and MNI of the horse M3 molars
Photograph 4 Growth deformation in a horse molar (2895-73)
Two of the horse cheek teeth have a growth deformation, one of which is shown here . This
illustrates the possibility of the isolated teeth coming from one individual, as it is unlikely that two
different horses have exactly the same defect.
Measurements
The measurements taken on all isolated horse cheek teeth are given in Table 31
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. Bone
L/R
Tooth
CL
CW
CH
LFd
Goyet
A3
2895
1
R
P2
31.94
17.26
34.57
13.84
Goyet
A3
2895
2
R
P2
32.06
15.33
-
15.26
46
Goyet
A3
2895
3
R
P2
34.53
18.43
43.23
15.43
Goyet
A3
2895
4
R
P2
35.62
17.02
57.66
14.78
Goyet
A3
2895
5
R
P2
35.01
14.95
-
14.99
Goyet
A3
2895
6
R
P2
33.25
16.83
48.58
14.94
Goyet
A3
2895
7
R
P2
33.11
16.85
-
15.67
Goyet
A3
2895
8
R
P2
34.69
15.90
-
15.53
Goyet
A3
2895
9
R
P2
32.66
18.24
-
16.39
Goyet
A3
2895
10
R
P2
31.59
16.32
-
15.87
Goyet
A3
2895
11
R
P2
34.48
15.17
-
13.99
Goyet
A3
2895
12
L
P2
34.64
17.51
-
14.77
Goyet
A3
2895
13
R
P2
35.60
17.97
53.86
16.35
Goyet
A3
2895
14
R
P3/4
31.17
16.41
-
15.45
Goyet
A3
2895
15
R
P3/4
28.33
18.73
-
16.56
Goyet
A3
2895
16
R
P3/4
29.17
19.58
-
18.44
Goyet
A3
2895
17
R
P3/4
26.65
18.16
62.02
14.94
Goyet
A3
2895
18
R
P3/4
33.35
16.45
-
15.54
Goyet
A3
2895
19
R
P3/4
29.31
16.95
-
16.40
Goyet
A3
2895
20
R
P3/4
29.39
20.15
-
16.17
Goyet
A3
2895
21
R
P3/4
28.86
18.14
-
16.79
Goyet
A3
2895
22
R
P3/4
28.78
18.45
-
16.81
Goyet
A3
2895
23
R
P3/4
32.74
19.03
-
17.67
Goyet
A3
2895
24
R
P3/4
29.85
18.91
-
17.00
Goyet
A3
2895
25
R
P3/4
30.25
17.86
-
15.64
Goyet
A3
2895
26
R
P3/4
31.22
18.91
56.08
18.92
Goyet
A3
2895
27
R
P3/4
28.48
19.06
51.58
15.89
Goyet
A3
2895
28
R
P3/4
29.13
16.16
-
-
47
Goyet
A3
2895
29
R
P3/4
28.14
19.03
-
16.33
Goyet
A3
2895
30
R
P3/4
29.84
18.38
-
18.18
Goyet
A3
2895
31
R
M1/2
28.93
17.33
-
17.51
Goyet
A3
2895
32
R
M1/2
28.59
20.09
-
15.76
Goyet
A3
2895
33
R
M1/2
28.81
18.03
-
15.80
Goyet
A3
2895
34
R
M1/2
32.43
19.39
-
15.99
Goyet
A3
2895
35
L
P3/4
29.62
19.74
72.39
17.48
Goyet
A3
2895
36
R
P3/4
30.32
19.91
75.06
17.29
Goyet
A3
2895
37
R
M1/2
27.09
18.42
71.00
16.71
Goyet
A3
2895
38
R
M1/2
28.96
15.91
-
17.61
Goyet
A3
2895
39
R
M1/2
28.41
19.03
72.56
15.84
Goyet
A3
2895
40
R
M1/2
28.46
17.21
68.94
-
Goyet
A3
2895
41
R
M1/2
25.57
16.65
46.55
13.58
Goyet
A3
2895
42
R
M1/2
26.26
16.67
62.52
15.98
Goyet
A3
2895
43
R
M1/2
27.34
16.47
-
15.34
Goyet
A3
2895
44
R
M3
32.38
15.53
-
16.68
Goyet
A3
2895
45
R
M1/2
27.19
20.20
-
15.39
Goyet
A3
2895
46
R
M3
30.63
15.19
-
15.23
Goyet
A3
2895
47
R
M1/2
26.42
17.72
26.32
15.72
Goyet
A3
2895
48
R
M1/2
27.17
17.75
-
14.92
Goyet
A3
2895
49
R
M1/2
26.68
16.61
56.41
15.42
Goyet
A3
2895
50
R
M1/2
24.17
14.70
-
12.74
Goyet
A3
2895
51
R
M1/2
27.73
17.64
47.70
15.57
Goyet
A3
2895
52
R
M1/2
28.59
17.37
-
15.44
Goyet
A3
2895
53
R
M1/2
28.56
15.61
-
18.00
Goyet
A3
2895
54
L
M1/2
27.01
18.29
61.89
13.16
48
Goyet
A3
2895
55
R
M1/2
26.14
17.44
-
14.40
Goyet
A3
2895
56
R
M1/2
26.41
16.77
53.93
14.16
Goyet
A3
2895
57
R
M1/2
26.28
16.95
-
14.72
Goyet
A3
2895
58
R
M1/2
26.19
15.99
-
15.10
Goyet
A3
2895
59
R
M1/2
23.39
17.88
32.92
12.64
Goyet
A3
2895
60
R
M1/2
24.86
16.39
-
15.28
Goyet
A3
2895
61
R
M1/2
28.99
19.77
-
15.22
Goyet
A3
2895
62
R
M1/2
30.16
16.85
-
16.84
Goyet
A3
2895
63
R
M1/2
27.11
16.29
71.32
16.82
Goyet
A3
2895
64
R
M1/2
28.16
17.20
70.27
15.32
Goyet
A3
2895
65
L
M1/2
25.85
16.30
-
13.66
Goyet
A3
2895
66
R
M1/2
25.58
17.15
-
15.14
Goyet
A3
2895
67
R
M1/2
27.23
17.30
-
16.55
Goyet
A3
2895
68
R
M1/2
27.12
16.79
-
14.46
Goyet
A3
2895
69
R
M1/2
27.13
17.16
72.61
15.16
Goyet
A3
2895
70
L
M1/2
26.68
17.46
-
15.50
Goyet
A3
2895
71
R
M1/2
26.11
18.12
-
14.75
Goyet
A3
2895
72
R
M1/2
26.98
16.16
-
14.10
Goyet
A3
2895
73
R
M1/2
26.65
16.32
-
15.71
Goyet
A3
2895
74
R
M1/2
26.91
18.12
-
16.01
Goyet
A3
2895
75
R
M1/2
26.31
16.05
-
14.55
Goyet
A3
2895
76
R
M1/2
23.51
15.05
33.66
15.18
Goyet
A3
2895
77
R
M1/2
24.55
16.45
24.62
14.63
Goyet
A3
2895
78
R
M1/2
25.82
15.81
62.68
14.07
Goyet
A3
2895
79
R
M1/2
27.08
15.51
-
16.05
Goyet
A3
2895
80
R
M3
30.16
14.82
-
14.64
49
Goyet
A3
2895
81
R
M3
34.92
14.51
59.33
15.98
Goyet
A3
2895
82
R
M3
31.45
15.66
-
14.69
Goyet
A3
2895
83
L
M3
31.96
15.15
-
13.75
Goyet
A3
2895
84
R
M3
33.63
15.42
-
13.56
Goyet
A3
2895
85
R
M3
31.16
14.00
-
13.12
Goyet
A3
2895
86
R
M3
32.08
14.58
-
14.51
Goyet
A3
2895
87
R
M3
32.75
15.32
-
14.95
Goyet
A3
2895
88
R
M3
30.95
13.79
-
14.19
Goyet
A3
2895
89
R
M3
31.84
16.02
-
14.21
Goyet
A3
2895
90
R
M3
31.22
14.67
-
14.74
Goyet
A3
2895
91
R
M3
31.34
14.92
-
13.48
Goyet
A3
2895
92
R
M3
35.69
14.62
-
14.42
Goyet
A3
2895
93
R
M3
31.25
13.43
-
13.43
Goyet
A3
2895
94
R
M3
33.89
14.11
-
14.22
Goyet
A3
2895
95
R
M3
31.35
12.30
-
12.37
Goyet
A3
2895
96
R
M3
32.97
14.11
-
14.14
Goyet
A3
2895
97
R
M3
33.68
13.00
-
14.08
Goyet
A3
2895
98
R
M3
31.22
12.38
-
12.53
Goyet
A3
2895
99
L
M3
32.06
13.31
-
13.38
Goyet
A3
2895
100
R
M3
32.24
11.79
13.62
12.94
Goyet
A3
2895
101
R
M3
34.27
15.43
33.09
13.93
Table 31 Measurements of all isolated horse teeth
50
Dentes indet,
24 broken fragments of indeterminate horse teeth were found (Table 32). Three of these could be
allocated to the right lower jaw. Two of the fragments had ochre on them.
L lower jaw
R lower jaw
?
NISP
%NISP
MNI
0
3
21
24
4,05
-
Table 32 Position, NISP and MNI of the indeterminate horse teeth
Hyoid
Two broken fragments of the hyoid bone were discovered here. Both were broken and one had cut
marks. These numbers result in an MNI of one.
Vertebrae
Atlas
One broken fragment was found with a length of 7.5 cm. No other traces could be observed.
Axis
Inventory
Four fragments were excavated, all were broken and one bears cut marks and ochre traces.
Measurements
Table 34 gives the measurements of the horse axis fragments.
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. bone
BPacd
Goyet
A3
2766
15
82.14
Goyet
A3
2766
16
80.82
Table 33 Measurements of the horse axis
Cervical
Inventory
Two cervical vertebrae were found of which one was broken and showed signs of abrasion.
51
Measurements
Measurements could be taken from the complete element (Table 34).
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. Bone
H
GLPa
BPacr
BPacd
Goyet
A3
2766
14
49.48
82.13
86.83
74.52
Table 34 Measurements of a horse cervical vertebral element
Dorsal
One dorsal vertebrae has been retrieved without markings.
Caudal
Inventory
Three unaltered caudal vertebrae have been found. Because each belongs to a different part of the
vertebral column, only one MNI can be proven.
Measurements
Measurements of the horse caudal vertebral elements are given in Table 35.
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. bone
H
PL
BFcr
HFcr
BFcd
HFcd
BPtr
Goyet
A3
2766
1
23.17
29.39
23.11
18.78
20.65
18.78
41.25
Goyet
A3
2766
2
21.78
31.40
20.05
17.94
17.41
17.88
34.59
Goyet
A3
2766
3
08.39
20.46
08.54
08.35
07.96
07.39
-
Table 35 Measurements of the horse caudal vertebral elements
Os costa
Nine fragments of the ribs have been discovered. They were all broken, about half had ochre or cut
marks, one had gnawing traces. Three had traces of roots, meaning that they were positioned at the
entrance of the cave (near the light source) where plants could grow. There was also one rib with an
impact structure. Because most ribs were not precisely identifiable, the MNI cannot be calculated..
Two photographs were taken of the horse ribs (Photograph 5 and Photograph 6) to illustrate the
presence of root traces and impact structures.
52
Photograph 5 Root traces on a horse rib (2798-22)
Photograph 6 Horse rib fragment with impact (2798-17
Scapula
Inventory
Ten fragments of the scapula have been found (Table 36). They were all broken, many had gnawing
traces, two have ochre traces, another one presents cut marks. Two fragments were from sub-adults
and one from a foetus. The MNI is seven: five left adult scapula, one left of a sub-adult and the foetus
bone..
L adult
R adult
L young
R young
NISP
%NISP
MNI
5
2
1
2
10
1,69
7
Table 36 Position, NISP and MNI of the horse scapula
Measurements
The measurements taken from the horse scapula fragments are presented in Table 37.
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. bone
L/R
KLC
GLP
LG
BG
Goyet
A3
2221
5
P
50.47
-
-
-
Goyet
A3
2221
6
L
58 78
86.85
55.10
47.41
Table 37 Measurements of the horse scapula
53
Three photographs were taken (Photograph 7, Photograph 8 and Photograph 9) which dispay one
specimen with impact and gnawing traces.
Photograph 7 Impact and gnawing traces on a horse scapula (2221-3)
Photograph 8 Detail of gnawing traces on a horse scapula (2221-3)
54
Photograph 9 Detail of impact and gnawing traces on a horse scapula (2221-3)
Humerus
Inventory
Nine fragments of the humerus have been excavated (Table 38). Virtually all have been broken, one
fragment contains cut marks and one ochre. There is one sub-adult present (a right humerus
fragment) and two complete foetal left elements so the minimum number of individuals is seven.
L
R
Ochre
Cut marks
Impact
NISP
%NISP
MNI
4
5
1
1
8
9
1,52
7
Table 38 Position, marks, NISP and MNI of the horse humerus
Measurements
The measurements of the horse humerus are presented in Table 39.
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. bone
L/R
Bd
BT
Goyet
A3
2222
1
L
79.89
80.08
Goyet
A3
2222
3
R
88.84
80.67
Table 39 Measurements of the horse humerus
55
Radiocubitus
Inventory
There have been found 18 remains of the radiocubitus with adult left and right bones equally
represented (nine each). One contains traces of ochre, three of gnawing by animals (Table 40). Most
of the remains have been broken. There is also one right ulna from a foetus which brings the MNI to
ten.
L
R
Ochre
Gnawing
Impact
NISP
%NISP
MNI
9
10
1
3
14
19
3,21
10
Table 40 Position, traces, NISP and MNI of the horse radiocubitus
Measurements
Table 41 gives the measurements of the horse radiocubitus bones.
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. Bone
L/R
Bp
BFd
Bd
Goyet
A3
2222
8
R
76.26
-
-
Goyet
A3
2222
9
L
-
65.67
77.37
Goyet
A3
2222
10
L
-
66.46
78.80
Table 41 Measurements of the horse radiocubitus
Carpus
Inventory
Ten carpal elements have been found: four os carpale tertium, one os carpale quartum, one os
accessorium, three os carpi intermedium and one os carpi radiale (Table 42). Traces of ochre,
gnawing and cut marks have been recognized as well as impact structures on half of the elements
(Table 43). The MNI based on three right os carpale tertium is given in Table 44.
L
R
?
Os carpale tertium
1
3
0
Os carpale quartum
1
0
0
Os accessorium
1
0
0
Os carpi intermedium
0
3
0
Os carpi radiale
0
1
0
Table 42 Position of the carpal bones from the horse
56
Ochre
Cut marks
Gnawing
Impact
NISP
3
2
2
5
Percentage
30
20
20
50
Table 43 Traces on the horse carpal bones
NISP
%NISP
MNI
10
1,69
3
Table 44 NISP and MNI of the horse carpal bones
Measurements
The measurements taken from the horse carpal bones are presented in Table 45.
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. Bone
Element
L/R
GB
Goyet
A3
2224
30
Os carpale tertium
L
40.42
Goyet
A3
2224
31
Os carpale tertium
R
43.27
Goyet
A3
2224
32
Os carpale tertium
R
47.67
Goyet
A3
2224
33
Os carpale tertium
R
45.65
Goyet
A3
2224
35
Os accessorium
L
42.73
Goyet
A3
2224
39
Os carpi radiale
R
39.99
Table 45 Measurements taken from the horse carpal bones
A photograph was taken from a carpal element to illustrate its ochre traces (Photograph 10).
Photograph 10 Ochre traces on a horse carpal bone (2224-30)
57
Metacarpus
Inventory
9 metacarpal bones were found (Table 46). They were broken and belonged to adult horses. Cut
marks, ochre and gnawing traces are present (Table 47). Only one distal element was found. The MNI
is four.
L proximal
R proximal
L distal
R distal
NISP
%NISP
MNI
4
4
1
0
9
1,52
4
Table 46 Position, NISP and MNI of the horse metacarpal bones
Ochre
Cut marks
Impact
Gnawing
1
1
9
2
Table 47 Traces on the horse metacarpal bones
Measurements
Table 48 gives the measurements taken from the horse metacarpal bones.
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. Bone
L/R
Bp
Dp
Bd
Dd
Goyet
A3
2794
10
R
57.05
37.22
-
-
Goyet
A3
2794
15
L
54.23
36.98
-
-
Goyet
A3
2794
16
L
48.39
31.42
-
-
Goyet
A3
2226
21
R
-
-
48.86
38.10
Goyet
A3
2226
26
L
-
-
50.59
36.23
Table 48 Measurements taken from the horse metacarpel bones
58
50,00
48,00
46,00
44,00
42,00
Dp 40,00
Zemst IIB
38,00
Goyet A3
36,00
34,00
32,00
30,00
40,00
45,00
50,00
55,00
60,00
65,00
70,00
Bp
Figure 15 Comparison between the metacarpal bone data of horse from Goyet A3 and Zemst IIB (Germonpré, 1993a)
As shown in Figure 15, the measurements on the Goyet bones fall in the lower range of the bones
from Zemst, dating from the Early Glacial.
70
65
60
Bp
55
Goyet A3
Zemst IIB
Goyet A2
Spy
50
45
Figure 16 Comparison between the width of the proximal horse metacarpal bones of different Pleistocene sites. The
measurements are derived from Soenen (2006) for Goyet A2, Germonpré (2003a) for Zemst IIB and Germonpré
(unpublished data) for Spy.
Figure 16 displays measurements of the width of the proximal horse metacarpal bones. The data
from the Zemst site displays the most variability as is also has the most measurements. The values
originating from the other sites (Goyet and Spy) are located in the lower range of the Zemst data.
Pelvis
Ten fragments of the pelvis have been found (Table 49), with the ilium and acetabulum most
present. They were all broken, most had traces of ochre and some had cut marks. One of them is
considered a juvenile because of the thin bony profile. This brings the MNI to six: five left adult
fragments and one juvenile on the right.
59
L
R
Ochre
Cut marks
Impact
NISP
%NISP
MNI
5
5
7
3
10
10
1,69
6
Table 49 Position, marks, NISP and MNI of the horse pelvis
Femur
Inventory
36 elements of the femur were excavated (Table 50), all were broken, almost half were gnawed
and/or bear ochre. Some have cut marks. Distal parts, proximal elements and fragments of the shaft
were found. There are five foetal remains here (Table 51): three bones were mostly intact while two
were only represented by the shaft (one left, one right). The juveniles remains consist of a left
proximal part, a right proximal part and a indeterminate proximal element. The MNI is 15 because
there are twelve adult left shaft fragments and three juvenile elements (Table 52).
L distal
L shaft
L proximal
L Intact
R distal
R shaft
R proximal
Foetal
?
0
11
5
0
1
6
4
5
4
Table 50 Position of the element in the skeleton of the horse femur bones
Foetal complete R
Foetal complete L
Foetal shaft R
Foetal shaft L
3
0
1
1
Table 51 Position of the element in the skeleton of the horse foetal femur bones
Ochre
Cut marks
Gnawing
Impact
NISP
%NISP
MNI
15
7
15
36
36
6,08
15
Table 52 Tracesn NISP and MNI of the horse femur bones
Measurements
Table 53 displays the measurements of the horse femur bones.
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. bone
L/R
TC
Goyet
A3
2799
15
L
55.41
Goyet
A3
2799
17
L
58.25
Goyet
A3
2799
19
L
55.36
Goyet
A3
2799
20
L
53.51
Goyet
A3
2799
24
R
57.99
Table 53 Measurements of the horse femur bones
60
70,00
68,00
66,00
64,00
62,00
Zemst IIB
TC 60,00
Goyet A3
58,00
56,00
54,00
52,00
50,00
Figure 17 Comparison between the femur bone data of horse from Goyet A3 and Zemst IIB (Germonpré, 1993a)
Figure 17 indicates that the measurements on the Goyet bones situate well below the range of the
bones from Zemst, dating from the Early Glacial. Photograph 11 show the ochre and gnawing traces
on a horse femur fragment.
Photograph 11 Ochre and gnawing traces on a horse femur fragment (2799-22)
Patella
Two fragments were discovered, one right, one left. The first was broken, the other one had cut
marks and ochre traces. The MNI is one.
61
Tibia
Inventory
24 fragments of the tibia were preserved (Table 54). Most were parts of the shaft or the distal end,
only one was from the proximal end of the bone. Nearly all were broken and ochre, cut marks and
gnawing traces were observed (Table 55). There was one fragment belonging to a juvenile (diaphysis
and epiphysis were not yet fully connected), a left distal part. This brings the MNI to 8 (seven adult
right distal elements and the juvenile)
L distal
L shaft
L proximal
R distal
R shaft
R proximal
4
6
0
7
4
1
Table 54 Position of the element in the skeleton of the horse tibie bones
Ochre
Cut marks
Gnawing
Impact
NISP
%NISP
MNI
11
9
9
23
24
4,05
8
Table 55 Traces, NISP and MNI of the horse tibia bones
Measurements
The measurements taken from the horse tibia bones are given in Table 56.
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. Bone
L/R
Bd
Dd
Goyet
A3
2223
8
R
-
49.93
Goyet
A3
2223
9
L
-
42.25
Goyet
A3
2223
10
R
77.74
50.84
Goyet
A3
2223
11
R
73.05
46.48
Table 56 Measurements taken from the horse tibia bones
One photograph was taken to show the ochre traces and gnawing traces on a horse tibia fragment
(Photograph 12).
Photograph 12 Ochre and gnawing traces on e distal horse tibia fragment (2223-15)
62
Tarsus
Astragalus
Inventory
Five astragalus or talus bones were found (Table 57), all of them broken. There were traces of ochre,
gnawing and cut marks. The MNI is three due to the three right fragments.
L
R
?
Ochre
Cut marks
Gnawing
NISP
%NISP
MNI
1
3
1
3
2
3
5
0,84
3
Table 57 Position, traces, NISP and MNI of the horse astragalus bones
Measurements
Table 58 displays the measurements from the horse astragalus.
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. Bone
L/R
GB
GH
BFd
LmT
Goyet
A3
2224
43
R
65.93
63.78
60.03
63.23
Goyet
A3
2224
44
R
-
60.12
-
60.90
Goyet
A3
2224
45
R
-
56.66
-
56.70
Goyet
A3
2223
4
L
-
57.94
-
-
Table 58 Measurements of the horse astragalus bones
75
70
65
Goyet A3
Goyet A2
GH
Zemst IIB
60
55
50
Figure 18 Comparison of the astragalus height of the horses from different Pleistocene sites. The measurements are
taken from Soenen (2006) for Goyet A2 and Germonpré (2003a) for Zemst IIB.
The measurements of Goyet occupy the lower range of the distribution of the height values, while
the material from Zemst indicate higher astragalus bones (Figure 18).
63
Calcaneum
Five broken fragments of the calcaneum were found (Table 59). Most were gnawed and two had
either cut marks or ochre. The MNI is three because there are three right fragments present.
L
R
Ochre
Cuts
Gnawing
NISP
%NISP
MNI
2
3
1
1
4
5
0,84
3
Table 59 Position, traces, NISP and MNI of the horse calcaneum bones
Other
Seven elements from the other tarsal bones were recovered, all intact (Table 60). Some bear traces
of ochre, gnawing or cut traces (Table 61). Three different tarsal bones are present: four os tarsale
tertium, one os tarsale quartum and two os tarsi central. Three of the os tarsale tertium bones have
a hole where a sample was taken before this analysis. Due to the three right os tarsale tertium, the
MNI is also three (Table 62).
L
R
?
Os tarsale tertium
1
3
0
Os tarsale quartum
1
0
0
Os tarsi central
1
1
0
Table 60 Position of the element in the skeleton of the other horse tarsal bones
Ochre
Cut marks
Gnawing
Impact
NISP
2
3
2
0
Percentage
29
43
29
0
Table 61 Marks found on the other horse tarsal bones
NISP
%NISP
MNI
7
1,18
3
Table 62 NISP and MNI of the other horse tarsal bones
Metatarsus
Inventory
23 Metatarsal bones have been retrieved from this horizon (Table 63 and Table 64). They were all
broken, ochre, cut marks and gnawing traces are present (Table 65). Some of the bones have been
used as tools. Cut marks have been observed next to the ligaments, indicating disarticulation. The
proximal and distal fragments have been found. The MNI is 9 (8 MNI adult and one sub-adult). The
‘tools’ in the last table indicate wear coming from handing a bone, one of these has a pointy end.
64
L distal
R distal
L proximal
P proximal
MNI adult
5
8
3
5
8
Table 63 Position and adult MNI of the horse metatarsal bones
L adult
R adult
L sub-adult
R sub-adult
NISP
%NISP
MNI
8
13
1
1
23
3,89
9
Table 64 Position of the element in the skeleton, NISP and MNI of all horse metatarsal bones
Ochre
Cut marks
Gnawing
Impact
Tool
7
5
6
23
3
Table 65 Traces found on the horse metatarsal bones
Measurements
Table 66 shows the measurements taken from the horse metatarsal bones.
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. Bone
L/R
Bp
Dp
Bd
Dd
Goyet
A3
2794
1
L
-
-
-
36.03
Goyet
A3
2794
2
R
-
-
-
40.24
Goyet
A3
2794
3
L
-
-
49.85
37.64
Goyet
A3
2794
4
R
-
-
48.90
36.99
Goyet
A3
2794
5
R
-
-
-
39.71
Goyet
A3
2794
21
L
53.40
44.62
-
-
Goyet
A3
2794
26
R
54.80
48.77
-
-
Goyet
A3
2226
19
R
-
-
-
39.37
Goyet
A3
2226
20
L
-
-
47.72
37.44
Goyet
A3
2226
22
R
-
-
51.29
41.36
Goyet
A3
2226
23
L
-
-
48.34
36.48
Goyet
A3
2226
24
R
-
-
-
39.77
Goyet
A3
2226
25
R
-
-
-
40.96
Goyet
A3
2226
27
R
-
-
51.12
38.93
Table 66 Measurements taken from the horse metatarsal bones
65
50,00
48,00
46,00
44,00
42,00
Dd 40,00
Zemst IIB
38,00
Goyet A3
36,00
34,00
32,00
30,00
40,00
45,00
50,00
55,00
60,00
65,00
70,00
Bd
Figure 19 Comparison between the metatarsal bone data of horse from Goyet A3 and Zemst IIB (Germonpré, 1993a)
As shown in Figure 19, the measurements on the Goyet bones fall in the lower range of the bones
from Zemst, dating from the Early Glacial.
65
63
61
59
57
Goyet A3
Goyet A2
Bd 55
Zemst IIB
Spy
53
51
49
47
45
Figure 20 Comparison of the distal metatarsal width of the horses from three different Pleistocene sites. The
measurements are derived from Soenen (2006) for Goyet A2, Germonpré (2003a) for Zemst IIB and Germonpré
(unpublished data) for Spy.
The distribution of the distal horse metacarpus measurements can be devided in two ranges (Figure
20). The upper range is occupied by the Zemst data with overlap of the Spy measurements, while the
lower values are provided by the site of Goyet.
66
Two photographs showing signs of impact traces and transformation into tools are shown here
(Photograph 13 and Photograph 14)
Photograph 13 Horse metataral bone (2794-4) which probably was used as a tool
Photograph 14 distal horse metatarsus with impact traces and possibly a tool (2226-22)
Phalanx 1
Inventory
14 fragments of the first phalanx (closest to the metapoda) were found (Table 67). One bears a lot of
short cut marks. Others contains traces of ochre, gnawing or (fewer) cur marks. Sometimes it is not
possible to determine which limb the phalanx belongs to. One element was from a very young
individual (foetus or new-born). The MNI was set at five using the three left posterior phalanges, the
young individual and the indeterminate remains.
67
L ante
L post
R ante
R post
?
NISP
%NISP
MNI
2
3
0
2
7
14
2,36
5
Table 67 Position of the element in the skeleton, NISP and MNI of the horse first phalanges
Measurements
Table 68 presents the measurements from the horse first phalanges.
Site
Horizon
Nr.
Dupont
Nr.
bone
L/R
GL
BFp
Bp
Dp
BFd
Bd
KD
Goyet
A3
2226
1
L
79.44
45.89
50.31
33.96
43.22
43.33
33.31
Goyet
A3
2226
2
L
81.27
51.53
56.21
38.11
45.54
48.18
38.14
Goyet
A3
2226
3
L
81.66
49.55
54.95
37.59
44.15
45.66
34.71
Goyet
A3
2226
6
L
84.68
54.58
61.30
42.05
50.39
54.21
41.00
Goyet
A3
2226
7
R
81.26
51.03
57.87
38.09
-
-
39.47
Goyet
A3
2226
8
L
78.91
46.04
54.82
34.25
45.92
48.19
36.51
Goyet
A3
2226
9
?
-
-
-
-
45.48
-
-
Goyet
A3
2226
10
R
81.71
48.50
57.45
37.30
45.60
48.34
36.25
Goyet
A3
2817
20
?
66.84
41.89
27.76
40.02
31.75
Table 68 Measurements of the horse first phalanges
50
48
46
44
42
Dp 40
Zemst IIB
38
Goyet A3
36
Goyet A2
34
32
30
45
50
55
60
65
70
Bp
Figure 21 Comparison between the first posterior phalanx bone data of horse from Goyet A3, Goyet A2 (Soenen, 2006)
and Zemst IIB (Germonpré, 1993a)
68
Figure 21 shows that the measurements on the Goyet bones overlap with the lower range of the
bones from Zemst, dating from the Early Glacial. Goyet A3 displays the lowest Dp values.
Two photographs were taken to display the cut marks on the phirst phalanges, both of the same
specimen (Photograph 15 and Photograph 16)
Photograph 15 Cut marks on an anterior first phalanx of the horse (2226-1)
Photograph 16 Detail of cut marks on an anterior first phalanx of the horse (2226-1)
Phalanx 2
Inventory
Fourteen fragments were found of which most had cut marks and ochre (Table 69). Only two were
broken. The MNI is seven because there are seven left posterior phalanges.
L ante
L post
R ante
R post
?
NISP
%NISP
MNI
1
7
1
4
1
14
2,36
7
Table 69 Position of the element in the skeleton, NISP and MNI of the horse second phalanges
69
Measurements
Table 70 shows the measurements taken from the hore second phalanges.
Site
Horizon
Nr.
Dupont
Nr.
bone
L/R
GL
BFp
Bp
Dp
Bd
KD
Goyet
A3
2226
4
R
50.76
50.00
57.14
35.08
53.31
50.49
Goyet
A3
2226
5
?
-
-
-
34.39
-
-
Goyet
A3
2817
21
L
42.59
46.21
54.09
32.39
50.14
45.54
Goyet
A3
2817
22
R
44.56
46.67
58.54
34.38
51.25
47.81
Goyet
A3
2817
23
L
40.01
46.94
54.27
33.26
52.71
49.01
Goyet
A3
2817
24
L
41.18
46.29
53.14
32.39
49.98
44.75
Goyet
A3
2817
25
R
44.01
50.77
58.78
35.21
54.89
51.61
Goyet
A3
2817
26
L
42.89
45.97
53.59
31.88
52.29
47.34
Goyet
A3
2817
27
L
42.18
49.57
56.03
33.52
54.48
49.59
Goyet
A3
2817
28
L
44.26
47.56
57.18
34.43
50.32
47.78
Goyet
A3
2817
29
L
44.28
46.89
60.05
35.06
53.37
49.81
Goyet
A3
2817
30
R
43.47
47.71
57.48
35.42
52.62
48.72
Goyet
A3
2817
31
L
43.70
46.16
58.55
36.19
53.04
50.03
Goyet
A3
2817
32
R
45.99
47.18
55.34
35.06
50.51
46.01
Table 70 Measurements of the horse second phalanges
70
40
39
38
37
36
Dp 35
Zemst IIB
34
Goyet A3
33
Goyet A2
32
31
30
45
50
55
60
65
70
Bp
Figure 22 Comparison between the second posterior phalanx bone data of horse from Goyet A3, Goyet A2 (Soenen,
2006) and Zemst IIB (Germonpré, 1993a)
Figure 22 indicates that the measurements taken from Goyet coincide with the lower range of Zemst
and less. Of the two horizons in Goyet, the second displays the lowest values.
Phalanx 3
Inventory
16 hooves were found in this horizon (Table 71) of which one was small and likely belonged to a
juvenile. Most were broken and about half had ochre on them. The MNI is five by either the five left
anterior elements or the right posterior phalanges.
L ante
L post
R ante
R post
?
NISP
%NISP
MNI
5
1
1
5
4
16
2,70
5
Table 71 Position of the element in the skeleton, NISP and MNI of the horse third phalanges
Measurements
The measurements of the horse third phalanges are presented in Table 72.
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. bone
L/R
GL
GB
LF
BF
Ld
HP
Goyet
A3
2817
1
R
66.21
83.23
24.91
59.52
53.58
42.67
Goyet
A3
2817
2
R
67.62
-
29.11
52.61
62.72
39.18
Goyet
A3
2817
3
?
-
-
27.17
54.76
-
34.98
Goyet
A3
2817
4
R
70.94
84.39
28.54
57.27
54.99
38.38
Goyet
A3
2817
5
R
60.55
77.71
24.74
45.34
54.61
39.39
71
Goyet
A3
2817
6
?
-
-
29.64
-
-
-
Goyet
A3
2817
7
R
68.10
82.66
28.19
50.95
56.69
43.45
Goyet
A3
2817
8
L
59.61
82.78
29.38
54.96
57.33
42.55
Goyet
A3
2817
9
?
69.05
-
-
-
-
-
Goyet
A3
2817
10
L
61.19
92.63
25.83
58.57
51.91
40.52
Goyet
A3
2817
11
L
77.67
-
28.16
60.85
61.21
44.23
Goyet
A3
2817
12
L
60.21
81.14
28.53
59.08
52.56
41.77
Goyet
A3
2817
13
L
65.09
-
30.24
58.04
57.94
40.92
Goyet
A3
2817
14
R
-
-
27.61
-
-
-
Goyet
A3
2817
15
L
-
-
26.79
60.32
-
40.04
Goyet
A3
2817
16
?
59.81
82.95
25.55
58.38
-
-
Table 72 Measurements taken from the horse third phalanges
70
65
60
55
Goyet, horizon 3
BF (mm) 50
Equus Przewalskii
45
Late Glacial Horse
40
Zemst IIB
35
30
55
65
75
85
95
GB (mm)
Figure 23 Comparison between third phalanges of extant equids and Late Glacial horses: maximal width (GB) and articular
surface width (BF). The measurements of Equss przewalskii and Late Glacial Horse were taken from Bignon et al, 2002 and
those from Zemst IIB are data of Germonpré (1993a).
Figure 23 indicates a clear difference between the measurements taken from extant equids and
Pleistocene horses. The measurements from Goyet A3 and Zemst are situated on the top range,
although the measurements from seem a little higher.
72
60
58
56
54
52
BF 50
Zemst IIB
48
Goyet A3
46
Goyet A2
44
42
40
20
25
30
35
LF
Figure 24 Comparison between the third posterior phalanx bone data of horse from Goyet A3, Goyet A2 (Soenen, 2006)
and Zemst IIB (Germonpré, 1993a)
As shown by the measurements given in Figure 24, the hooves from Goyet are clearly shorter (LF is
less) than the material from Zemst. The LF values of Goyet A2 are also less than those of the third
horizon.
Sesamoid
Inventory
Six sesamoids were found (Table 73), three large – and three small (proximal and distal sesamoids).
Half was broken, some were gnawed and one bears ochre. It was not possible to assign a precise
location for these bones.
Proximal
Distal
Gnawed
Ochre
impact
NISP
%NISP
MNI
3
3
0
1
3
6
1,01
1
Table 73 Position of the element in the skeleton, NISP and MNI of the horse sesamoid bones
Measurements
Table 74 shows the measurements of the horse sesamoid bones.
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. bone
GB
Goyet
A3
2817
17
52.99
Goyet
A3
2817
19
45.15
Table 74 Measurements taken from the horse sesamoid bones
73
Metapoda
Inventory
Some metacarpal and metatarsal bones were not well enough preserved (and broken) to distinguish
between them (Table 75). Only one proximal fragment was noted, the remainder was distal. It also
was difficult to determine which side (left or right) they belonged to. One of them was used as a tool,
some have gnawing traces and bear cut marks.
?
Cut marks
Gnawing
Tool
impact
NISP
%NISP
MNI
11
4
4
1
11
11
1,86
-
Table 75 Position, traces, NISP and MNI of the horse metapodal bones
Measurements
The difficulties mentioned in the inventory mean also that taking measurements is not easy, only one
could be made with certainty (Table 76).
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. Bone
Td
Goyet
A3
2794
8
37.77
Table 76 Measurements of the horse metapodal bones
One fragment of a longitudinally broken horse metapodal bone was photographed (Photograph 17).
Photograph 17 Longitudinally fractured horse metapode (2226-31)
2nd and 4th metapoda
The splint bones or the reduced 2nd and 4th metacarpals/metatarsals of the horse amount to 30
elements in this horizon (Table 77). It is difficult to distinguish the eight different positions: medial –
lateral, posterior – anterior, left – right limb. Most fragments were broken, a lot were gnawed or
have cut marks and three have ochre on them (Table 78). There was also one young or foetal bone
present of the right medial anterior. Together with eight right lateral posterior elements, the MNI
becomes nine.
74
Posterior
Anterior
L lateral
L medial
R lateral
R medial
L lateral
L medial
R lateral
R medial
?
3
3
8
6
0
4
0
5
1
Table 77 Position of the element in the skeleton of the horse second and fourth metapoda
Ochre
Cut marks
Gnawing
Impact
NISP
%NISP
MNI
3
10
10
24
30
5,07
9
Table 78 Traces, NISP and MNI of the horse second and fourth metapoda
Indeterminata
There were two fragments which could not be precisely determined. The first was a fragment of one
of the long bones of a juvenile, the second had a lot of ochre and a porous texture, but seemed to be
of an adult. The label of the second element mentions 3 g(auche), so it could be a fragment of a rib (it
was also positioned in the tray with other ribs.
Foetus
Inventory
Eleven foetal bones have been recovered. They already have been mentioned in the previous
sections but they deserve special attention here because there are only a few foetal fragments in the
collection. Three foetal hore bones are presented in Photograph 24, 25 and 26.
Measurements
The measurements show the minimal length as some of the bones were broken (Table 79). The more
complete bones, of which these measurements give a good indication of the total length are marked
with an *. One foetal element is too fragmented for a length measurement to be usefull as only the
proximal part is present. However, its total length would be larger than most of the other foetal
bones.
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. bone
Element
L/R
Min. Length
Goyet
A3
2217
10
Scapula
R
62.21
Goyet
A3
2217
12
Humerus*
L
50.17
Goyet
A3
2217
13
Humerus*
L
82.48
Goyet
A3
2217
14
Ulna
R
60.52
Goyet
A3
2217
15
Femur*
R
69.05
Goyet
A3
2217
16
Femur*
R
53.14
Goyet
A3
2217
17
Femur*
R
74.15
75
Goyet
A3
2217
18
Femur
R
58.59
Goyet
A3
2217
19
Femur*
L
57.16
Goyet
A3
2217
20
Splint bone
R
49.20
Goyet
A3
2217
21
1st phalanx*
?
46.04
Table 79 Measurements of the horse foetal bones
Fot these remains, an age extimation can be given.
Bone nr.
Element
Length (mm)
Age estimation (weeks)
12
Humerus
50.17
23-25
13
Humerus
82.48
29-33
15
Femur
69.05
25-29
16
Femur
53.14
20-23
17
Femur
74.15
25-29
19
Femur
57.16
20-23
Table 80 Age estimation in weeks after gestation based on measured element length, following the correlation of
Prummel (1989)
These measurements indicate that all of the horse foetus remains that could be given an age died
between the age of 20 and 33 weeks (Table 80). A distinction may be made between the periods 20
to 25 weeks and 25 to 33 weeks which could be separated.
Three of the foetal remain were photographed (Photograph 18, Photograph 19 and Photograph 20)
Photograph 18 Foetal horse humerus (2217-13)
76
Photograph 19 Foetal horse femur with cut marks (2217-15)
Photograph 20 foetal horse humerus (2217-12)
3.2.2 Bos/Bison (Auroch/Bison)
The distinction between the genera Bos and Bison (both part of the Bovinae) cannot always be made
as they are very similar (López González et al., 1999). Where characteristic features are present, they
are assigned to either Bos or Bison. Without these features the bones are placed in the category
Bos/Bison. Table 4 gives an overview of all Bos/Bison bones.
Mandibula
Inventory
One lower jaw bone with an attached third molar is present. This fragment has been broken and
gnawed and belongs to Bison. The MNI is one and the length of the fragment is 6.5 cm. It is possible
to take measurements on the third molar.
Measurements
77
Table 81 shows the measurements taken from the lower jaw bone of Bos/Bison
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. Bone
Category
Goyet
A3
2819
30
Bison
tooth U/L
M3
L
L/R
CL
CW
CH
R
44.89
18.12
-
Table 81 Measurements of the lower jaw bone of Bos/Bison
Photograph 21 shows a broken bison lower jaw fragment with gnawing traces.
Photograph 21 Impact and gnawing traces on a bison lower jaw fragment (2819-30)
Dentes
Inventory
Upper jaw
P2
One tooth belonging to Bos/Bison, no additional marks.
P3/P4
Seven third and fourth premolars were found (Table 82). Probably one P3 and 4 P4 left and one of
each on the right. Three teeth had ochre on them and five were broken.
L P3
L P4
R P3
R P4
1
4
1
-
Table 82 Position of the element in the skeleton of the third and fourth lower jaw premolars from Bos/Bison
78
M1/M2
Eight upper jaw molars were recovered, five left, three right. Five bear impact traces. The MNI is not
calculated as the teeth can not be identified exactly.
Lower jaw
P2
One right second premolar of the lower jaw was found. No traces except impact and a length of 2.5
cm. This results in a MNI of one.
M1/M2
Eight lower jaw first and second molars were discovered. Half had traces of impacts and one of
ochre. The MNI is not calculated as the teeth can not be anatomically identified.
M3
Three third molars were found from the lower jaw. These molars have a characteristic distinction
between Bos and Bison (López González et al., 1999). Two of them could be allocated to the right
part of the jaw and belong to Bison, of the third one the side was not determinable; it originates from
Bos. This brings the MNI to three. The only traces were impact (broken) on two of the teeth.
Dentes indet,
One inderterminate tooth was excavated. It belongs to the upper jaw but it is not possible to be
more specific. The only marks were those of an impact.
Measurements
Table 83 shows the measurements taken from all Bos/Bison teeth
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. Bone
Category
L/R
CL
CW
CH
Goyet
A3
2819
1
Bison/Bos
?
U
?
-
15.5
-
Goyet
A3
2819
2
Bison/Bos
P2
U
L
18.10
11.97
13.76
Goyet
A3
2819
3
Bison/Bos
P3
U
L
19.44
17.85
27.10
Goyet
A3
2819
4
Bison/Bos
P4
U
L
19.40
18.99
30.79
Goyet
A3
2819
5
Bison/Bos
P4
U
L
17.52
23.55
25.32
Goyet
A3
2819
6
Bison/Bos
P4
U
L
21.25
20.09
31.55
Goyet
A3
2819
7
Bison/Bos
P4
U
L
22.38
24.62
34.07
Goyet
A3
2819
8
Bison/Bos
P3
U
R
19.51
16.07
38.04
79
tooth U/L
Goyet
A3
2819
9
Bison/Bos
P4
U
R
22.18
18.70
29.55
Goyet
A3
2819
10
Bison/Bos
M
U
L
27.62
23.50
-
Goyet
A3
2819
11
Bison/Bos
M
U
L
27.43
22.34
28.72
Goyet
A3
2819
12
Bison/Bos
M
U
L
31.82
20.09
31.58
Goyet
A3
2819
13
Bison/Bos
M
U
L
33.68
24.75
32.65
Goyet
A3
2819
14
Bison/Bos
M
U
L
31.74
21.71
38.69
Goyet
A3
2819
15
Bison/Bos
M
U
R
-
20.71
-
Goyet
A3
2819
16
Bison/Bos
M
U
R
36.04
25.16
39.86
Goyet
A3
2819
17
Bison/Bos
M
U
R
33.51
19.94
-
Goyet
A3
2819
18
Bos
M3
L
?
-
-
-
Goyet
A3
2819
19
Bison/Bos
M
L
L
30.53
19.60
29.21
Goyet
A3
2819
20
Bison/Bos
M
L
L
28.94
19.53
Goyet
A3
2819
21
Bison/Bos
M
L
L
31.73
15.08
45.13
Goyet
A3
2819
22
Bison/Bos
P2
L
R
18.77
10.52
23.08
Goyet
A3
2819
23
Bison/Bos
M
L
R
26.40
19.73
22.30
Goyet
A3
2819
24
Bison/Bos
M
L
R
35.22
17.58
69.83
Goyet
A3
2819
25
Bison/Bos
M
L
R
30.17
-
-
Goyet
A3
2819
26
Bison/Bos
M
L
R
33.35
13.85
-
Goyet
A3
2819
27
Bison/Bos
M
L
R
26.69
17.19
35.25
Goyet
A3
2819
28
Bison
M3
L
R
40.63
15.78
24.98
Goyet
A3
2819
29
Bison
M3
L
R
35.82
15.81
20.11
Table 83 Measurements taken from all teeth of Bos/Bison
Vertebrae
Axis
One axis bone was found belonging to an adult Bos/Bison. It received an impact and ochre. Its length
is about 12 cm.
80
Cervical
Inventory
Two cervical vertebrae were excavated, only belonging to Bison, the other to Bos/Bison. One of the
fragments had gnawing traces, both received impacts. The two bones could not be determined to a
specific vertebrae, therefore, the MNI is one.
Measurements
The measurements of the cervical vertebral bone from Bos/Bison is shown in Table 84
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. Bone
Category
PL
BFcr
HFcr
BPacr
Goyet
A3
2819
31
Bison
48.91
42.36
>40.17
95.26
Table 84 Measurements taken from the cervical vertebrae of Bos/Bison
Caudal
Inventory
One caudal vertebrae of an adult Bos/Bison was found. The only traces remaining are those of an
impact. The length of the fragment is five cm.
Measurements
Table 85 shows the measurements taken from the caudal vertebral bone of Bos/Bison.
Site
Horizon
Goyet
A3
Nr.
Nr.
Dupont Bone
2819
34
Category
PL
BFcr
HFcr
BFcd
HFcd
BPacd
BPtr
Bison/Bos 42.49 20.63 21.16 23.06 18.08
51.74
42.94
Table 85 Measurements taken from the caudal vertebrae of Bos/Bison
Scapula
Two fragments of the scapula were found (Table 86), one of a adult Bos and the other one of a
juvenile Bison. The scapula fragment of Bison bears ochre and cut marks, the Bos bone has a hole.
The MNI is two.
NISP
%NISP
MNI
2
3,39
2
Table 86 NISP and MNI of the scapula bone from Bos/Bison
81
Photograph 22 shows cut marks and ochre on a bison scapula fragment.
Photograph 22 Detail of cut marks and ochre on a bison scapula fragment (2230-1a)
Humerus
Inventory
Three fragments of the humerus have been recovered (Table 87). One of these could be attributed to
Bison, a right distal fragment. Of the other two, the left fragment is also distal and the right one is a
fragment of the shaft. Due to these three elements, the MNI is set at one. Ochre, cut marks, gnawing
and impact indications are present (Table 88).
L
R
NISP
%NISP
MNI
1
2
3
5,08
1
Table 87 Position, NISP and MNI of the humerus bones from Bos/Bison
Ochre
Cut marks
Impact
Gnawing
NISP
1
1
3
1
Percentage
33
33
100
33
Table 88 Traces found on the humerus bones from Bos/Bison
82
Measurements
Measurements of the Bos/Bison humerus are presented in Table 89.
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. Bone
Category
L/R
Bd
BT
Goyet
A3
2231
6
Bison
R
83.44
81.58
Table 89 Measurements taken from the humerus bones of Bos/Bison
Radiocubitus
Inventory
Three elements have been found of the radiocubitus (Table 90): two are only a radius but the third
consists of a radius and the cubitus attached. Ochre, gnawing traces and the results of several
impacts were noted (Table 91). Two of these bones have been attributed to Bos and because they
both are right elements, the MNI is two.
L
R
NISP
%NISP
MNI
0
3
3
5,08
2
Table 90 Position, NISP and MNI of the radiocubitus bones from Bos/Bison
Ochre
Impact
Gnawing
NISP
1
3
1
Percentage
33
100
33
Table 91 Traces found on the radiocubitus bones from Bos/Bison
Measurements
Table 92 gives the measurements of the radiocubitus bones of Bos/Bison
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. Bone
Category
L/R
Bp
Bd
Goyet
A3
2231
5
Bison/Bos
R
-
90.27
Goyet
A3
2236
4
Bos
R
68.46
-
Table 92 Measurements taken from the radiocubitus bones of Bos/Bison
83
Carpus
Three fragments are present (Table 93): one os carpi radiale, one os carpale quartum and the last is
probably os carpi ulnare. All three are right limb elements and bear ochre, cut marks, gnawing traces
and impacts. The MNI is one.
Ochre
Cut marks
Impact
Gnawing
NISP
1
1
3
1
Percentage
33
33
100
33
Table 93 Traces on the carpal bones of Bos/Bison
Ochre and gnawing traces on a bovid carpal bone are illustrated by Photograph 23.
Photograph 23 Ochre and gnawing traces on a bovid carpal bone (2231-8)
Metacarpus
Inventory
Three of metacarpal bones were discovered (Table 94): two fragments and one complete element. A
proximal fragment belongs to Bos, a distal element to Bos/Bison and the complete bone comes from
Bison. They are all right metacarpal bones so the MNI is three. The all have cut marks and impact
traces and one shows signs of gnawing.
L
R
NISP
%NISP
MNI
0
3
3
5,08
3
Table 94 Position, NISP and MNI of the metacarpal bones from Bos/Bison
84
Measurements
Measurements taken from the metacarpal bones of Bos/Bison are presented in Table 95.
Nr.
Nr. L/R
Dupont bone
Site
Ho
GL
GLl
Ll
Bp
Dp
Bd
Dd
KD
TD
Goyet
A3
2231
2
R
-
-
-
-
48.94
-
-
-
-
Goyet
A3
2231
10
R
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Goyet
A3
2231
11
R
81.32 40.05
230 225 217 87.74 48.00 84.13 38.42 53.26 26.81
Table 95 Measurements taken from the metacarpal bones of Bos/Bison
49,00
47,00
45,00
Dd
Zemst IIB Bison
43,00
Zemst IIB Bos
41,00
Goyet A3 Bison
39,00
Goyet A3 Bos/Bison
37,00
35,00
70,00
75,00
80,00
85,00
90,00
95,00
Bd
Figure 25 Comparison between the metacarpal bone data of Bos/Bison from Goyet A3 and Zemst IIB (Germonpré,
1993a)
The measurements from Zemst IIB occupy a large range, with Bison at the top (Figure 25). The data
from Goyet A3 are smaller in general, but they are wider than Bos from Zemst. One of these
measurements is a Bison and the second is Bos/Bison although it is likely also Bison based on this
figure.
Tibia
Inventory
Four tibia bones have been discovered (Table 96) of which three were identified as Bison, the
remaining one was put into the Bos/Bison category. All the Bison bones were left distal tibias while
the other one concerned the right shaft. The broken fragments showed signs of ochre, cut marks and
gnawing and one of the Bison tibias was used as a tool (Table 97). The MNI is three due to the three
left Bison bones.
85
L
R
NISP
%NISP
MNI
3
1
4
6,78
3
Table 96 Position, NISP and MNI of the tibia of Bos/Bison
Ochre
Cut marks
Impact
Gnawing
Tools
NISP
2
2
4
2
1
Percentage
50
50
100
50
25
Table 97 Traces found on the tibia bones from Bos/Bison
Measurements
Table 98 shows the measurements of the tibia bone from Bos/Bison.
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. Bone
Category
L/R
Bd
Goyet
A3
2230
1
Bison
L
50.00
Table 98 Measurements of the tibia from Bos/Bison
Tarsus
Astragalus
Inventory
One left astragalus is present, attributed to Bison, with gnawing and impact traces.
Measurements
Measurements of the astragalus bone from Bison are presented in Table 99.
Site
Goyet
Horizon Nr. Dupont
A3
2230
Nr. Bone
Category
L/R
GLl
Bd
GLm
Tl
Tm
5
Bison
L
84.22
48.32
89.47
52.57
49.84
Table 99 Measurements of the astragalus bone from Bison
Calcaneum
Also one left calcaneum present of the Bison, only with impact traces and a length of 7.5 cm..
Metatarsus
Only one fragment of a left metatarsal bone was found, attributed to Bos. It has ochre traces and is
broken as only the shaft remains. The MNI is obviously one.
86
Phalanx 2
Inventory
Three second phalanges were discovered here (Table 100). Two are attributed to Bos and the
remaining one to Bos/Bison. Cut marks, impacts and gnawing traces are present. The MNI is one.
Cut marks
Impact
Gnawing
NISP
1
2
1
Percentage
33
66
33
Table 100 Traces found on the second phalanges of Bos/Bison
Measurements
Table 101 presents the measurements taken from the second phalanges of Bos/Bison
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. Bone
Category
L/R
GL
Bp
Bd
KD
Goyet
A3
2230
7
Bison/Bos
L
36.81
18.99
19.64
18.22
Goyet
A3
2236
5
Bos
L
55.58
29.79
28.22
25.47
Goyet
A3
2236
6
Bos
L
36.72
29.29
-
20.67
Table 101 Measurements taken from the second phalanges of Bos/Bison
Photograph 24 shows cut marks on a posterior second phalanx of auroch
Photograph 24 Cut marks on a posterior second phalanx of auroch (2236-5)
87
Phalanx 3
Inventory
One third phalanx of a Bison was excavated but could not be determinated more precisely.
Measurements
Measurements taken of the third phalanx of Bos/Bison are presented in Table 102.
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. Bone
Category
L/R
DLS
Ld
MBS
Goyet
A3
2230
8
Bison
?
63.45
54.28
22.19
Table 102 Measurements taken of the third phalanx of Bos/Bison
3.2.3 Mammuthus primigenus (Woolly mammoth)
Table 5 gives the complete inventory of the woolly mammoth remains from Horizon 3 of Goyet.
Cranium
Four fragments of these bones were found with identifying criteria size and air holes (to increase
volume needed for the muscles of the proboscis and reduce weight). One of the fragments bears
ochre and all are broken.
Dentes
Inventory
Three types of dentition are present: incisors (tusks), milk teeth (M1-M3) and molars (M4 to M5).
There are also a number of fragmented teeth that could not be identified further.
Incisor
A lot of tusks (modified incisor) fragments were discovered with most of them bearing ochre
(Photograph 25 and Photograph 26). These 58 fragments are most likely the remains of the
production of ivory beads so all these fragments could come from a very limited number of tusks or
only one.
Photograph 25 Ochre traces on a woolly mammoth tusk fragment (2802-36)
88
Photograph 26 Ochre traces on a woolly mammoth tusk fragment (2802-11)
Molars
One milk tooth (M1) was found (Photograph 27 and Photograph 28). This element is in a good
condition and has a length of two cm.
Photograph 27 M1 woolly mammoth tooth (2777-6)
89
Photograph 28 M1 woolly mammoth tooth (2777-6)
M2-M5
Nine larger molars were found in total of which Table 103 shows their distribution. They were all
broken but no other traces were observed. Because of the similarity of the molariform teeth, the
measurements taken are used to identify the teeth. The measurements were compared with those
from Germonpré (1993a) and assigned the most likely class (M1-M6). Two of the M4 teeth (nr. 11
and 14) were very fragmentend and could mostly be given minimum values for the measurements.
They could also not be assigned to a upper/lower jaw or left/right position and are thus not included
in Table 99.
Upper jaw
Lower jaw
L
R
M2
1
0
M3
0
1
M4
1
0
M5
0
1
M2
1
1
M3
0
0
M4
1
0
M5
0
0
Table 103 Position of the mammoth molars
90
Dentes indet.
Eight indeterminate fragments were found, seven of them consist out of one or two lamellae
together and the last was a fragment of the root. These elements were all broken and without
additional traces. The MNI was not determined.
Measurements
The measurements of the mammoth teeth are shown in Table 104.
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. Bone
L/R Tooth
CL
CW
CH
# lamellae
LF
Goyet
A3
2777
6
L
M1
17.95
15.32
13.16
5
30
Goyet
A3
2777
7
L
M2
50.48
18.43
25.88
7
14
Goyet
A3
2777
8
R
M2
61.57
33.71
39.13
7
14
Goyet
A3
2777
9
L
M2
54.98
34.58
31.79
8
16
Goyet
A3
2777
10
R
M3
>60.99
46.89
72.69
5
10
Goyet
A3
2777
11
?
M4
>103.89 >58.91
98.37
10
10
Goyet
A3
2777
12
L
M4
92.71
51.27
43.59
10
10
Goyet
A3
2777
13
L
M4
68.95
61.29
30.79
8
12
Goyet
A3
2777
14
?
M4
-
>43.35 >65.31
3
10
Goyet
A3
2777
21
R
M5
122.09
77.67
99.37
11
9
Goyet
A3
2777
22
?
M5
-
67.01
>98.34
-
-
Goyet
A3
2777
23
?
M5
-
67.00
>98.10
-
-
Table 104 Measurements of the mammoth teeth
Due to the number of molars with an age at death attribution (Table 105), the MNI can be higher. To
account for all five different age classes, an MNI of 5 is needed.
Nr, Dupont
Nr, Bone
Element
Jaw
Age (a.e.y.)
2777
6
M1
Upper
0,1 - 0,5
2777
7
M2
Upper
0,5 - 2
2777
8
M2
Lower
0,5 - 3
2777
9
M2
Lower
0,5 - 4
2777
10
M3
Upper
4–6
91
2777
11
M4
-
8 - 12
2777
12
M4
Lower
12 - 16
2777
13
M4
Upper
12 - 16
2777
14
M4
-
8 - 12
2777
21
M5
Upper
14 - 22
2777
22
M5
-
14 - 22
2777
23
M5
-
14 - 22
Table 105 List of all woolly mammoth molars which could be given an age at death (expressed in African elephant years)
Humerus
One distal fragment of a Mammoth humerus was found, with no other marks than the fact it was
broken. The fragment has a length of 30 cm.
Indeterminata
17 fragments of indeterminate mammoth bones have been retrieved (Table 106). The main criteria
to assign these bones to mammoths is the size of them, which also caused them to be identified as
adults. All the bones are broken, one is heavily gnawed, probably by a hyena, and there is one tool
(Table 107 and Photograph 29). Seven of the fragments were marked by ochre and there was one
with cut marks. Because the fragments cannot be identified precisely, the MNI is not calculated.
?
NISP
%NISP
MNI
17
17
17,35
-
Table 106 Position, NISP and MNI of the indeterminate mammoth bones
Ochre
Cut marks
Impact
Gnawing
Tool
NISP
7
1
17
5
1
Percentage
41
6
100
29
6
Table 107 Traces found on the indeterminate mammoth bones
Photograph 29 Possible tool from an indeterminate mammoth bone (2216-3)
92
3.2.4 Coelodonta antiquitatis (Woolly Rhinoceros)
Table 6 gives the complete inventory of the woolly rhinoceros remains from Horizon 3 of Goyet.
Cranium
One distal fragment of the right-hand side of the skull was found. It is broken and bears ochre traces
and has a length of 12 cm.
Dentes
Inventory
Upper jaw teeth
P3/P4
Eleven premolars from the upper jaw were discovered (Table 108). Most of the teeth could not be
allocated to either the third or the fourth premolar. The MNI is not calculated due to this uncertainty
(Table 109). Seven of the teeth were broken.
L
R
P3
1
1
P4
0
0
P3/P4
5
4
Table 108 Position of the element in the skeleton of the third and fourth upper jaw premolars of woolly rhinoceros
NISP
%NISP
MNI
11
7,59
-
Table 109 NISP and MNI of the third and fourth upper jaw premolars of woolly rhinoceros
M1/M2
13 first and second molars were found (Table 110) of which eleven showed traces of an impact. The
MNI is not given because the teeth could not exactly be identified (Table 111). Most of the teeth are
broken.
L
R
M1
0
0
M2
0
3
M1/M2
3
7
Table 110 Position of the element in the skeleton of the first and second upper jaw molars of woolly rhinoceros
93
NISP
%NISP
MNI
13
8,97
-
Table 111 NISP and MNI of the first and second upper jaw molars of woolly rhinoceros
M3
Six upper jaw third molars were discovered (Table 112), almost all right-hand side teeth. Due to the
presence of five right third molars, the MNI is also five. Four of the teeth have been broken.
L
R
NISP
%NISP
MNI
1
5
6
4,14
5
Table 112 Position, NISP and MNI of the third upper jaw molar of woolly rhinoceros
Lower jaw teeth
P2
One right second premolar was found.
P3/P4
Nine third or fourth premolars were discovered (Table 113). It was possible to allocate most of the
teeth to either P3 or P4, sometimes that was not possible. The MNI is incalculable due to the
uncertainty in the anatonomical position of the teeth (Table 114). Ochre and traces of breaking are
visible on these teeth (Table 115).
L
R
P3
2
4
P4
1
0
P3/P4
0
2
Table 113 Position of the element in the skeleton of the third and fourth lower jaw premolars of woolly rhinoceros
NISP
%NISP
MNI
9
6,21
-
Table 114 NISP and MNI of the third and fourth lower jaw premolars of woolly rhinoceros
94
Ochre
Impact
NISP
2
4
Percentage
22
44
Table 115 Traces of the third and fourth lower jaw premolars of woolly rhinoceros
M1/M2
Eight first and second molars were found (Table 116) of which all bear traces of an impact. It was
more difficult to distinguish between these two teeth, so the category M1/M2 is large. The MNI is
not calculated because of the uncertain position in the skeleton (Table 117).
L
R
M1
1
0
M2
0
2
M1/M2
2
3
Table 116 Position of the element in the skeleton of the first and second lower jaw molars of woolly rhinoceros
NISP
%NISP
MNI
8
5,52
-
Table 117 NISP and MNI of the first and second lower jaw molars of woolly rhinoceros
M3
Only one third molar was recovered with traces of an impact and a length of eight cm.
Milk tooth
Ten deciduous teeth have been found (Table 118). These teeth are numbered D1 to D4 (Garutt,
1994). In our material, it is only possible to determine one deciduous tooth accurately (a D1 tooth
from the upper jaw). Seven other teeth are assigned to upper or lower jaw and right- or left-hand
side and two are indeterminate. The tables illustrate the calculation of the MNI, set at two (Table
119).
95
L
R
?
D1 upper jaw
1
0
0
Upper jaw
4
2
0
Lower jaw
1
0
0
Indeterminate
0
0
2
Table 118 Position of the element in the skeleton of the woolly rhinoceros milk teeth
NISP
%NISP
MNI
10
6,90
2
Table 119 NISP and MNI of the woolly rhinoceros milk teeth
Dentes indet,
35 more or less indeterminate teeth are present (Table 120). All were broken and three had ochre on
them. One of the upper right teeth is a molar. The MNI is difficult to determine (due to possible
fragments belonging to one tooth). Most of the teeth seem to be cheek teeth. This means the MNI
can not be calculated.
L
R
?
Upper jaw
1
5
5
Lower jaw
0
0
5
Indeterminate
0
0
19
Table 120 Position of the element in the skeleton of the intederminated woolly rhinoceros teeth
Measurements
Table 121 gives the measurements of all woolly rhinoceros teeth
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. Bone
L/R
Tooth
CL
CW
CH
Goyet
A3
2795
4
R
P2
25.97
14.37
19.83
Goyet
A3
2795
5
L
P3
26.33
21.21
27.31
Goyet
A3
2795
6
R
P3
25.07
18.04
26.61
Goyet
A3
2795
7
R
M1/2
46.41
23.72
44.66
Goyet
A3
2795
8
L
M1/2
46.27
25.63
34.81
96
Goyet
A3
2795
9
L
M1/2
45.16
26.31
42.87
Goyet
A3
2795
10
R
M1/2
42.46
28.45
26.15
Goyet
A3
2795
11
L
P4
37.61
16.15
26.68
Goyet
A3
2795
12
L
M3
51.98
23.15
52.81
Goyet
A3
2795
13
R
P3
35.54
20.45
45.86
Goyet
A3
2795
14
R
P3
36.78
22.19
50.95
Goyet
A3
2795
15
L
P3
38.20
22.19
52.15
Goyet
A3
2795
16
R
M2
51.49
22.61
-
Goyet
A3
2795
17
R
P3
32.19
19.23
46.42
Goyet
A3
2795
18
R
M2
53.88
24.68
46.78
Goyet
A3
2795
19
L
M1
47.82
25.13
39.80
Goyet
A3
2795
21
R
Milk
29.21
25.98
-
Goyet
A3
2795
23
R
M2
48.10
36.08
-
Goyet
A3
2795
24
R
M2
41.97
36.03
17.84
Goyet
A3
2795
25
R
M1/2
36.43
32.63
59.73
Goyet
A3
2795
26
R
M3
48.19
35.24
-
Goyet
A3
2795
28
L
P3
30.46
29.43
41.12
Goyet
A3
2795
29
R
P3
23.49
34.25
24.48
Goyet
A3
2795
30
R
Indet.
55.62
-
-
Goyet
A3
2795
34
R
M3
55.11
45.73
59.48
Goyet
A3
2795
35
R
M3
48.40
43.36
66.27
Goyet
A3
2795
36
R
M2
-
-
57.02
Goyet
A3
2232
2
L
M1/2
28.59
29.16
17.44
Goyet
A3
2232
3
L
P3/4
31.71
41.99
36.33
Goyet
A3
2232
4
L
P3/4
35.94
47.54
34.78
Goyet
A3
2232
5
L
P3/4
37.82
48.08
38.54
97
Goyet
A3
2232
6
R
P3/4
32.20
35.93
39.59
Goyet
A3
2232
8
L
P3/4
37.82
47.48
57.94
Goyet
A3
2232
9
L
P3/4
32.80
40.57
57.00
Goyet
A3
2232
10
L
M1/2
42.23
45.05
-
Goyet
A3
2232
11
R
M3
57.30
46.76
64.08
Goyet
A3
2232
12
L
M1/2
46.63
56.36
48.39
Goyet
A3
2232
13
R
M3
59.34
-
41.11
Goyet
A3
2232
14
R
M1/2
-
-
51.14
Goyet
A3
2232
15
R
M1/2
-
-
44.28
Goyet
A3
2232
18
L
Indet.
-
-
43.72
Goyet
A3
2232
19
R
M1/2
-
-
42.94
Goyet
A3
2232
22
R
Indet.
-
-
49.47
Goyet
A3
2232
27
R
M1/2
33.92
29.35
-
Goyet
A3
2232
28
R
P3/4
-
-
24.53
Goyet
A3
2232
31
?
Indet.
25.12
-
18.39
Goyet
A3
2232
35
L
M
26.34
19.57
13.27
Table 121 Measurements of all woolly rhinoceros teeth
Photograph 30 and Photograph 31 show a woolly rhinoceros cheek tooth.
Photograph 30 Woolly rhinoceroa cheek tooth (2232-47)
98
Photograph 31 Woolly rhinoceroa cheek tooth (2232-47)
Os costa
Six broken fragments were found with one having a circular mark (Photograph 32). It is possible this
mark is caused by the tooth of a large carnivore. This mark consists out of a central impact with
cracks along the length of the bone. Ochre and cut marks were also observed (Table 122). The MNI is
one.
Ochre
Cut marks
Impact
NISP
2
3
6
Percentage
33
50
100
Table 122 Traces found on the ribs of woolly rhinoceros
Photograph 32 Woolly rhinoceros rib fragment with mark (2801-12)
Humerus
Six fragments of the humerus were found (Table 123), half of them from very small foetal bones. The
calculation of the MNI is illustrated by the table: two adults and two juvenile make at least four
individuals. Several different traces were also found: ochre traces, cut marks, impact traces and
gnawing traces (Table 124).
99
L adult
R adult
L juvenile
R juvenile
?
1
1
1
2
1
Table 123 Position of the element in the skeleton of the humerus bones of woolly rhinoceros
Ochre
Cut marks
Impact
Gnawing
NISP
1
1
6
1
Percentage
17
17
100
17
Table 124 Traces found on the humerus bones of woolly rhinoceros
Radiocubitus
Of these bones, three radius fragments were recovered.One of these belongs to a very young to
foetal individual. All the bones are right radius elements, the two adult bones a fragment of the distal
end and the young fragment of the shaft. Different markings were found including ochre traces, cut
marks, impact traces, tool marks and gnawing traces (Table 125). The MNI is three: two right adult
distal fragments and a young fragment.
Ochre
Cut marks
Impact
Tool
Gnawing
NISP
1
3
3
1
2
Percentage
33
100
100
33
67
Table 125 Traces found on the radiocubitus bones of woolly rhinoceros
Carpus
Five pieces of carpal bones were found(Table 126): two os carpale quartum, one os carpi radiale, one
os carpale tertium and one os accessorium. The table illustrates the calculation of the MNI resulting
in a minimum number of indeviduals of one (Table 127). Several traces are present: ochre traces, cut
marks, impact traces and gnawing traces (Table 128).
Carpal element
L
R
os carpale quartum
1
1
os carpi radiale
0
1
os carpale tertium
1
0
os accessorium
1
0
Table 126 Position of the element in the skeleton of the carpal bones of woolly rhinoceros
NISP
%NISP
MNI
5
3,45
1
Table 127 NISP and MNI of the carpal bones of woolly rhinoceros
100
Ochre
Cut marks
Impact
Gnawing
NISP
3
1
4
1
Percentage
60
20
80
20
Table 128 Traces found on the carpal bones of woolly rhinoceros
Femur
Two fragments belonging to the femur were discovered (Table 129), one part of the shaft and one
part of the distal end. Ochre and cut marks were noted and the MNI is set at one.
Ochre
Cut marks
Impact
NISP
1
1
2
Percentage
50
50
100
Table 129 Traces found on the femur bones of woolly rhinoceros
Tarsus
Of the tarsal bones, only the astragalus was present.
Astragalus
Inventory
Only one fragment of the astragalus bone was discovered. It received an impact but is almost
complete.
Measurements
Due to a near complete astragalus bone, some measurements could be made (Table 130).
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. Bone
L/R
GLl
GLm
Tm
Gb
Goyet
A3
2801
5
L
91.94
78.29
65.31
108.76
Table 130 Measurements of the astragalus from woolly rhinoceros
Phalanx 1
Inventory
Six first phalanges have been excavated (Table 131). One of them had no proximal epiphysis and is
thought to be juvenile (the epiphysis was not completely ossified and part of it is missing), with
another one, the boundary between epi-and diaphysis is clearly visible. With these observations, at
least two MNI are identified. Almost all phalanges bear ochre and half received an impact (Table
132).
101
Adult
Juvenile
NISP
%NISP
MNI
4
2
6
4,14
2
Table 131 Age, NISP and MNI of the first phananges from woolly rhinoceros
Ochre
Impact
NISP
5
3
Percentage
83
50
Table 132 Traces found on the first phalanges of woolly rhinoceros
Measurements
Table 133 shows the measurements taken from the first phalanges of woolly rhinoceros
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. Bone
L/R
GL
Bp
Bd
KD
Goyet
A3
2792
2
?
28.13
30.36
27.32
26.43
Goyet
A3
2792
3
?
21.41
29.99
27.31
27.17
Goyet
A3
2792
4
?
20.92
-
32.33
29.82
Goyet
A3
2792
5
?
24.15
33.29
29.43
32.13
Goyet
A3
2792
6
?
29.14
33.33
30.56
31.96
Table 133 Measurements taken from the first phalanges of woolly rhinoceros
Phalanx 2
Inventory
Six second phalanges were retrieved (Table 134) with a lot of different traces: ochre traces, cut
marks, impact traces and gnawing traces. The MNI is one.
Ochre
Cut marks
Impacts
Gnawing
NISP
6
2
3
3
Percentage
100
33
50
50
Table 134 Traces found on the second phalanges of woolly rhinoceros
102
Measurements
The measurements taken from the second phalanges of woolly rhinoceros are displayed in Table 135.
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. Bone
L/R
GL
Bp
Bd
KD
Goyet
A3
2792
11
?
28.35
-
-
52.72
Goyet
A3
2792
12
?
32.89
-
-
61.71
Goyet
A3
2792
13
?
26.63
-
-
56.01
Goyet
A3
2792
14
?
28.87
-
-
63.94
Goyet
A3
2792
15
?
40.37
50.77
46.79
45.39
Goyet
A3
2792
16
?
41.13
59.87
55.67
54.99
Table 135 Measurements taken from the second phalanges of woolly rhinoceros
Phalanx 3
Inventory
Four fragments of the third phalanx were found (Table 136). One of them belongs to a young adult
because the boundary between epi- and diaphysis is clearly visible. All of the elements bear traces of
impact, one has cut marks and most have ochre on them (Table 137).
Adult
Juvenile
NISP
%NISP
MNI
3
1
4
2,76
2
Table 136 Age,NISP and MNI of the third phalanges from woolly rhinoceros
Ochre
Cut marks
Impact
NISP
3
1
4
Percentage
75
25
100
Table 137 Traces found on the third phalanges of woolly rhinoceros
Measurements
Table 138 shows the measurements taken from the woolly rhinoceros third phalanges.
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. Bone
L/R
GL
Bp
Bd
KD
Goyet
A3
2792
7
?
29.41
40.63
40.00
40.70
Goyet
A3
2792
8
?
40.47
-
-
46.03
103
Goyet
A3
2792
9
?
33.83
42.62
39.75
40.48
Goyet
A3
2792
10
?
40.72
46.79
41.58
46.34
Table 138 Measurements taken of the third phalanges from woolly rhinoceros
Sesamoid
Of the sesamoid bones, six elements were found (Table 139) and could not be allocated to the leftor right-hand side. Various traces were observed: a lot of ochre traces, impact traces and gnawing
traces (Table 140). Because of the imprecise determination, the MNI is one.
NISP
%NISP
MNI
6
4,14
1
Table 139 NISP and MNI of the sesamoid bones from woolly rhinoceros
Ochre
Impact
Gnawing
NISP
6
3
3
Percentage
100
50
50
Table 140 Traces found on the sesamoid bones of woolly rhinoceros
Metapoda
Inventory
Two metapodal elements were discovered, one distal and one proximal fragment. Ochre traces,
impact traces and gnawing traces are present (Table 141). The MNI is not determined due to the
uncertain anatonomical position of the remains.
Ochre
Impact
Gnawing
NISP
2
2
1
Percentage
100
100
50
Table 141 Traces found on the metapoda of woolly rhinoceros
Measurements
The measurements taken from the woolly rhinoceros metapoda are given in Table 142
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. Bone
L/R
Bd
Goyet
A3
2792
17
?
54.28
Table 142 Measurements taken from the metapoda of woolly rhinoceros
104
2nd and 4th metapoda
One left second proximal metatarsal bone was found. It bears ochre, cur marks, traces of impacts
and gnawing and has a length of ten cm.
Indeterminata
Two fragments of jaw bones were recovered. It was not possible to allocate them to upper or lower
jaw. The fragments were broken and had a length of 4 and 5 cm. No additional traces were observed.
Foetus
Three foetal rhinoceros bones were found (Photograph 33, Photograph 34 and Photograph 35) and
have been mentioned in the previous sections. All three of them are a humerus. They are shown in
Photograph 21, 22 and 23.
Photograph 33 Proximal foetal woolly rhinoceros humerus (2801-3)
Photograph 34 Foetal humerus of woolly rhinoceros (2801-2)
105
Photograph 35 Foetal proximal woolly rhinoceros humerus (2801-4)
3.2.5 Cervus elaphus (Red deer)
To give a complete overview of the remains of red deer in the third horizon, the unpublished data of
Stefanie Dekeyzer is included here. These sections are marked with an * to indicate the partial or
complete addition of these data. Table 7 gives the complete inventory of the red deer remains from
Horizon 3 of Goyet.
Cranium
Only one cranial fragment was found belonging to the base of the antler. It is broken and bears
gnawing traces. Its length is 10 cm. Because only the male red deer have antlers, the presence of one
male individual can be proven.
Maxilla
Inventory
One fragment of the upper jaw with teeth attached was discovered. This broken right upper jaw with
third and fourth premolars shows no other traces than impact and has a length of six cm.
Measurements
Table 143 provides the measurements taken from the attached teeth of the upper jaw from red deer.
Site
Goyet
Horizon Nr. Dupont
A3
2236
Nr. Bone
L/R
Tooth
CL
CW
CH
8
R
P3
17.95
13.44
15.12
P4
17.78
15.22
15.09
Table 143 Measurements taken from the attached teeth of the upper jaw from red deer
106
Mandibula
Inventory
Two lower jaw fragments were discovered with some teeth still attached to the jaw (Table 144). The
jaw and teeth fragments are shown in the table. Because the fragments belong to opposite sides of
the jaw, the MNI is one (Table 145). The left element is gnawed and both are broken.
L
R
P2
P3
P4
M1
M2
M3
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
Table 144 Position of the lower jaw and presence of the teeth from red deer
NISP
%NISP
MNI
2
6,25
1
Table 145 NISP and MNI of the lower jaw fragments of red deer
Measurements
Table 146 gives the measurements taken from the attached teeth of the lower jaw from red deer
Site
Goyet
Goyet
Horizon Nr. Dupont
A3
A3
2236
2236
Nr. Bone
L/R
tooth
CL
CW
CH
11
R
M1
32.48
23.72
22.98
M2
38.15
27.37
25.53
M3
45.46
25.63
30.50
P2
24.83
18.24
22.85
P3
32.01
22.67
24.60
P4
33.58
24.02
27.10
M1
36.67
27.02
24.66
12
L
Table 146 Measurements taken on the attached teeth of the lower jaw from red deer
107
Dentes
Inventory
Upper jaw
P4
Two fourth premolars were found, one on the left- and one on the right-hand side. One bears ochre,
the other traces of an impact. Because of a difference in wear the MNI is two.
M1
Three of these first molars were excavated, all of them with impact traces and one with ochre. Two
teeth are from the right-hand side and one from the left which brings the MNI to two.
M2
Also three of these teeth were found, all of them belonging to the left-hand side and bearing traces
of an impact. This also brings the MNI to three.
Lower jaw
P4
One fourth premolar was found, presenting ochre traces.
Measurements
The measurements of all isolated teeth from red deer are presented in Table 147.
Site
Horizon Nr. Dupont
Nr. Bone
U/L
L/R
Tooth
CL
CW
CH
Goyet
A3
2236
9
U
R
P4
17.98
16.90
22.86
Goyet
A3
2236
10
U
L
P4
20.07
24.91
24.36
Goyet
A3
2236
13
U
L
M2
-
-
19.27
Goyet
A3
2236
14
U
L
M2
26.73
24.86
25.65
Goyet
A3
2236
15
U
R
M1
22.48
25.25
10.27
Goyet
A3
2236
16
U
R
M1
24.47
21.21
18.63
Goyet
A3
2236
17
U
L
M2
29.86
18.56
17.24
Goyet
A3
2236
18
U
L
M1
19.95
20.56
10.48
Goyet
A3
2236
19
L
L
P4
19.87
11.87
22.41
Table 147 Measurements of all isolated teeth from red deer
108
Humerus*
One left humerus bone containing cut marks and impact traces was discovered.
Radiocubitus*
Inventory
Two fragments of the radiocubitus bones were found, the first consists of both the cubitus and tha
radius, the second concers only the radius. Both are left elements and received impacts. The first
specimen exhibits also cut marks.
Measurements
Table 148 displays the measurements of the radiocubitus bone from red deer.
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. Bone
L/R
Bd
Goyet
A3
2775
37
L
46.86
Table 148 Measurements of the radiocubitus bone from red deer
Carpus
One adult right os carpale quartum with no observable traces was found. The element has a length of
three cm.
Metacarpus*
Inventory
Two metacarpal fragments were excavated. One is a proximal fragment, the second a shaft fragment
described by S. Dekeyzer. The first fragment bears traces of impact and gnawing and has a length of
20 cm. The second contains cut marks and impact traces and has a length of 8.5 cm. Due to the
different location of the elements, the MNI is one.
Measurements
Table 149 gives the measurements taken from the metacarpal bone of red deer.
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. Bone
L/R
Bp
Tp
Goyet
A3
2236
20
R
44.82
32.39
Table 149 Measurements taken from the metacarpus of red deer
109
Tarsus
Calcaneus*
Inventory
One left calcaneus bone containing gnawing traces was recovered.
Measurements
The measurements of the calcaneus bone are displayed by Table 150.
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. Bone
L/R
GL
GB
Goyet
A3
2810
1
L
98.12
32.93
Table 150 Measurements taken from the calcaneus bone of red deer
Other
One adult complete os centroquartale was identified with a length of 5.5 cm and some minor impact
traces.
Metatarsus*
Inventory
Eight fragments of metatarsal bones were discovered (Table 151) of which five were described by S.
Dekeyzer. Seven specimens are adults and one is a juvenile. Two adult bones are distal fragments,
five are proximal and the juvenile elements is a shaft fragment, small and narrow and could possibly
belong to another species. If we assume this bone is a juvenile Cervus, the MNI is six. All the bones
are broken, five of them bear ochre and four cut marks are present.
L adult
R adult
Juvenile
NISP
%NISP
MNI
5
2
1
8
25,00
6
Table 151 Position, age, NISP and MNI of the metatarsal bones from red deer
Measurements
Table 152 shows the measurements taken of the metatarsal bones from red deer.
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. Bone
L/R
Bp
Dp
Bd
Dd
Goyet
A3
2236
21
L
-
-
49.84
26.31
Goyet
A3
2236
22
R
-
-
49.56
30.87
Goyet
A3
2211
20
L
33.30
-
-
-
Goyet
A3
2211
29
L
27.54
-
-
-
110
Goyet
A3
2211
54
L
-
35.50
-
-
Goyet
A3
2790
31
L
39.59
-
-
-
Table 152 Measurements taken of the metatarsal bones from red deer
Phalanx 2
One element of a left posterior second phalanx is observed with traces of an impact and a length of
4.5 cm.
Metapoda*
One metapodal elements could not be determined to either metacarpus or metaparsus, one of
which is a distal fragment. This element exhibits ochre remains and traces of an impact and has a
length of six cm. The other one is described by S. Dekeyzer and bears cut marks, ochre and gnawing
traces. Due to the uncertain position of the elements, the MNI is not calculated.
3.2.6 Ovibos moschatus (Muskox)
Phalanx 2
Inventory
Only a second phalanx was found, belonging to muskox (Table 9). The element bears traces of
gnawing.
Measurements
Table 153 provides the measurements of the muskox second phalanx.
Site
Horizon
Nr. Dupont
Nr. Bone
L/R
GL
Bp
Bd
KD
Goyet
A3
2230
2a
L
62.85
31.59
33.50
29.18
Table 153 Measurements taken of the second phalanx from muskox
3.2.7 Capra ibex (Ibex)
Radiocubitus
Inventory
One fragment of the radius and cubitus of 25 cm long was discovered (Photograph 36 and Table 8). It
has a hole caused by an impact, probably originating from its excavation. Root traces are also present
(lighted part of the cave) and the fact that the epiphysis and the diaphysis are not completely fused
(boundary still visible) points to a young individual.
111
Measurements
Table 154 displays the measurements of the ibex radiocubitus.
Site
Horizon
Nr.
Dupont
Goyet
A3
2230
Nr. L/R
Bone
3
L
GL
Ll
PL
BFp
Bp
BFd
Bd
KD
210 191 206 45.05 48.53 38.00 47.41 30.37
Table 154 Measurements taken of the radiocubitus from ibex
Photograph 36 Radiocubitus bone of ibex with mark (2230-3)
3.3 Detailed representation of the different traces
In total, 329 cut marks, 413 ochre traces, 229 gnawing traces, 1032 impact and fragmentation traces
and 11 bone tools were found. In percentages relative to the total amount of identified herbivore
specimen this gives: 18% cut marks, 23% ochre traces, 13% gnawing traces, 58% impact and
fragmentation traces and 1% bone tools.
The results given below are expressed in relative frequencies (number of specimens with traces in
relation to the total NISP). This eliminates the effect of a large NISP on the distribution of the traces
that can obscure certain information. The species of muskox and ibex are not included as their
presence In the fossil assemblage is too low for a significant result.
3.3.1 Ochre
The graph showing the percentage of specimens containing ochre per species (Figure 26 Ochre
traces observed per species) indicates that woolly mammoth has the most ochre traces in respect to
its total amount of identified specimens. The second most abundant ochre bearer is red deer,
followed by horse and woolly rhinoceros. Bos/Bison and reindeer are both below 20 % and muskox
has no ochre traces. The fact that Ibex has 100% is due to the fact that there is only one element
present and it bears ochre.
112
60
50
40
%NISP 30
20
10
0
horse
Bos/Bison Mammoth Rhinoceros Red deer
Reindeer
Figure 26 Ochre traces observed per species
The percentage of ochre on the different elements per species is also given. The main observations
from these graphs are stated here. With horse (Figure 21) and auroch/bison (Figure 22), the element
with most ochre coverage are the cranial fragments and teeth, more than 30 %. The high percentage
of ochre on the woolly mammoth remains (Figure 23) is almost completely caused by the ochre on
the tusks. This differs from the elements of wooly rhinoceros (Figure 24) and red deer (Figure 25)
where respectively the metatarsal and phalangial bones give the highest percentage.
40
30
% 20
10
Cranium
Maxilla
Mandibula
Dentes
Vertebrae
Ribs
Scapula
Humerus
Radiocubitus
Carpus
Metacarpus
Pelvis
Femur
Patella
Tibia
Tarsus
Metatarsus
Phalanges
(Metapoda)
2/4 metapoda
other
indeterminate
0
Figure 27 Ochre traces on the various elements of the horse
113
Cranium
(Maxilla)
(Mandibula)
Tusks
(Other teeth)
(Vertebrae)
(Ribs)
(Scapula)
(Humerus)
(Radiocubitus)
(Carpus)
(Metacarpus)
(Pelvis)
(Femur)
(Patella)
(Tibia)
(Tarsus)
(Metatarsus)
(Phalanges)
(Metapoda)
(2/4 metapoda)
(other)
indeterminate
(Cranium)
(Maxilla)
(Mandibula)
Dentes
Vertebrae
(Ribs)
Scapula
Humerus
Radiocubitus
Carpus
(Metacarpus)
(Pelvis)
(Femur)
(Patella)
Tibia
(Tarsus)
Metatarsus
(Phalanges)
(Metapoda)
(2/4 metapoda)
(other)
(indeterminate)
35
30
25
%
20
15
10
5
0
Figure 28 Ochre traces on the various elements of Bos/Bison
90
80
70
60
50
%
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 29 Ochre traces on the various elements of woolly mammoth
114
40
35
30
25
% 20
15
10
5
Cranium
(Maxilla)
(Mandibula)
Dentes
(Vertebrae)
Ribs
(Scapula)
Humerus
Radiocubitus
Carpus
(Metacarpus)
(Pelvis)
Femur
(Patella)
(Tibia)
Tarsus
(Metatarsus)
Phalanges
Metapoda
2/4 metapoda
other
indeterminate
0
Figure 30 Ochre traces on the various elements of woolly rhinoceros
(Cranium)
(Maxilla)
(Mandibula)
Dentes
(Vertebrae)
(Ribs)
(Scapula)
(Humerus)
Radiocubitus
(Carpus)
(Metacarpus)
(Pelvis)
(Femur)
(Patella)
(Tibia)
(Tarsus)
Metatarsus
(Phalanges)
Metapoda
(2/4 metapoda)
(other)
(indeterminate)
50
45
40
35
30
% 25
20
15
10
5
0
Figure 31 Ochre traces on the various elements of red deer
3.3.2 Cut marks
Figure 32 Percentage of specimens with cut marks per species indicates that red deer and reindeer
carry the highest number of cut marks in relation to their total NISP. These are followed by horse and
Bos/Bison (around 15 %), woolly rhinoceros (almost 9 %) and woolly mammoth (1 %). Muskox and
Ibex have no cut marks.
115
30
25
20
%NISP 15
10
5
0
horse
Bos/Bison Mammoth Rhinoceros Red deer
Reindeer
Figure 32 Percentage of specimens with cut marks per species
Of the marks on woolly mammoth no graph Is made as there is only one cut mark present. The
following observations can be made on the other species (Figure 27-30): in all the species, except for
woolly rhinoceros, the metacarpal or metatarsal bones bear the most cut marks. Another element
which exhibits a large amount of traces is the mandibula of the horse (Figure 27). Of woolly
rhinoceros (Figure 29), the ribs, the radiocubitus and the phalanges present an equal amount of
traces (23 %).
20
% 10
Cranium
Maxilla
Mandibula
(Dentes)
Vertebrae
Ribs
Scapula
Humerus
(Radiocubitus)
Carpus
Metacarpus
Pelvis
Femur
Patella
Tibia
Tarsus
Metatarsus
Phalanges
Metapoda
2/4 metapoda
other
(indeterminate)
0
Figure 33 Cut marks on the various elements of the horse
116
(Cranium)
(Maxilla)
(Mandibula)
(Dentes)
(Vertebrae)
Ribs
(Scapula)
Humerus
Radiocubitus
Carpus
(Metacarpus)
(Pelvis)
Femur
(Patella)
(Tibia)
(Tarsus)
(Metatarsus)
Phalanges
(Metapoda)
2/4 metapoda
(other)
(indeterminate)
(Cranium)
(Maxilla)
(Mandibula)
(Dentes)
(Vertebrae)
(Ribs)
Scapula
Humerus
(Radiocubitus)
Carpus
Metacarpus
(Pelvis)
(Femur)
(Patella)
Tibia
(Tarsus)
(Metatarsus)
Phalanges
(Metapoda)
(2/4 metapoda)
(other)
(indeterminate)
35
30
25
%
20
15
10
5
0
Figure 34 Cut marks of the various elements of Bos/Bison
25
20
%
15
10
5
0
Figure 35 Cut marks on the various elements of woolly rhinoceros
117
60
50
40
% 30
20
10
(Cranium)
(Maxilla)
(Mandibula)
(Dentes)
(Vertebrae)
(Ribs)
(Scapula)
Humerus
Radiocubitus
(Carpus)
Metacarpus
(Pelvis)
(Femur)
(Patella)
(Tibia)
Tarsus
Metatarsus
(Phalanges)
Metapoda
(2/4 metapoda)
(other)
(indeterminate)
0
Figure 36 Cut marks on the various elements of red deer
3.3.3 Gnawing traces
The amount of gnawing traces is rather equally distributed by species (Figure 37 Percentage of
specimens with gnawing traces per species). The smaller species (horse, Bos/Bison, red deer and
reindeer) have more than five percent gnawing traces. The larger species (woolly mammoth and
woolly rhinoceros) have less than five percent. The muskox bone is also gnawed and the ibex
specimen has no gnawing traces.
20
18
16
14
12
%NISP 10
8
6
4
2
0
horse
Bos/Bison Mammoth Rhinoceros Red deer
Reindeer
Figure 37 Percentage of specimens with gnawing traces per species
In general, the postcranial elements bear the vast majority of the gnawing traces. The gnawing traces
on bones of horse (Figure 38) are concentrated on the limb bones (femur, tibia, tarsus and
metapoda). The traces on Bos/Bison (Figure 39) and woolly rhinoceros (Figure 40) are also
concentrated on the limb bones. All woolly mammoth gnawing traces (five) were found on the
118
(Cranium)
(Maxilla)
Mandibula
Dentes
Vertebrae
(Ribs)
Scapula
Humerus
Radiocubitus
Carpus
Metacarpus
(Pelvis)
(Femur)
(Patella)
Tibia
Tarsus
Metatarsus
Phalanges
(Metapoda)
(2/4 metapoda)
(other)
(indeterminate)
Cranium
(Maxilla)
Mandibula
Dentes
(Vertebrae)
Ribs
Scapula
(Humerus)
Radiocubitus
Carpus
Metacarpus
(Pelvis)
Femur
(Patella)
Tibia
Tarsus
Metatarsus
Phalanges
Metapoda
2/4 metapoda
other
(indeterminate)
indeterminate bones an thus no graph was constructed. The five gnawing traces found on red deer
(Figure 41) were found on five different bones, three of them limb bones.
20
% 10
0
Figure 38 Gnawing traces of the various elements of horse
25
20
%
15
10
5
0
Figure 39 Gnawing traces on the various elements of Bos/Bison
119
30
25
20
% 15
10
5
(Cranium)
(Maxilla)
(Mandibula)
(Dentes)
(Vertebrae)
(Ribs)
(Scapula)
Humerus
Radiocubitus
Carpus
(Metacarpus)
(Pelvis)
(Femur)
(Patella)
(Tibia)
(Tarsus)
(Metatarsus)
Phalanges
Metapoda
2/4 metapoda
other
(indeterminate)
0
Figure 40 Gnawing traces on the various elements of woolly rhinoceros
25
20
15
%
10
5
Cranium
(Maxilla)
Mandibula
(Dentes)
(Vertebrae)
(Ribs)
(Scapula)
(Humerus)
(Radiocubitus)
(Carpus)
Metacarpus
(Pelvis)
(Femur)
(Patella)
(Tibia)
Tarsus
(Metatarsus)
(Phalanges)
Metapoda
(2/4 metapoda)
(other)
(indeterminate)
0
Figure 41 Gnawing traces on the various elements of red deer
3.3.4 Impact traces
The amount of impact traces (here also used for broken and fragmented material) is very high for the
different species (Figure 42). The species with the highest numbers is the woolly mammoth (apart
from the one bone species Ibex and Muskox). Horse, woolly rhinoceros and red deer have 80 %,
while the numbers of Bos/Bison drop to 70 %. Reindeer has the lowest number of traces, almost 30
%.
120
100
90
80
70
60
%NISP 50
40
30
20
10
0
horse
Bos/Bison Mammoth Rhinoceros Red deer
Reindeer
Figure 42 Percentage of specimens with impact traces per species
Almost every element of the species present has impact traces and fragments (Figure 43 - Figure
47). The teeth are mostly fragmented and did not receive intentional impacts.
50
40
30
%
20
10
Cranium
Maxilla
Mandibula
Dentes
Vertebrae
Ribs
Scapula
Humerus
Radiocubitus
Carpus
Metacarpus
Pelvis
Femur
Patella
Tibia
Tarsus
Metatarsus
Phalanges
Metapoda
2/4 metapoda
other
indeterminate
0
Figure 43 Impact traces on the various elements of horse
121
Cranium
(Maxilla)
(Mandibula)
Tusks
Other teeth
(Vertebrae)
(Ribs)
(Scapula)
Humerus
(Radiocubitus)
(Carpus)
(Metacarpus)
(Pelvis)
(Femur)
(Patella)
(Tibia)
(Tarsus)
(Metatarsus)
(Phalanges)
(Metapoda)
(2/4 metapoda)
(other)
indeterminate
(Cranium)
(Maxilla)
Mandibula
Dentes
Vertebrae
(Ribs)
Scapula
Humerus
Radiocubitus
Carpus
Metacarpus
(Pelvis)
(Femur)
(Patella)
Tibia
Tarsus
Metatarsus
Phalanges
(Metapoda)
(2/4 metapoda)
(other)
(indeterminate)
45
40
35
30
25
%
20
15
10
5
0
Figure 44 Impact traces on the various elements of Bos/Bison
70
60
50
%
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 45 Impact traces on the various elements of woolly mammoth
122
70
60
50
40
%
30
20
10
Cranium
(Maxilla)
(Mandibula)
Dentes
(Vertebrae)
Ribs
(Scapula)
Humerus
Radiocubitus
Carpus
(Metacarpus)
(Pelvis)
Femur
(Patella)
(Tibia)
Tarsus
(Metatarsus)
Phalanges
Metapoda
2/4 metapoda
other
indeterminate
0
Figure 46 Impact traces on the various elements of woolly rhinoceros
35
30
25
%
20
15
10
5
Cranium
Maxilla
Mandibula
Dentes
(Vertebrae)
(Ribs)
(Scapula)
Humerus
Radiocubitus
Carpus
Metacarpus
(Pelvis)
(Femur)
(Patella)
(Tibia)
Tarsus
Metatarsus
Phalanges
Metapoda
(2/4 metapoda)
(other)
(indeterminate)
0
Figure 47 Impact traces on the various elements of red deer
3.3.5 Tools
Tools are not frequent in our material, accounting for no more than 1,6 % of the material per species
(Figure 48). They are most abundant in the Bos/Bison specimes, followed by the woolly mammoth
material. Reindeer, horse and woolly rhinoceros share a low number of tools, although they are the
most abundant species in the fossil assemblage. Due to the low number of specimens, no separate
graphs per species are made.
123
1,8
1,6
1,4
1,2
1
%NISP
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
horse
Bos/Bison Mammoth Rhinoceros Red deer
Reindeer
Figure 48 Percentage of specimens of which bone tools were made per species
3.4 Age distributions
3.4.1 Horse
The general shape of both distributions, incisor (Figure 49) and cheek teeth(Figure 50) is the same,
with the exception of very young animals as there were no young cheek teeth present. With the
combined distribution (Figure 51), the age categories ranging between four and ten years are the
only ones above ten percent of the specimens in all three the distributions. This indicates that adults
are most abundantly represented in the assemblage.
25
20
15
%
10
5
0
0-2
year
2-4
year
4-6
year
6-8
year
8 - 10 10 - 12 12 - 14 14 - 16 16 - 18 18 - 20
year year year year year year
Age
Figure 49 The age distribution of the horse incisors
124
35
30
25
20
%
15
10
5
0
0-2
year
2-4
year
4-6
year
6-8
year
8 - 10 10 - 12 12 - 14 14 - 16 16 - 18 18 - 20
year year year year year year
Age
Figure 50 The age distribution for the horse cheek teeth
25
20
15
%
10
5
0
0-2
year
2-4
year
4-6
year
6-8
year
8 - 10 10 - 12 12 - 14 14 - 16 16 - 18 18 - 20
year year year year year year
Age
Figure 51 The age distribution for all horse teeth
3.4.2 Woolly mammoth
The woolly mammoth age distribution is divided into broad age categories. This is necessary as there
are very few teeth present in the fossil assemblage. The distribution shows that young animals are
more abundant than older woolly mammoths. No individuals were estimated older than 24 African
elephant years.
125
Age distribution mammoth
70
60
50
%
40
30
20
10
0
0 to 12
12 to 24
24 to 36
36 to 48
48 to 60
African elephant years
Figure 52 The age distribution of the woolly mammoth, the ages are expressed in African elephant years
3.4.3 Woolly rhinoceros
30
25
20
% 15
10
5
0
0 to 2
2 to 4
4 to 6
6 to 8
8 to 10
10 to 12 older than
12
years
Figure 53 The age distribution of the woolly rhinoceros, the ages assigned are expressed in black rhinoceros years.
The adult woolly rhinoceros (aged 4 to 10 b.r.y.) are most abundant in this age distribution. There is
also a relative high number of younger animals, but the older ones are less well represented.
126
3.4.4 Red deer
45
40
35
30
%
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 to 3
3 to 6
6 to 9
9 to 12
years
Figure 54 The age distribution of red deer
Due to a relative low number of teeth, the age categories are set to 3 years. There is a clear
dominance of adult red deer (aged 3 to 9 years) over the younger and older animals.
4 Discussion
4.1 NISP and MNI in the top three horizons of the third cave from Goyet
All herbivores of the third horizon to the third cave of Goyet have now been completely studied. Now
the number of identified specimens (NISP) of all the herbivore species can be shown and the %NISP
with respect to the total number of remains. This can be integrated into a new review of the fossil
assemblage of the first three horizons of the third cave of Goyet and compared with those of Dupont
(1872) as shown in Table 155 NISP and MNI of the first three horizons of the third cave of Goyet. The
light blue columns are the results from Dupont (1872)..
In addition to my own results, the M.Sc research of Dekeyzer (2007) accounts for 11 fragments of
Cervus elaphus and 827 fragments of Rangifer tarandus. This brings the total herbivore remains from
the third horizon to 1755 fragments. The results of Depestele (2005) indicate the number of cave
lions (Panthera spelaea) in horizon 2 and 3, while the M.Sc study of Soenen (2006) produced the data
of the herbivores in the second horizon. The results for the first horizon are published by Germonpré
(2006). Mostly, the %NISP was already calculated, but the %MNI was not previously mentioned in the
literature and thus has been calculated here. These relative frequencies are calculated with respect
to the total assemblage in that horizon.
In terms of the number of identified specimens, the third horizon is the most numerous. However,
this layer also has the lowest MNI of the three horizons, in contrast with the results of Dupont
(1872). This author also indicated species that were not identified in our study.
127
NISP
Lagomorpha
Lepus timidus/L, capensis
Rodentia
Marmota
Carnivora
Canis lupus
Canis lupus familiaris
Alopex lagopus
Vulpes vulpes
Alopex / Vulpes
Ursus arctos
Ursus spelaeus
Mustela
Meles meles
Crocuta crocuta spelaea
Panthera spelaea.
Proboscidea
Mammuthus primigenius
Perissodactyla
Equus arcelini
Equus hydruntinus
Coelodonta antiquitatis
Artiodactyla
Cervus elaphus
Capreolus capreolus
Rangifer tarandus
Bison priscus/Bos primigenius
Megaloceros giganteus
Ovibos moschatus
Rupicapra rupicapra
Capra
Capra ibex
Bovidae
Sus scrofa
Total
%NISP
3
0,24
MNI
Horizon 1
%MNI
1
MNI
0,97
%MNI
2
Horizon 2
%NISP
MNI
NISP
3,28
12
1,24
%MNI
2
1,60
MNI
%MNI
2
1,42
2
1,94
2
3,28
3
3,41
9
11
28
5
193
1
7
42
0,71
0,87
2,22
0,40
15,27
0,08
0,55
3,32
3
3
4
1
14
1
2
5
2,91
2,91
3,88
0,97
13,59
0,97
1,94
4,85
2
3
3,28
4,92
3
6
3,41
6,82
1
9
1
2
5
1,64
14,75
1,64
3,28
8,20
20
22,73
3
7
1
3,41
7,95
1,14
0,83
1
0,80
%NISP
MNI
Horizon 3
%MNI
MNI
2,27
18
8
NISP
1
0,06
1
1,61
%MNI
2
2,04
1
1,02
3
1
4
3
3,06
1,02
4,08
3,06
1
26
1
3
12
1
1,02
26,53
1,02
3,06
12,24
1,02
40
3,16
2
1,94
3
4,92
27
2,80
1
0,80
2
2,27
98
5,58
5
8,06
7
7,14
533
42,17
13
12,62
14
22,95
33,71
22
35,48
18
18,37
2,91
2
3,28
33,60
1,60
6,40
592
3
42
2
8
28,41
3,40
53,89
0,21
4,77
25
43
520
2
46
2
2,27
145
8,26
5
8,06
4
4,08
13
6
250
33
1,03
0,47
19,78
2,61
2
2
39
2
1,94
1,94
37,86
1,94
1
1,64
19
1,97
3
2,40
2
2,27
32
1,82
3
4,84
11
2
18,03
3,28
47,10
3,36
21
3
33,87
4,84
2
1
2
2
2,04
1,02
2,04
2,04
0,97
0,97
1
0,06
1
1,61
1
1,64
46,40
1,60
0,80
0,80
0,80
1,60
827
59
1
1
58
2
1
1
1
2
4,55
3,41
0,32
0,24
31,30
0,73
0,31
0,31
0,41
1,14
4
3
4
3
302
7
3
3
4
11
1
2
1,14
2,27
9
13
0,71
1,03
2
1,94
1
0,06
1
1,61
1
2
1
1,02
2,04
1,02
1264
100
103
100
1756
100
62
100
98
100
61
100
1
965
0,10
100
1
125
0,80
100
2
88
2,27
100
Table 155 NISP and MNI of the first three horizons of the third cave of Goyet. The light blue columns are the results from
Dupont (1872). The data per horizon come from: Horizon 1 (Germonpré, 1996); Horizon 2 (Depestele, 2005; Soenen,
2006), Horizon 3: (this study; Dekeyzer,2007; Depestele, 2005).
4.2 Taphonomy
Taphonomy affects the paleontological record, because it evaluates the processes which lead to the
preservation or destruction of a fossil. Bones and teeth are the most common objects of research
into Pleistocene mammals (Pawlowska, 2010). Of these two, teeth have the highest preservation
potential, as evidenced by the material from the third horizon of Goyet (Figure 9 - Figure 14) and
Table 10. Teeth are for each species in Goyet the most abundant elements (except for the species
where only one element was found and also for reindeer where antlers are more abundant
(Dekeyzer, 2007). This results in the dominance of cranial elements (991) over postcranial elements
(738) as shown in Table 10. The latter elements can be divided in two separate categories based on
size: fragments originating from large bones and those from smaller one. The larger ones (ribs,
scapula, humerus, radiocubitus, pelvis, femur, tibia and the metapoda) amount to 485 fragments.
The smaller ones (vertebrae, carpus, tarsus, patella, phalanges and other) number 253 elements. This
illustrates the improved preservation and recovery of larger bones. Also, a large amount of
metapoda were found (234 elements). This could be partly explained by the abundance of horse in
the assemblage and this element (canon bone) is very resistant for this species. Soft body parts and
more of less complete body skeletons are not present here and are rare in general.
When interpreting a fossil assemblage, taphonomic biases should be taken into consideration. The
fossil record is very often not a reflection of the original fauna of the region (Van Kolfschoten, 1995).
The fauna of a palaeolithic site, particularly the larger mammal fauna of interest here, is affected by
the activities of humans. Hyenas are also known to accumulate bones and their selection results in an
abnormal composition of the mammal fauna. Furthermore, phenomena such as the hibernation of
bears act on the composition of the fossil faunal assemblage. The taphonomic aspects mentioned
128
above restrict the applicability of fossil mammals to the reconstruction of climate and environment.
The proportional representation of a species is less important than its actual presence and should
therefore be handled with care (Van Kolfschoten, 1995).The applicability of fossil mammals to the
reconstruction of the palaeoenvironment is also hampered by the fact that mammals have the
capacity to adapt to various environments and to tolerate other circumstances than those under
which they live today.
4.3 Ratios
The ratio of teeth-to-bone is an indication of the degree of preservation as there is a fixed ratio to
start from when an animal dies. The lower the ratio (less teeth in comparison with the other bones)
the better the preservation conditions are as other bones are less resistant. The following table gives
this ratio for the various species from the third horizon. This is useful to compare results from other
sites. Levine (1983) gives two values for horse remains for the sites Gönnersdorf (0.8) and Jaurens
(0.6). The value for Goyet falls in between these but is not much lower than the value of
Gönnersdorf. This seems to indicate that the preservation of the horse remains in Goyet is relatively
good. Some care needs to be taken as the specimen from Goyet are associated with prehistoric
human handling so the initial ratio could be influenced.
Horse
Auroch/
Bison
0,78
0,97
Woolly
mammoth
Woolly
rhinoceros
Muskox
Ibex
Red deer
Reindeer
3,45
1,84
-
-
0,39
0,19
Table156: The teeth to bone ratios fot the different species from the third horizon of Goyet.
Another useful ratio to indicate a differential rate of preservation is the ratio of right to left tooth
elements (Fernandez et al., 2006). This author also explains the calculation of this parameter with a
value of 100 indicating an equal amount of right and left teeth. As the number of teeth on each side
is equal at the start, any major deviation may indicate a disturbance of the material. Only isolated
teeth are considered here. The deviation for horse is most extreme but this is influenced by the
missing tray which probably contains left teeth elements. The value of red deer is slightly higher and
can be explained by the low number of specimens present. Only one tooth more or less has a large
impact on the ratio. Woolly mammoth and woolly rhinoceros have higher values but are still far from
an equal amount of left and right teeth. The values for auroch/bison and red deer approach equality
and indicate no significant disturbance. The general conclusion is that, based on these values,
differential preservation and disturbance are present in the studied material. The values are also
significantly lower than those mentioned by Fernadez et al. (2006) who range from 89 to 96 for horse
remains at three different sites.
129
Horse
Bos/Bison
Woolly
mammoth
Woolly
rhinoceros
Muskox
Ibex
Red deer
Reindeer
right
169
13
3
39
0
0
3
96
Left
70
14
5
24
0
0
6
94
total
expected
338
28
10
78
0
0
12
192
70,71
96,43
80,00
80,77
-
-
75,00
98,96
Ratio
Table 157 Right to left ratio for the teeth of the different species from the third horizon
4.4 Osteometry and general interpretations
4.4.1 Equus sp.
To examine the trend of an increasing width of the third phalanx, as shown in Bignon et al. (2002),
we compared our results with those presented by this author (Figure 23). In addition to our results,
the data from Zemst IIB (Germonpré, 1993a) are plotted. The measurements taken from the
Pleistocene material fit well in the trend of increasing width. Most of the samples have a slightly
wider articular surface and are situated at the far end of the trend, indicating an excellent adaption
to heavy grounds. As there are rivers nearby in Goyet, this is a plausible hypothesis. The results from
Zemst indicate also a wide third phalanx, but as these are much older than the Late glacial context of
the study performed by Bignon et al. (2002), this may be attributed to a general size increase.
To illustrate the trend in size reduction throughout the Late Pleistocene, several measurements of
horse elements from different sites and periods have been plotted to observe the differences. These
other data are provided by Germonpré (1993a) for Zemst IIB, Soenen (2006) for Goyet A2 and
Germonpré (unpublished) for Spy. Various elements are plotted: metacarpus (Figure 15 and Figure
16), femur (Figure 17), astragalus (Figure 18), metatarsus (Figure 19 and Figure 20), first (Figure
21), second (Figure 22) and third (Figure 24) posterior phalanges. The general conclusion is that the
elements from the horses in Zemst are generally larger than younger material. This confirms the
trend in size reduction in the Pleistocene horses. The relation between the two horizons from Goyet
is more complicated: sometimes the specimens from the third horizon are larger than those from the
second as expected, sometimes the opposite is observed. This could be due to a more limited time
span separating these remains or due to the fact that these horizons are thought to be a palimpsest.
The measurement of Spy appear to be in between the size range of Goyet and Zemst.
A more indirect approach to the size decrease is the estimation of a body mass. The measurements
taken allow to plot the data of the first phalanx and the third metacarpal bone on a reference line
provided by Alberdi et al. (1995) (Figure 55).This allows to estimate the body mass of the horses and
to compare with the general body mass reduction trend. The graphs are shown here as the body
mass is not a measurement, but an estimation based on the correlation stated by Alberdi et al.
(1995).
130
Figure 55 Body mass calculation. (a) Distal width of the third metacarpal bone, (b) distal width of the
first phalanx. The reference line (with the blue points) consists out of E. caballus pony (lower), E.
przewalskii (middle) and E. caballus heavy horse (upper) (adapted from Alberdi et al., 1995). The
results from Goyet are presented in red.
The body mass estimation is obtained by plotting the measurements on the reference line given by
Alberdi et al. (1995). The function of this relation is lnBM = -5,00 + 2,82 * lnBd for the metacarpal
figure and lnBM = - 5.67 + 3.23 * ln Bd for the first phalanx figure. The estimation given by the third
metacarpal bone measurements lies in the range of 390-425 kg. This is in agreement with the general
body mass reduction as shown in Figure 57. However, the range for the first phalanx measurements
is 675-960 kg (outlier of 1390 kg omitted). This gives a much larger range than the metacarpal bone
measurements and does not fit with the body mass reduction trend. Due to the large variation, the
estimation based on the first phalanx seems less reliable.
We used the same approach to estimate the body mass for the second horizon of Goyet and for Spy
(Figure 56). The results for the body mass derived from the metacarpus are nearly identical to those
from the third horizon of Goyet and fits with our expectations. However, the values for the
estimations based on the first phalanx lie also much higher for the second horizon of Goyet.
BM
Metacarpus
first phalanx
Goyet A2
Goyet A2
395-415
780-1320
Spy
BM
390-415
Figure 56 Body mass estimation of the sites Spy and Goyet A2
131
Figure 57 The Equini fossils, from Europe, and the correlation between body mass and the major
climatic environmental changes. The body mass, in kilograms, is included in brackets under each
pecies name (Alberdi et al., 1995).
4.4.2 Mammothus primigenius
The frequency distribution of the mammoth in Goyet A3 is dominated by molariform teeth. Tusks
also have a high NISP but this is due to the large number of small fragments from a probably limited
number of tusks. The general distribution corresponds with the mammoth remains from the Belgian
site Spy (Germonpré et al., in press), the Austrian site Grub-Kranawetberg (Bosch et al., 2012),
Yudinovo (Germonpré et al., 2008) and Hofstade (Germonpré, 1993b).
Only the teeth could be measured, the remaining mammoth material was too fragmented and could
not be identified accurately. The molariform teeth have been used in the construction of an age
distribution. The tusks are very fragmented and are probably remains from the production of the
ivory beads discovered in this horizon.
In analogy with the nearby site of Spy (Germonpré et al., 2012), certain observations can be made. In
Goyet, the frequency distribution is also dominated by molariform teeth and cranial elements. This
and the age distribution (below) suggests that the mammoth heads have been transported into the
cave.
132
4.4.3 Bos/Bison
We compared the distal metacarpal bone measurements from Goyet A3 with Zemst IIB (Figure 25.
To differentiate between Bos and Bison in the Goyet specimen, the measurements of both species
from Zemst IIB are plotted. Three different groups are visible: Early Weichselian bison (Zemst),
auroch (Zemst) and Goyet bison.The resulting pattern indicates that both specimen of Goyet are
Bison, as they are larger than the aurochs from Zemst IIB, especially the distal diameter. The
specimen are smaller than the bison measurements from Zemst IIB, which fits in the trend of size
reduction. However, some care needs to be taken as there are very few specimen and these species
are very similar.
4.4.4 Cervus elaphus
In Goyet, this species is present in all top three horizons (1, 2 and 3), although not very abundant. It is
the only species in the third horizon which provided suitable for a gender determination. Due to the
presence of a antler base fragment, a male red deer in the fossil assemblage could be proven.
4.4.5 Coelodonta antiquitatis
)
This species is the third most abundant herbivore in the third horoizon of Goyet, in NISP as well as in
MNI. Although there is only one measurement of the astragalus, it can be compared with other sites.
The measurement of Tm (Greatest depth on the medial side) gives the following results. The
difference with Zemst IIB (Germonpré, 1993a) is slight as the value for this parameter in Goyet is
65.31 mm and the mean value in Zemst is 62.5. The difference with other data from remains stored
in the Institute of human palaeontology (Paris) is larger. These results have a mean Tm of 57,5 for the
astragalus (Vercoutère et al., 2013). The age of the specimen is around14 000 cal BP and it was
found in the riverbands of the Tobol and Irtych rivers in the Tioumen region, Siberia.
Care needs to be taken due to the low number of measurements of the Goyet material, but both the
Goyet and Zemst measurements are larger than the younger material from Siberia. This could
indicate the same pattern of reducing size, although for Goyet, this could be due to a large specimen
as there is only one measurement, where the other values are the mean of multiple specimen.
4.4.6 Ovibos moschatus
The remains from the European Pleistocene muskox represent a single species, indistinguishable
from recent Ovibos moschatus, although of slightly larger size (Raufuss and Von Koenigswald, 1999).
This is evidenced by the measurements from Goyet: the length of the modern muskox second
phalanges is below five cm (Vanlerberghe, 1979). The measurements performed on the remains from
Goyet A3 indicate a length above six cm. This is another illustration of the trend in size reduction
during the Late Pleistocene.
The number of Pleistocene muskox finds in Europe decreases towards the Atlantic Ocean, which may
be due to the fact that Ovibos was restricted to continental climates with little snow fall (Raufuss and
133
Von Koenigswald, 1999). This decrease in abundance is supported by the fact only one element was
found in the third horizon in Goyet and only eight in the first three horizons.
4.5 Age distributions
4.5.1 Horse
The general shape of the age profiles obtained by the teeth resembles that of the stalking model
(Levine, 1999). The pattern is also similar to the one from Dereivka (Ukraine) which is a site
associated with the stalking model (possibly in combination with others). The site of Botai (associated
with herd driving) gives a central peak which is too low in comparison with the results from Goyet.
These two sites and their relation to the models are discussed in Levine (1999).
Some of the horse foetus remains could be aged if their total length could be measured. These
results indicate that the foetuses had been killed between the ages of 20 to 29 weeks after gestation.
This is not the only site where foetal horse remains have been found, Diedrich (2010) mentions
several Pleistocene hyena dens in Central Europe containing these remains. However, as one of these
foetal bones in Goyet bears cut traces, human handling of at least some of these bones is evident.
There are on gnawing marks present so other carnivores killing these foetuses can not be proven.
For modern horses, the peak of the breeding season is in May, June and July (Conlon et al., 2009)
with an average pregnancy period of 340 days. If the age of the foetus remains is added to this, these
individuals were killed in the winter months (October, November and December) in the middle of the
pregnancy period. Thus, possibly prehistoric humans have hunted horse in Goyet during the winter
months, although other predators (cave hyena) could have done the same as is proven in other sites
(Diedrich, 2010).
4.5.2 Woolly mammoth
The age distributions of the molars of the woolly mammoth can be compared with the distribution of
the nearby site of Spy (Germonpré et al., in press). The age distribution of the second level from Spy
is very similar. The distribution from Spy was also obtained with a limited number of teeth (14),
slightly larger than the 12 teeth used in this analysis. The group of young animals is smaller in Goyet,
only one third of the material consists of M1 of M2 teeth while in Spy 60% of the material are M2. A
point of similarity is that there are also no teeth older than the age of 24 a.e.y. The profile in Goyet
A3 corresponds most with Type A of Haynes. Type B (which is more illustrated by the result from Spy)
is less likely here but a selective killing of young animals is is still possible. Maybe the scavenging
component is larger here or older mammoth were more hunted here than in Spy. Another possible
explanation for the larger adult component in the woolly mammoth assemblage is that some of
these skull were specifically transported to the cave for the production of the ivory beads. As tusks
never stop growing, older individuals seem more beneficial for this purpose than the young animals.
4.5.3 Woolly rhinoceros
The shape of the age distribution for woolly rhinoceros is a bell shape with a relatively large young
age group. This could be due to the fact that this species was also hunted by humans and thus the
134
bell shape could be caused by selective hunting methods. Around 75% of the aged teeth indicate an
individual of 4 to 10 b.r.y. This means that most of the remains are adults which is not a natural
situation. Another explanation would be a catastrophe, but the deposition of the remains inside the
cave would probably involve human interaction or carnivores such as cave hyenas.
4.5.4 Red deer
The age distribution of red deer resembles a bell shape. In contrast with the large herbivores
however, this species was almost certainly also hunted by other predators like cave lion. However,
the shape of the curve indicates that mostly adult red deer were targeted to account for the fossil
assemblage in the third horizon, which is most probably caused by a human, selective hunting
method.
4.6 Archaeozoology
It is evident that both human influence and natural agents can be observed on the material. Traces of
human activities are represented by cut marks, ochre and impact traces and the transformation of
some bones into tools. One of the natural influences are the gnawing traces left on the bones.
It is also possible to distinguish the activity by either prehistoric humans or by large carnivores, based
upon the frequency distribution of the skeletal elements and the age distribution of teeth
(Germonpré et al., 2012). Studies have been conducted on what animals could have formed the
regular prey of the Neanderthals and carnivores found in nearby sites, on the basis of the results of
the stable isotope analyses of their skeletal remains.
The horses found at the third horizon of Goyet have been hunted by humans. The human handling is
evidenced by the cut marks, most of which are found on the lower jaw, the metapoda and phalanges.
All the jaws were broken, probably to reach the fat inside.
Root traces occur on some of the material from Goyet A3. This indicates the fragments location is
near the entrance as plants need light te grow. Photograph 5 illustrates these traces on a horse rib.
4.6.1 Ochre
In the third horizon of Goyet, the most ochre traces are found on woolly mammoth remains. If the
distribution of the ochre traces on its various elements is made, it is clear that these ochre traces are
dominantly present on the tusks. This reinforces the evidence of the human handling of these tusks
that were used to make ivory beads. The horse cranial elements, especially the teeth, are most
covered with ochre, as are the bovid elements. In woolly rhinoceros and red deer however, the
postcranial elements of metatarsus and phalanges bear most ochre traces. The bovids and reindeer
have a low amount of ochre traces, below 20 %, while the other species are situated above that
percentage. Muskox and ibex are not considered here due to there low abundance in Goyet.
Photographs have been taken to illustrate the appearance of the ochre traces in the fossil
assemblage of the third horizon. Photograph 1 shows a lower horse jaw with ochre traces,
Photograph 12 presents a horse tibia with ochre while Photograph 11 displays a horse femur.
135
Photograph 22 shows a bison scapula and Photograph 10 a horse carpal bone. Mammoth tusks also
contain ochre (Photograph 25 and Photograph 26).
4.6.2 Cut marks
The cut marks are unevenly distributed across the different herbivore species in the third horizon of
Goyet. The species with the most cut marks are reindeer and red deer followed by horse, bovids and
woolly rhinoceros, woolly mammoth shows almost no cut marks. In all these species, save woolly
rhinoceros and woolly mammoth, the metacarpal or metatarsal bones bear the most cut marks.
Another element which exhibits a large amount of traces is the mandibula of the horse. With woolly
rhinoceros, the ribs, the radiocubitus and the phalanges have an equal amount of traces (23 %). The
marks point to disarticulation and is is possible that, as Levine (1979) stated, some of the animal was
eaten on the kill site and selected parts such as the limbs were transported back to the cave.
A number of photographs have been taken to illustrate tha appearance of cut marks in the fossil
assemblage of the third horizon. Photograph 1 and Photograph 2 show the lower jaw of a horse with
cut marks, indicating handling by humans. Photograph 22 presents a bison scapula while Photograph
15 and Photograph 16 contain cut marks on an anterior first phalanx of the horse. Photograph 24
displays marks on a posterior second phalanx of an auroch.
4.6.3 Gnawing traces
These traces have certainly been made by animals, either with or without earlier human handling of
the bones. In section 3.3.3, the gnawing marks per species have been presented, which shows that
the largest herbivores (woolly mammoth and woolly rhinoceros) have been least gnawed. This is in
agreement with the hypothesis that of the predators present in Goyet, only humans frequently
hunted these species. This was indicated by the stable isotope analysis studies given in the
introduction. The smaller species have more gnawing marks as they would have been hunted by the
other predators (cave lion, cave hyena, brown bear and canids). The species of which only one bone
was discovered are difficult to interpret due to the lack of material. The horse remains give the most
complete view as most of the different skeletal elements are present. In most of the species, the
elements who bear gnawing marks are dominated by the postcranial elements. This is no surprise as
these regions are generally more gnawed.
Gnawing traces are shown on Photograph 7, Photograph 8 and Photograph 9 on a horse scapula.
Other traces can be found on a horse tibia (Photograph 12), a bovid carpal bone (Photograph 23)
and a horse femur (Photograph 11).
Several large gnawing marks have been observed and are thought to originate from the cave hyena.
Cave hyenas did interact with mammoth material due to the gnawing marks found on the mammoth
bones. It is not possible, based solely on an analysis of diet, to eliminate the activity of cave hyenas as
a possible factor accounting for the accumulation of mammoth bones. Some parts of the remains are
accredited solely to human interaction with mammoths, for example the tusk fragments of which
many were covered in ochre and the associated beads.
136
4.6.4 Impact traces
There are a lot of impact traces and broken fragments in the material from Goyet which reflect the
fragmented nature of the fossil assemblage: very few bones are undamaged. The designation Impact
in this study is any natural or human influende that broke or damaged the remains. The significant
lower impact traces on the reindeer bones is probably the result of Dekeyzer (2007) who only
indicated traces with a human origin with this term. The species with the highest numbers is the
woolly mammoth (apart from the one bone species Ibex and Muskox). Horse, woolly rhinoceros and
red deer have 80 %, while the numbers of Bos/Bison drop to 70 %. Reindeer has the lowest number
of traces, almost 30 %.
It is difficult to distinguish between natural and human-induced impacts. Nevertheless, some
structures are characteristic of human interference. Two of them are present here: impacts of
weapons and longitudinal fractures of bones.
Impact traces, indicated with the red mark by Dupont, are visible on the horse scapula in Photograph
7 and Photograph 9. They occur also on a horse metatarsus (Photograph 14) and a horse lower jaw
(Photograph 3).
4.6.4.1 Weapons
There is no clear distinction between impact traces left by the bow or the spearthrower (Pétillon and
Letourneux, 2008). The aim of these weapons is to kill the target and any impacts to the bone are
unintentional. However, when hunting is frequently occurs the skeleton receives damage. Most of
these traces will occur at the scapula and the thoracal and lumbar vertebrae, near the vital zones of
the animal. One impact trace in this study seems to have been caused by a weapon (Figure 58). It
concerns a large impact hole in the centre with multiple cracks originating from it. This trace seems
similar to those mentioned in Pétillon and Letourneux (2008). The fragment coming from horse
originates from the region which is most targeted by hunters as mentioned above. Due to the very
specific setting of these traces, they are rare, only one bone provides direct evidence of human
hunting practices. The impact trace on the ibex bone is different and was probably made during the
excavations. The crack originating from the center are not well defined and the central impact is very
irregular. Also the trace on the woolly rhinoceros bone is most likely caused by the teeth of a
carnivore (cave lion or cave hyena).
137
Figure 58 Comparison of weapon impact traces and a similar traces: (a) photographs from Pétillon and Letourneux,
2008; (b) horse rib fragment (2798-17); (c) radiocubitus bone of ibex (2230-3); (d) woolly rhinoceros rib fragment (280112)
4.7.3.2 Longitudinal fractures
There are longitudinal fractures present in the material of Goyet. Photograph 17shows a clear
example, with additional impact structures marked in red by Dupont. It is unlikely that animals can
cuase these kinds of fractures so they could be attributed to prehistoric humans.
4.6.5 Tools
Tools are identified based on wear patterns originating from human handling. This is not always
easily distinguished from charriage-à-sec, wear patterns coming from interaction with animals in the
cave (pushing around and wearing down of the bones).
One of the metatarsal horse bones discovered in the third horizon has a pointy end, with signs of
wear (Photograph 13). This could indicate a tool used to pierce. On the other hand, this could also be
generated by the charriage-à-sec effect.
Photograph 29 shows an indeterminate mammoth bone with a triangular shape. This could also be
induced by humans or by charriage-à-sec. This specimens is more likely to be caused by charriage-àsec than the first because most of the planes are straight (in contrast with the metatarsus), a feature
that could originate from wear by animal interaction.
138
Photograph 14 of a horse metatarsus contains another possible tool. The tip indicated in red by
Dupont shows signs of wear.
4.6.6 Comparison with the spatial distribution established by Dupont (published by Germonpré,
2001)
Now that all the herbivore material of this layer has been studied in detail, a new scheme of the
spatial distribution with the appropriate indications for different marks on the bones can be made.
As a comparison, both the old distribution and the new one are shown here.
Figure 59 Scheme of the spatial distribution of the third horizon of the third cave of Goyet (adapted from Germonpré,
2001)
139
Figure 60 Scheme of the spatial distribution of the third horizon of the third cave of Goyet using data from De keyzer and
this study.
A first difference is the increase of the presence of both cut marks and gnawing traces in the studied
trays. In the old distribution, only one tray is indicated as such, now there are 24 trays with both
traces. Also the number of trays with only gnawing traces has increased, from zero to three. The
category with solely cut marks is the only one which has decreased, from 12 to 6. One of the trays
with the old indications for cut marks has remained, in all the rest also gnawing traces are present.
That the new results show much more marks in comparison with the old results that were based on
the unpublished data of E. Dupont is no surprise as the remains were until now not studied in detail.
The observation that cut marks are generally more found to the front of the cave and gnawing traces
more to the back is still valid. However, the trays at the back of the cave with the old indications of
the presence of horses are not studied here. Tray 2891 contains a total of 56 gnawed bones from
mammoth, rhino, large bovids and horse (Dupont, unpublished notes). Trays 2833 and 2194 contain
only remains from cave bears and not from horses, as initially thought. Trays 2789 and 2240 held
140
some caudal vertebrae of horse but these were moved from these trays to the trays where these
bones now can found.
5 Conclusion
This M.Sc study is part of the re-examination of the material excavated by Dupont in the third cave of
Goyet. The goal is to analyse the herbivores of the third horizon of the third cave of Goyet in regard
to taphonomy, osteometry and archaeozoology. Most of the material was studied during this
research, but some species (Rangifer tarandus and part of Cervus elaphus) have already been studied
before. These earlier data were included to complete the overview of the faunal assemblage of the
third horizon.
The following species occur in the third horizon: Equus sp., Bos, Bison, Mammuthus primigenius,
Coelodonta antiquitatis, Cervus elephus, Rangifer tarandus, Ovibos moschatus, Capra ibex. Of these,
Rangifer and Equus are most abundant. The other species are (in order of decreasing abundance):
Coelodonta antiquitatis, Mammuthus primigenius, Bos/Bison spp., Cervus elephus, Ovibos moschatus,
Capra ibex.
A comparison of the fossil assemblages of the top three horizon of the third cave of Goyet indicates
that the herbivores are most abundant in the third horizon. However, less different species are
observed and the minimum number of individuals is also lower.
Although certain taphonomic biases are present, some observations can be made. Teeth are the best
preserved elements in the material, leading to a dominance of cranial fragments over postcranial
elements. Of the postcranial elements, the larger bone fragments are more represented, indicating a
better preservation and recovery of these elements. A well represented element are the metapodal
fragments, indicating a good preservation potential for these bones.
Two different ratios could be calculated to assess the preservation of the material in the third
horizon of Goyet. The first is the teeth-to-bone ratio and its value is comparable to the sites of
Gönnersdorf and Jaurens, indicating a decent preservation. This number could be influenced by
prehistoric human interaction however. The second ratio is that of the right to left tooth elements.
These values are rather low for most of the species, indicating disturbance of the remains since
death.
The measurements taken on the horse material yield several results. Late glacial horses possess
larger (third) phalanges than extant equids. This also has been evidenced by the measurements
taken in Goyet and points to an adaptation to heavy grounds, associated with rivers in the vicinity.
Measurements from the second horizon of Goyet and Zemst IIB indicate the same trend, although
the data from Zemst are on older material and could be related to a general larger size.
Several measurements also provide evidence for the trend in size reduction of the horse during the
Pleistocene. The measurements from Goyet are compared with the second horizon of Goyet
(Soenen, 2006), the early Weichselian site of Zemst IIB studied by Germonpré (1993a) and Spy
(Germonpré, unpublished). On all material with sufficient measurements to compare the various
141
sites, the older remains indicate larger horses. The measurement of Zemst are invariably the largest,
while the other measurements can be more varied relative to each other. In addition, a body mass
estimation was made using the method provided by Alberdi et al. (1995). This gives a contrasted
result: one of the graphs correlates well with the expected body mass of Late Pleistocene horses, the
other gives a far greater body mass but seems less reliable. Other measurement of Spy and the
second horizon are also included and give the same conclusion.
The woolly mammoth frequency distribution indicates dominantly cranial elements, especially teeth.
This is in agreement with other sites and could be explained by the introduction of these skulls by
prehistoric humans. Some of these skulls were brought inside the cave for ivory bead production.
Based on measurements on auroch/bison, a size reduction during the Upper Pleistocene of these
species is likely and one auroch/bison element was classified as bison. Woolly rhinoceros could also
show this trend in size reduction during this time period. Care needs to be taken however as these
interpretations are made based on a very limited number of measurements. Another species that
exhibits this trend towards smaller size is the muskox. There is only one second phalanx present in
Goyet A3, but it is larger than the same element of modern muskox. The low abundance of muskox
elements in Goyet seems to support the theory of a reduced presence of this species during the
Pleistocene in Belgium due to the humid, Atlantic climate.
It is difficult to determine the gender of the different species due to the lack of sexual dimorphism on
one hand and the absence of characteristic elements on the other. It is possible to confirm a male
red deer due to the presence of the base of an antler.
The age distributions derived from the age estimations from teeth give the following results. Because
of their bell-shaped distribution, horse, woolly rhinoceros and red deer were hunted using a selective
method by humans. The distribution of woolly mammoth indicates a dominance of younger
individuals. This distribution is compared with the second level of Spy, where the component of very
young animals is larger. The younger remains from Goyet are associated with hunting, the older
animals with ivory bead production.
Some of the horse foetus remains could also be used to estimate the age at death. The results
indicate that the foetuses had been killed between the ages of 20 to 33 weeks after gestation. The
breeding season Is in summer and added with the foetus ages, they have been killed in winter. Some
of these are proven to be hunted by prehistoric humans, although other predators could not be
excluded.
It is evident that both human influence and animals interaction can be observed on the material.
Traces of human activities are represented by cut marks, ochre and impact traces and the
transformation of some bones into tools. One of the animal interactions are the gnawing traces left
on the bones. This information is used for a archaeozoological study.
Ochre is abundantly present in the assemblage, 23% of all specimen bear ochre traces. The species
most covered is the woolly mammoth due to the large amount of tusk fragments with ochre,
associated with the ivory beads.
142
Cut marks on 18% of the herbivore assemblage provide further proof of prehistoric human
interaction. Cut marks are not the only traces associated with these humans and their prey. The jaw
bones of horse have been fragmented to extract fat. Other impact traces have also been recognized
such as a weapon impact and bone cracking to reach the marrow. The difference between
intentional human impact traces and general fragmentation is not always clear. Some bones could be
transformed into tools, although the effect of charriage-à-sec is also possible.
Gnawing traces are less present, 13% of the herbivores have been gnawed upon and retain traces of
this carnivore interaction. The largest herbivores (woolly mammoth and woolly rhinoceros) have
been least gnawed. This is in agreement with the hypothesis that of the predators present in Goyet,
only prehistoric humans frequently hunted these species. The smaller species have more gnawing
marks as they would have been hunted by the other predators (cave lion, cave hyena, brown bear
and canids).
The spatial distribution is not well documented, but a general tendency of cut marks in the front of
the cave and more gnawing traces in the back is distinguished.
6 Appendices
6.1 Bibliography
Alberdi M., Prado J., Ortiz-Jaureguizar E., 1995. Patterns of body size changes in fossil and living
Equini (Perissodactyla). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 54, pp. 349-370
Andersen K., Bigler M., Clausen H., Dahl-Jensen D., Johnsen S., Rasmussen S., Seierstad I., Steffensen
J., Svensson A., Vinther B., Davies S., Muscheler R., Parrenin F., Röthllsberger R., 2007. A 60 000 year
Greenland stratigraphic ice core chronology. Climate of the Past Discussions 3, 1235-1260
Azorit C., Analla M., Carrasco R., Calvo J., Muñoz-Cobo J., 2002. Teeth eruption pattern in red deer
(Cervus elaphus hispanicus) in southern Spain. Anales de Biología 24, pp. 107-114,
Balkwill D., Cumbaa S., 1992. A guide to the identification of postcranial bones of Bos Taurus and
Bison bison. Syllogeus 71, Canadian Museum of Nature, Ottawa 1992
Bignon O., Eisenmann V., 2002. Western European Late Glacial horse diversity and its ecological
implications. In: Mashkour M. (Ed.) Equids in Time and Space, 9th ICAZ Conference, Durham, 2002,
pp. 161-171
Bocherens H., Billiou D., Mariotti A., Toussaint M., Patou-Mathis M., Bonjean D., Otte M., 2001. New
isotopic evidence for dietary habits of Neandertals from Belgium.Journal of Human Evolution 40, pp.
497-505
Bocherens H., Drucker D., Billiou D., Patou-Mathis M., Vandermeersch B., 2005. Isotopic evidence for
diet and subsistence pattern of the Saint-Césaire I Neanderthal: review and use of a multi-source
mixing model. Journal of Human Evolution 49, pp. 71-87
Bocherens H., 2003. Isotopic biogeochemistry and the paleoecology of the mammoth steppe fauna.
In: Reumer, J., De Vos, J., Mol, D. (Eds.) Advances in mammoth research (Proceedings of the Second
International Mammoth Conference, Rotterdam, May 16-20 1999) Deinsea 9, pp. 57-76
143
Bocherens H., Drucker D., Bonjean D., Bridault A., Conard N., Cupillard C., Germonpré M., Höneisen
M., Münzel S., Napierala H., Patou-Mathis M., Stephan E., Uerpmann H.-P., Ziegler R., 2011. Isotopic
evidence for dietary ecology of cave lion (Panthera spelaea) in North-Western Europe: Prey choice,
competition and implications for extinction. Quaternary International 245, pp. 249-261
Boeskorov G., 2012. Some Specific Morphological and Ecological Features of the Fossil Woolly
Rhinoceros (Coelodonta antiquitatis Blumenbach 1799). Biology Bulletin 39 (8), pp. 692–707
Boessneck J., Jéquier J., Stampfli H., 1963. Seeberg Burgäschisee-Süd, Teil 3. Acta Bernensia (Bern)
Boyd L., Keiper R., 2005. Behavioural ecology of feral horses. In: Mills, D., McDonnell, S. (Eds.), The
Domestic Horse, The Evolution, Development and Management of Its Behaviour. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, pp. 55–82.
Bosch, M., Nigst, P., Fladerer, F., Antl-Weiser, W., 2012. Humans, bones and fire: zooarchaeological,
taphonomic, and spatial analyses of a Gravettian mammoth bone accumulation at GrubKranawetberg (Austria). Quaternary International 252, 109-121
Bridault A., Chaix L., 2002. Ruptures et équilibres dans les faunes à la fin du Pléistocène et durant
l'Holocène ancien en Europe occidentale. In Richard H., Vignot A. (Eds.) Ruptures et Equilibres dans
les écosystèmes depuis les 20 derniers millénaires en Europe de l'Ouest. Actes du colloque
international de Besançon. Presses Universitaires Franc-Comtoises, Besançon, pp.53-60
Brown W., Chapman N., 1991. The dentition of red deer (Cervus elaphus): a scoring scheme to assess
age from wear of the permanent molariform teeth. Journal of Zoology 224, pp. 519-536
Budras K.-D., Sack W., Röck S., Horowitz A., Berg A., 2009. Anatomy of the Horse, Fifth revised
edition. Schlütersche Verlagsgesellschaft, Hannover, Germany
Charles R., 1995. An archaeological approach to the study of Prehistoric butchery: the Lateglacial
exploitation of Equus ferus at the Trou de Chaleux (Belgium). Anthropologie et préhistoire 106, pp. 929
Conard N., Bolus M., Goldberg P., Münzel S., 2006. The last neanderthals and first modern humans in
the Swabian Jura. In: Conard, N. (Ed.), When Neanderthals and Modern Humans Met. Tübingen
publications in prehistory, Kerns Verlag, Tübingen, pp. 305-341
Conlon W., Storey N., McArdle D., Fennell R., 2009. Equine reproduction: A Guide for Farmers and
Breeders. Teagasc Equine Specialist Unit, Carlow
Dalén, L., Nyström, V., Valdiosera, C., Germonpré , M., Sablin, M., Turner, E., Angerbjörn, A., Arsuaga,
J.L., Götherström, A., 2007. Ancient DNA reveals lack of postglacial habitat tracking in the arctic fox.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104, 6726–6729.
Dekeyzer S., 2007. De fossiele rendieren (Rangifer tarandus) van Goyet, Chaleux en Furfooz:
osteometrie, tafonomie en archaeozoölogie. Unpublished M.A. Thesis, Universiteit Gent, Belgium.
Depestele L., 2005. De holenleeuwen (Panthera Leo spelaea) uit de Belgische grotten: osteometrie,
tafonomie en paleoecologie. Unpublished M.A. Thesis, Universiteit Gent, Belgium.
144
Dewez M., 1987. Le Paléolithique Supérieur Récent dans les Grottes de Belgique, Publications
d’Historie de l’Art et d’Archéologie de l’Université Catholique de Louvain, 57: 1-466.
Diedrich C., 2010. Specialized horse killers in Europe: Foetal horse remains in the Late Pleistocene
Srbsko Chlum-Komín Cave hyena den in the Bohemian Karst (Czech Republic) and actualistic
comparisons to modern African spotted hyenas as zebra hunters. Quaternary International 220 (1-2),
pp. 174–187
Duncan P., 1992. Horses and grasses: the nutritional ecology of equids and their impact on the
camargue. Springer-Verlag, New-York, USA, pp. 287
Dupont E., 1869a. (Note sur la découverte d’une cavern à Goyet), Bulletins de l’Académie royale des
Sciences, des Lettres et des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, 2me Série, 27: 193.
Dupont E., 1869b. Sur deux fragments d’objets appelés ‘bâtons de commandement’ découverts dans
la cavern de Goyet (province de Namur), Bulletins de l’Académie royale des Sciences, des Lettres et
des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, 2me Série, 27: 274-275.
Dupont E., 1872. L’homme pendant les âges de la pierre dans les environs de Dinant-sur-Meuse,
Deuxième edition, C. Muquardt, Bruxelles, 250 pp.
Dupont E., 1873. Sur l’antiquité de l’homme et sur les phénomènes géologiques de l’époque
quaternaire en Belgique, Congrès international d’anthropologie et d’archéologie préhistoriques.
Compte rendu de la 6e session, Bruxelles 1872: 110-132.
Eisenmann V., Guérin C., 1984. Morphologie fonctionnelle et environnement chez les
périssodactyles. Geobios, Mémoire spécial 8, pp. 69-74
Eisenmann V., Alberdi M., De Giuli C., Staesche U., 1988. Studying fossil horses, collected papers after
the “New York International Hipparion Conference, 1981”, editors M. Woodburne and P. Sondaar,
Vol. 1: Methodology
Éloy L., Otte M., 1995. Le Périgordien de l’abris-sous-roche de Goyet (Namur, Belgique), Bulletin des
Chercheurs de la Wallonie, 35: 25-40.
Fernandez P., Legendre S., 2003. Mortality curves for horses from the Middle Palaeolithic site of Bau
de l’Aubesier (Vaucluse, France): methodological, palaeo-ethnological, and palaeoecological
approaches, Journal of Archaeological Science 30, pp. 1577-1598
Fernandez P., Guadelli J.-L., Fosse P., 2006. Applying dynamics and comparing life tables for
Pleistocene Equidae in anthropic (Bau de l’Aubesier, Combe-Grenal) and carnivore (Fouvent)
contexts with modern feral horse populations (Akagera, Pryor Mountain). Journal of Archaeological
Science 33, pp. 176-184
Forsten A., 1993. Size decrease in late pleistocene-holocene caballoid horses (genus Equus), intra- or
interspecific evolution? A discussion of alternatives. Quaternary International 19, pp. 71-75
Friant M., 1963. Le Rhinoceros (Tichorhinus) antiquitatis Blum. – Recherches anatomiques sur la tête
osseuse et la dentition. Annales de la Société Géologique du Nord LXXXIII (2), Lille, pp. 15-21
145
Garutt, N., 1994. Dental ontogeny of the woolly rhinoceros Coelodonta antiquitatis (Blumenbach,
1799). Cranium 11 (1), pp. 37-48
Gautier, A., Cordy, J.-M., Straus, L.G., Otte, M., 1997. Taphonomic, chronostratigraphic,
paleoenvironmental and anthropogenic implications of the upper Pleistocene faunas from Le Trou
Magrite, Belgium. In: Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference for Archaeozoology, ICAZ,
Constance, Germany, pp. 343–354
Germonpré, M., 1993a. Osteometric data on Late Pleistocene mammals from the Flemish Valley,
Belgium. Studiedocumenten van het K.B.I.N, vol. 72, pp. 1-135.
Germonpré, M., 1993b. Taphonomy of Pleistocene mammal assemblages of the Flemish Valley,
Belgium. Bulletin de l’Institut royal des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique, Série Sciences de la Terre 63,
71-309.
Germonpré, M. (1996). Preliminary results on the mammals of the Magdalenian upper horizon of
Goyet (Belgium). Notae Praehistoricae 16: 75-85.
Germonpré, M. (1997). The Magdalenian upper horizon of Goyet and the late Upper Palaeolithic
recolonisation of the Belgian Ardennes. Bulletin de l'Institut royal des Sciences Naturelles de
Belgique, Série Sciences de la Terre 67: 167-182.
Germonpré, M. 2001. A reconstruction of the spatial distribution of the faunal remains from Goyet,
Belgium. Notae praehistoricae, 21: 57-65.
Germonpré, M., 2004. The Pleniglacial cave bears from Goyet, Belgium taphonomic and
palaeobiological characteristics. Bulletin-Institut royal des sciences naturelles de Belgique. Sciences
de la terre 74, pp. 213-229
Germonpré M., unpublished. AMS dates of various specimens from the third cave of Goyet and
measurements of the horses from Spy.
Germonpré, M., Udrescu, M., Fiers, E., in press. Possible evidence of mammoth hunting at the
Neanderthal site of Spy (Belgium), Quaternary International.
Germonpré, M. & Sablin, M. 2001. The cave bear (Ursus spelaeus) from Goyet, Belgium. The bear den
in Chamber B (bone horizon 4). Bulletin de l'Institut royal des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique, Série
Sciences de la Terre, 71: 209-233.
Germonpré,M.,Hämäläinen,R.,2007. Fossil bear bones in the Belgian Upper Palaeolithic: the
possibility of a proto-bear ceremonialism. Arctic Anthropology 44, 1-30.
Germonpré, M., Sablin, M.V., Stevens, R.E., Hedges, R.E.M., Hofreiter, M., Stiller, M., Després, V.R.,
2009. Fossil dogs and wolves from Palaeolithic sites in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia: osteometry,
ancient DNA and stable isotopes. Journal of Archaeological Science 36, 473-490.
Germonpré, M., Sablin, M.V., Després, V., Hofreiter, M., Lázničková-Galetová, M., Stevens, R.E.,
Stiller, M., 2013. Palaeolithic dogs and the early domestication of the wolf: a reply to the comments
of Crockford and Kuzmin. Journal of Archaeological Science 40, 786-792.
146
Goddard J., 1970. Age criteria and vital statistics of a black rhinoceros population. Tsaro research
project, E. Afr. Wildl. J. 8: 105-121.
Groenen M., 2004. Stratégie et gestion de l’espace au Paléolithique: l’exemple de la Grotte-abri du
Tiène des Maulins. Notae Praehistoricae 24, pp. 221-229
Guthrie, R.D., 1982. Mammals of the Mammoth Steppe as Paleoenvironmental indicators. In:
Hopkins, D.M., et al. (Ed.), Paleoecology of Beringia. Academic Press, New York, pp. 307-329.
Guthrie, R.D., 1985. Woolly arguments against the Mammoth Steppe - A new look at the
Palynological data. Quarterly Review of Archaeology 6, 9-16.
Guthrie, R.D., 1990. Frozen Fauna of the Mammoth Steppe: The Story of Blue Babe. University of
Chicago Press, Chicago.
Habermehl K.-H., 1961. Die Alterbestimmung bei Haustieren, Pelztieren und beim jagdbaren Wild.
Paul Parley in Berlin und Hamburg, p 20 – 54.
Haynes, G., 1991. Mammoths, Mastodonts, and Elephants. Biology, Behavior, and the Fossil Record.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Hijma M., Kohen K., Roebroeks W., Westerhoff W., Busschers F., 2012. Pleistocene Rhine-Thames
landscapes: geological background for hominin occupation of the southern North Sea region. Journal
of Quarternary Science. 27(1), pp. 17-39
Hoppe K., Amundson R., Vavra M., McClaran M., Anderson D., 2004. Isotopic analysis of tooth
enamel carbonate from modern North American feral horses: implications for paleoenvironmental
reconstructions. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 203, pp. 299-311
Hughes S., Hayden T., Douady C., Tougard C., Germonpré M., Stuart A., Lbova L., Carden R., Hänni C.
and Say L., 2006. Molecular phylogeny of the extinct giant deer, Megaloceros giganteus. Molecular
Phylogenetics and Evolution 40, p 285–291
Hyvärinen H., Kay R., Hamilton W., 1977. Variation in the weight, specific gravity and composition of
the antlers of red deer (Cervus elaphus L.). British Journal of Nutrition 38, pp. 301-311
Jöris O., Weninger B., 2000. Towards an Absolute Chronology of the Last Glacial. Journal of
Quaternary Science (RAPID COMMUNICATION), 3 p.
Jöris O., Weninger B., Unpublished. Glacial Radiocarbon Age-Conversion: A Response.
Julien M.-A., Bocherens H., Burke A., Drucker D., Patou-Mathis M., Krotova O., Péan S., 2012. Were
European steppe bison migratory? 18O, 13C and Sr intra-tooth isotopic variations applied to a
palaeoethological reconstruction. Quaternary International 271, pp. 106-119
Kurtén B., 1968. Pleistocene mammals of Europe. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 317 pp.
Laws R., 1966. Age criteria for the African elephant. East African Wildlife Journal 4, pp. 1–37.
Laws R., 1970. Elephants as agents of habitat and landscape change in East Africa. Oikos 21, pp. 1-15
147
Lee P., Sayialel S., Lindsay W., Moss C., 2012. African elephant age determination from teeth:
validation from known individuals. African Journal of Ecology 50, pp. 9-20
Levine M., 1979. Archaeozoological analysis of some Upper-Pleistocene horse bone assemblages in
Western Europe. Ph.D. dissertation, Wolfson College, Cambridge
Levine M., 1982. The use of crown height measurements and eruption-wear sequences to age horse
teeth. In: Wilson B., Grigson C., Payne S. (Eds.) Ageing and Sexing Animal Bones from Archaeological
Sites. BAR British Series 109, Oxford, pp. 223-250
Levine M., 1983. Mortality models and the interpretation of horse population structure. In: Bailey G.
(Ed) Hunter-gatherer economy in prehistory: a European perspective, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, pp. 23-46
Levine M., 1999. Botai and the Origins of Horse Domestication. Journal of Anthropological
Archaeology 18, pp. 29–78
Lombard M., 2007. The gripping nature of ochre: the association of ochre with Howiesons Poort
adhesives and Later Stone Age mastics from South Africa.
López González F., Vila Taboada M., Grandal D´Anglade A., 1999. About large bovids (Bovidae,
Mammalia) in the NW of Iberian Peninsula. Coruña 24, pp. 57-71
Louguet-Lefebvre S., 2005. Les mégaherbivores (Éléphantidés et Rhinocérotidés au Paléolithique
moyen en Europe du Nord-Ouest: Paléoécologie, taphonomie et aspects palethnographiques. BAR
International Series 1451.
MacFadden, B., 1992. Fossil Horses, Systematics, Paleobiology, and Evolution of the Family Equidae.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Meignen L., Delagnes A., Bourguignon L., 2009. Patterns of lithic material procurement and
transformation during the Middle Paleolithic in western Europe. In: Adams B., Blades B. (Eds.) Lithic
Materials and Paleolithic Societies, Blackwell Publishing, pp. 15-24
Miller, R., 2001. Lithic resource management during the Belgian Early Upper Palaeolithic: effects of
variable raw material context on lithic economy. Etudes et Recherches Archéologiques de l’Université
de Liège 91.
Otte M., 1979. Le paléolithique supérieur ancient en Belgique. Monographies d’Archéologie
Nationale 5, pp. 1-685
Pales L., Lambert C., 1971a. Atlas ostéologique pur server à l’identification des mammifères de
quarternaire, I. Les membres, herbivores. Editions du centre national de la recherché scientifique 15,
quai Anatole-France, Paris VII
Pales L., Lambert C., 1971b. Atlas ostéologique pur server à l’identification des mammifères de
quarternaire, II. Tête-rachis ceintures scapulaires et pelviennes, herbivores. Editions du centre
national de la recherché scientifique 15, quai Anatole-France, Paris VII
148
Pawlowska K., 2010. The usefulness of a taphonomic approach for studies of Pleistocene mammals.
Geologos 16(3), pp. 183-189
Peigné S., Goillot C., Germonpré M., Blondel C., Bignon O. and Gildas Merceron, 2009. Predormancy
omnivory in European cave bears evidenced by a dental microwear analysis of Ursus spelaeus from
Goyet, Belgium. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,
106 nr. 36, p 15390–15393
Peters, J., 1987. Cuboscaphoids, naviculo-cuboids. Language barriers and the use of standarised
osteological nomenclatures in archaeozoological studies. Archaeozoologia, I/2: 43-46.
Pétillon J.-M., Letourneux C., 2008. Projectile impact traces on game: Comparative results of the bow
and spearthrower experiments held at the CEDARC (Treignes, Belgium) in 2003 and 2004. Annales de
Paléontologie 94, pp. 209–225
Pirson S., Flas D., Abrams G., Bonjean D., Court-Picon M, Di Modica K., Draily C., Damblon F.,
Haesaerts P., Miller R, Rougier H., Toussaint M., Semal P., 2012. Chronostratigraphic context of the
Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition: Recent data from Belgium. Quaternary International 259, p.
78-94
Prummel W., 1987a. Atlas for Identification of foetal skeletal elements of Cattle, Horse, Sheep and
Pig, Part 1, Archaeozoologia, Vol. 1(1), pp 23 – 30
Prummel W., 1987b. Atlas for Identification of foetal skeletal elements of Cattle, Horse, Sheep and
Pig, Part 2, Archaeozoologia, Vol. 1(2), pp 11 - 42
Prummel W., 1988. Atlas for Identification of foetal skeletal elements of Cattle, Horse, Sheep and Pig,
Part 3, Archaeozoologia, Vol. 2(1.2), pp 14 - 26
Prummel W., 1989. Appendix to Atlas for Identification of foetal skeletal elements of Cattle, Horse,
Sheep and Pig, Archaeozoologia, Vol. 3(1.2), pp 71 – 78
Raufuss I., von Koenigswald W., 1999. New remains of Pleistocene Ovibos moschatus from Germany
and its geographic and stratigraphic occurrence in Europe. Geologie en Mijnbouw 78, pp. 383–394
Roebroeks W., Sier M., Nielsen T., De Loecker D., Parés J., Arps C., Mücher H., 2012. Use of red ochre
by early Neandertals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109 (6), pp. 1889–1894
Rougier H., Crèvecoeur I., Sémal P., Toussaint M., 2009. Des néandertaliens dans la troisième caverne
de Goyet. Di Modica K., Jungels C. (Ed.) Paléolithique moyen en Wallonie (2009) pp. 173
Rougier, H. Crevecoeur, I., Beauval, C., Bocherens, H., Flas, D., Germonpré, M., Semal, P. van der
Plicht, J. 2012. New data from and old site : Neandertals at Goyet (Belgium) and their mortuary
behavior. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, Supplement: Program of the 81st Annual
Meeting of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists 147 (S54), 252-253.
Rutot A., 1910. Note sur l’existence des couches à rongeurs arctiques dans les cavernes de Belgique.
Bulletins de l’Académie royale de Belgique, Classe des Sciences 5, pp. 335-379
149
Schertz E., 1963. Zur Unterscheidung von Bison priscus Boj. Und Bos primigenus Boj. An Metapodien
und Astragalus, nebst Bemerkungen über einige diluviale Fundstellen. Senckenbergiana 18 (1/2), pp.
37-71
Semal, P., Toussaint, M., Maureille, B., Rougier, H., Crevecoeur, I., Balzeau, A., Bouchneb, L., Louryan,
S., De Clerck, N., Rausin, L., 2005. Numérisation des restes humains néandertaliens belges:
préservation patrimoniale et exploitation scientifique. Notae Praehistoricae 25, pp. 25-38
Semal, P., Rougier, H., Crevecoeur, I., Jungels, C., Flas, D., Hauzeur, A., Maureille, B., Germonpré, M.,
Bocherens, H., Pirson, S., Cammaert, L., De Clerck, N., Hambucken, A., Higham, T., Toussaint, M., van
der Plicht, J., 2009. New Data on the Late Neandertals: Direct Dating of the Belgian Spy Fossils.
American Journal of Physical Anthropology 138: 421-428.
Soenen E., 2006. De Boven-Pleistocene herbivore van het tweede niveau van de derde grot van
Goyet: osteometrie, tafonomie en paleo-ecologie. Unpublished M.A. Thesis, Universiteit Gent,
Belgium.
Sommer R., Zachos F., Street M., Jöris O., Skog A., Benecke N., 2008. Late Quaternary distribution
dynamics and phylogeography of the red deer (Cervus elaphus) in Europe. Quaternary Science
Reviews 27, pp. 714–733
Stevens, R.E., Germonpre, M., Petrie C.A. and O'Connell T.C., 2009. Palaeoenvironmental and
chronological investigations of the Magdalenian sites of Goyet Cave and Trou de Chaleux (Belgium),
via stable isotope and radiocarbon analyses of horse skeletal remains. Journal of Archaeological
Science, 36: 653-662.
Stuart A. and Lister A., 2012. Extinction chronology of the woolly rhinoceros Coelodonta antiquitatis
in the context of late Quaternary megafaunal extinctions in northern Eurasia. Quaternary Science
Reviews 51, p. 1-17
Szpak P., Gröcke D., Debruyne R., MacPhee R., Guthrie R., Froese D., Zazula G., Patterson W., Poinar
H., 2010. Regional differences in bone collagen δ13C and δ15N of Pleistocene mammoths:
Implications for paleoecology of the mammoth steppe. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology,
Palaeoecology 286, pp. 88–96
Toussaint M., Lacroix P., Lambermont S., Lemaire J.-F., Beaujean J.-F., 2004. La sépulture d’enfant
néolithique des nouveaux réseaux du Trou du Moulin, à Goyet (Gesves, prov. de Namur) Rapport
préliminaire. Notae Praehistoriae 24, pp. 159-166
Twiesselmann F., 1951. Les représentations de l’Homme et des animaux quarternaires découvertes
en Belgique. Mémoire de l’Institut royal des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique 113, pp. 1-28
Ukraintseva V., 1993. Vegetation Cover and Environment of the "Mammoth Epoch" in Siberia. IN:
Agenbroad L., Mead J., Hevly R. (eds). The Mammoth Site of Hot Springs, Rapid City, South Dakota.
Ulrix-Closset M., 1975. Le paléolithique moyen dans le bassin mosan en Belgique, Wetteren, 221 pp.
Van Asperen E., 2010. Ecomorphological adaptations to climate and substrate in late Middle
Pleistocene caballoid horses. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 297, pp.584–596
150
Van den Broeck E., Martel E., Rahir E., 1910. Les cavernes et les rivières souterraines de la Belgique,
Bruxelles, 2 volumes, 1751 pp.
Van Kolfschoten T., 1995. On the application of fossil mammals to the reconstruction of the
palaeoenvironment of northwestern Europe. Acta Zoologica Cracoviensia 38(1): pp. 73-84
Vanlerberghe L., 1979. Bijdrage tot de kennis van de recente en Pleistocene muskusos. Unpublished
M.A. Thesis, Universiteit Gent, Belgium.
Van Strydonck M., Landrie M., Maes A., Van der Borg K., De Jong A. F. M., Alderliesten K., Keppens E.,
2001. Royal Institute for Cultural Heritage Radiocarbon dates XVII. Brussels: Royal Institute for
Cultural Heritage.
Van Wetter G., 1920. Les origines de la parure aux temps paléolithiques. Mémoires de l’Académie
royale de Belgique, Classe des Beaux-Arts 1(2), pp. 1-170
Vercoutère C., Guérin C., Crépin L., Richardin P., Gandolfo N., Vincent J., Marsac J., Cersoy S.,
Rousselière H., Walter P., Brunelle A., Nowik W., Brissaud D., Drucker D., Van der Plicht J., PatouMathis M., Vialet A., 2013. Étude pluridisciplinaire du squelette de rhinoceros laineux, Coelodonta
antiquitatis (Blumenbach, 1799), de l’Institut de paléontologie humaine (Paris, France)
Pluridisciplinary research on a woolly rhinoceros skeleton, Coelodonta antiquitatis (Blumenbach,
1799), from the Institut de paléontologie humaine (Paris, France). L’anthropologie 117, pp. 1–47
Vereshchagin N., Baryshnikov G., 1992. The ecological structure of the “Mammoth Fauna” in Eurasia.
Annales Zoologici Fennici 28, pp. 253-259
Vereshchagin N., Tikhonov A., 1999. Exterior of the mammoth. Cranium 16(1), pp. 48
Von den Driesch A., 1982. Das Vermessen von Tierknochen aus von- und frücheschichtlichen
Siedlungen, , Aus den Institut für Paläoanatomie, Domestikationsforschung und Geschichte der
Tiermedizin der Universität München (Zweite, verbesserte Auflage)
Weinstock J., 1997. Late Paleolithic reindeer populations in Central and Western Europe. In: Kokabi
M., Wahl J. (Eds.), Anthropozoologica, Actes du Colloque International d’Archéozoologie, vol. 25–26,
CNRS, Paris, pp. 383–388.
Weninger B., 1986. High-precision calibration of archaeological radiocarbon dates, Acta
Interdisciplinaria Archaeologica Tomus IV, Nitra, pp. 11-53
Wood, H., 1949. Evolutionary rates and trends in rhinoceros. In: Jepsen G., Mayr E., Simpson G. (Eds.)
Genetics, paleontology and evolution. Princeton, University Press, pp. 185-189
Zieliński T., 2007. The Pleistocene climate-controlled fluvial sedimentary record in the Bełchatów
mine (central Poland). Sedimentary Geology 193, pp. 203–209
6.2 Abbreviations of the measurements
Abbreviation Von den Driesch (1982)
151
Bd (mm)
Größte Breite distal
Greatest distal width
BF
Breite der Facies articularis
Width of the facies articularis
BFcr/BFcd
Größte Breite der Facies terminalis
cranialis/caudalis
Greatest width of the cranial/caudal facies
terminalis
BFd
Größte Breite der Facies articularis
distalis
Greatest width of the distal facies articularis
BFp
Größte Breite der Facies articularis
proximalis
Greatest width of the proximal facies
articularis
BG
Breite der Gelenkfläche
Width of the articular surface
Bp
Größte Breite proximal
Greatest proximal width
BPacd
Größte Breite über die Processus
articulares
caudales
Greatest width across the caudal processus
articularis
BPacr
Größte Breite über die Processus
articulares
craniales
Greatest width across the cranial processus
articularis
BPtr
Größte Breite über die Processus
transverse
Greatest width across the processus
transverses
BT
Größte Breite der Trochlea
Greatest width of the trochlea
CH
Crown height
CL
Crown length
CW
Crown width
Dd (Td)
Größte Tiefe distal
Greatest distal depth
Dp (Tp)
Größte Tiefe proximal
Greatest proximal depth
GB
Größte Breite
Greatest width
GH
Größte Höhe
Greatest height
GL
Größte Länge
Greatest length
GLl
Größte Länge der lateralen Hälfte .
Nur bei Equus
Greatest length of the lateral half Only with
Equus
GLm
Größte Länge der medialen Hälfte
Greatest length of the medial half
152
GLP
Größte Länge des Processus
articularis
Greatest length of the processus articularis
GLPa
Größte Länge von den Processus
articulares craniales zu den Processus
articulares caudales
Greatest length from the cranial processus
articularis to the caudal processus articularis
H
Größte Höhe
Greatest height
HFcr/HFcd
Größte Höhe der Facies terminalis
cranialis/caudalis
Greatest height of the cranial/caudal facies
terminalis
HP
Höhe im Bereich des Processus
extensorius
Height in the reach of the processus
extensorius
KD
Kleinste Breite der Diaphyse
Smalest width of the diaphysis
KLC
Kleinste Länge am Collum
Smallest length of the collum
Ld
Länge dorsal
Doral length
LG
Länge der Gelenkfläche
Length of the articular surface
LF
Länge der Facies articularis
Length of the facies articularis
LF
Lamellar factor (with mammoth teeth)
LFd
L fold length with Equus
Ll
Außenlänge lateral
Lateral exterior length
LmT
Länge des medialen Rollkamms der
Trochlea
Length of the medial ridge of the trochlea
MBS
“Mittlere” Breite der Sohle = Breite in
der Mitte der Sohle
Width of the sole in the middle
PL
Physiologische Länge des Körpers,
zentral
Physiological length of the body, central
TC
(Größte) Tiefe des Caput femoris
(Greatest) depth of the caput femoris
TD
Kleinste Tiefe der Diaphyse
Smallest depth of the diaphysis
Tl
Größte Tiefe der lateralen Hälfte
Greatest depth of the lateral half
Tm
Größte Tiefe der medialen Hälfte
Greatest depth of the medial half
153
Dd and Dp are adapted from Td and Tp of Von den Driesch (1982).
6.3 List of photographs of selected specimens
Photograph 1 Ochre and cut marks on a horse lower jaw fragment (2218-27) ................................... 43
Photograph 2 Detail of cut marks on a horse lower jaw fragment (2218-27) ...................................... 43
Photograph 3 Lower jaw of the horse with premolars and one molar and an impact mark (2218-7) . 44
Photograph 4 Growth deformation in a horse molar (2895-73)........................................................... 46
Photograph 5 Root traces on a horse rib (2798-22).............................................................................. 53
Photograph 6 Horse rib fragment with impact (2798-17 ...................................................................... 53
Photograph 7 Impact and gnawing traces on a horse scapula (2221-3) ............................................... 54
Photograph 8 Detail of gnawing traces on a horse scapula (2221-3) ................................................... 54
Photograph 9 Detail of impact and gnawing traces on a horse scapula (2221-3) ................................ 55
Photograph 10 Ochre traces on a horse carpal bone (2224-30) ........................................................... 57
Photograph 11 Ochre and gnawing traces on a horse femur fragment (2799-22)............................... 61
Photograph 12 Ochre and gnawing traces on e distal horse tibia fragment (2223-15)........................ 62
Photograph 13 Horse metataral bone (2794-4) which probably was used as a tool............................ 67
Photograph 14 distal horse metatarsus with impact traces and possibly a tool (2226-22) ................. 67
Photograph 15 Cut marks on an anterior first phalanx of the horse (2226-1) ..................................... 69
Photograph 16 Detail of cut marks on an anterior first phalanx of the horse (2226-1) ....................... 69
Photograph 17 Longitudinally fractured horse metapode (2226-31) ................................................... 74
Photograph 18 Foetal horse humerus (2217-13) .................................................................................. 76
Photograph 19 Foetal horse femur with cut marks (2217-15)............................................................. 77
Photograph 20 foetal horse humerus (2217-12)................................................................................... 77
Photograph 21 Impact and gnawing traces on a bison lower jaw fragment (2819-30)........................ 78
Photograph 22 Detail of cut marks and ochre on a bison scapula fragment (2230-1a) ....................... 82
Photograph 23 Ochre and gnawing traces on a bovid carpal bone (2231-8) ....................................... 84
Photograph 24 Cut marks on a posterior second phalanx of auroch (2236-5) ..................................... 87
Photograph 25 Ochre traces on a woolly mammoth tusk fragment (2802-36) .................................... 88
Photograph 26 Ochre traces on a woolly mammoth tusk fragment (2802-11) .................................... 89
Photograph 27 M1 woolly mammoth tooth (2777-6)........................................................................... 89
Photograph 28 M1 woolly mammoth tooth (2777-6)........................................................................... 90
Photograph 29 Possible tool from an indeterminate mammoth bone (2216-3) ................................ 92
Photograph 30 Woolly rhinoceroa cheek tooth (2232-47) ................................................................... 98
Photograph 31 Woolly rhinoceroa cheek tooth (2232-47) ................................................................... 99
Photograph 32 Woolly rhinoceros rib fragment with mark (2801-12) ................................................. 99
Photograph 33 Proximal foetal woolly rhinoceros humerus (2801-3) ................................................ 105
Photograph 34 Foetal humerus of woolly rhinoceros (2801-2) .......................................................... 105
Photograph 35 Foetal proximal woolly rhinoceros humerus (2801-4) ............................................... 106
Photograph 36 Radiocubitus bone of ibex with mark (2230-3) .......................................................... 112
6.4 List of figures
154
Figure 1 Northwest European chronostratigraphical subdivision and correlation with the marine
isotope record, and archaeological units of this study.Adapted from Hijma, 2012. Note the break of
scale at 135 ka. ........................................................................................................................................ 5
Figure 2 Map of chamber A, B and C from the third cave of Goyet (Germonpré and Sablin, 2001). III
stands for the third cave. ........................................................................................................................ 6
Figure 3 Section of the third cave (Chamber A and B) from Dupont (1872). Although the figure seems
to show more horizons, Chamber A contains four layers (horizons one to four) and Chamber B
contains two ( horizons four and five). The scale mentioned by Dupont is three millimetres for one
meter. ...................................................................................................................................................... 7
Figure 4 Figure of the spatial distribution of the third horizon of the third cave of Goyet (adapted
from Germonpré, 2001) ........................................................................................................................ 11
Figure 5 Dentition of the horse, adapted from Budras et al. (2009) .................................................... 20
Figure 6 illustration of incisor wear of horses ( Levine, 1982) .............................................................. 21
Figure 7 Illustration of cheek tooth measurements of horses (adapted from Levine, 1982) ............... 22
Figure 8 Illustration of increasing wear with increasing age of red deer (Brown and Chapman, 1991).
The first three jaws still have the deciduous premolars in place, while the fourth shows these teeth
before shedding (above) and the permantent teeth (on the jaw)........................................................ 24
Figure 9 %NISP of the horse ................................................................................................................. 37
Figure 10 %NISP of Bos/Bison............................................................................................................... 38
Figure 11 %NISP of the mammoth, all teeth combined ....................................................................... 38
Figure 12 %NISP of the woolly mammoth, tusks and other teeth separate ........................................ 39
Figure 13 %NISP of the woolly rhinoceros ........................................................................................... 39
Figure 14 %NISP of red deer ................................................................................................................. 40
Figure 15 Comparison between the metacarpal bone data of horse from Goyet A3 and Zemst IIB
(Germonpré, 1993a) .............................................................................................................................. 59
Figure 16 Comparison between the width of the proximal horse metacarpal bones of different
Pleistocene sites. The measurements are derived from Soenen (2006) for Goyet A2, Germonpré
(2003a) for Zemst IIB and Germonpré (unpublished data) for Spy....................................................... 59
Figure 17 Comparison between the femur bone data of horse from Goyet A3 and Zemst IIB
(Germonpré, 1993a) .............................................................................................................................. 61
Figure 18 Comparison of the astragalus height of the horses from different Pleistocene sites. The
measurements are taken from Soenen (2006) for Goyet A2 and Germonpré (2003a) for Zemst IIB. . 63
Figure 19 Comparison between the metatarsal bone data of horse from Goyet A3 and Zemst IIB
(Germonpré, 1993a) .............................................................................................................................. 66
Figure 20 Comparison of the distal metatarsal width of the horses from three different Pleistocene
sites. The measurements are derived from Soenen (2006) for Goyet A2, Germonpré (2003a) for
Zemst IIB and Germonpré (unpublished data) for Spy. ........................................................................ 66
Figure 21 Comparison between the first posterior phalanx bone data of horse from Goyet A3, Goyet
A2 (Soenen, 2006) and Zemst IIB (Germonpré, 1993a) ........................................................................ 68
Figure 22 Comparison between the second posterior phalanx bone data of horse from Goyet A3,
Goyet A2 (Soenen, 2006) and Zemst IIB (Germonpré, 1993a).............................................................. 71
Figure 23 Comparison between third phalanges of extant equids and Late Glacial horses: maximal
width (GB) and articular surface width (BF). The measurements of Equss przewalskii and Late Glacial
Horse were taken from Bignon et al, 2002 and those from Zemst IIB are data of Germonpré (1993a).
............................................................................................................................................................... 72
155
Figure 24 Comparison between the third posterior phalanx bone data of horse from Goyet A3, Goyet
A2 (Soenen, 2006) and Zemst IIB (Germonpré, 1993a) ........................................................................ 73
Figure 25 Comparison between the metacarpal bone data of Bos/Bison from Goyet A3 and Zemst IIB
(Germonpré, 1993a) .............................................................................................................................. 85
Figure 26 Ochre traces observed per species..................................................................................... 113
Figure 27 Ochre traces on the various elements of the horse ........................................................... 113
Figure 28 Ochre traces on the various elements of Bos/Bison .......................................................... 114
Figure 29 Ochre traces on the various elements of woolly mammoth .............................................. 114
Figure 30 Ochre traces on the various elements of woolly rhinoceros ............................................. 115
Figure 31 Ochre traces on the various elements of red deer............................................................. 115
Figure 32 Percentage of specimens with cut marks per species........................................................ 116
Figure 33 Cut marks on the various elements of the horse ............................................................... 116
Figure 34 Cut marks of the various elements of Bos/Bison ............................................................... 117
Figure 35 Cut marks on the various elements of woolly rhinoceros .................................................. 117
Figure 36 Cut marks on the various elements of red deer ................................................................. 118
Figure 37 Percentage of specimens with gnawing traces per species ............................................... 118
Figure 38 Gnawing traces of the various elements of horse .............................................................. 119
Figure 39 Gnawing traces on the various elements of Bos/Bison ...................................................... 119
Figure 40 Gnawing traces on the various elements of woolly rhinoceros ......................................... 120
Figure 41 Gnawing traces on the various elements of red deer ........................................................ 120
Figure 42 Percentage of specimens with impact traces per species.................................................. 121
Figure 43 Impact traces on the various elements of horse ................................................................ 121
Figure 44 Impact traces on the various elements of Bos/Bison ......................................................... 122
Figure 45 Impact traces on the various elements of woolly mammoth ............................................ 122
Figure 46 Impact traces on the various elements of woolly rhinoceros ............................................ 123
Figure 47 Impact traces on the various elements of red deer ........................................................... 123
Figure 48 Percentage of specimens of which bone tools were made per species ............................ 124
Figure 49 The age distribution of the horse incisors .......................................................................... 124
Figure 50 The age distribution for the horse cheek teeth.................................................................. 125
Figure 51 The age distribution for all horse teeth .............................................................................. 125
Figure 52 The age distribution of the woolly mammoth, the ages are expressed in African elephant
years .................................................................................................................................................... 126
Figure 53 The age distribution of the woolly rhinoceros, the ages assigned are expressed in black
rhinoceros years. ................................................................................................................................. 126
Figure 54 The age distribution of red deer ......................................................................................... 127
Figure 55 Body mass calculation. (a) Distal width of the third metacarpal bone, (b) distal width of the
first phalanx. The reference line (with the blue points) consists out of E. caballus pony (lower), E.
przewalskii (middle) and E. caballus heavy horse (upper) (adapted from Alberdi et al., 1995). The
results from Goyet are presented in red. ............................................................................................ 131
Figure 56 Body mass estimation of the sites Spy and Goyet A2 ........................................................ 131
Figure 57 The Equini fossils, from Europe, and the correlation between body mass and the major
climatic environmental changes. The body mass, in kilograms, is included in brackets under each
pecies name (Alberdi et al., 1995)....................................................................................................... 132
156
Figure 58 Comparison of weapon impact traces and a similar traces: (a) photographs from Pétillon
and Letourneux, 2008; (b) horse rib fragment (2798-17); (c) radiocubitus bone of ibex (2230-3); (d)
woolly rhinoceros rib fragment (2801-12) .......................................................................................... 138
Figure 59 Scheme of the spatial distribution of the third horizon of the third cave of Goyet (adapted
from Germonpré, 2001) ...................................................................................................................... 139
Figure 60 Scheme of the spatial distribution of the third horizon of the third cave of Goyet using data
from De keyzer and this study............................................................................................................. 140
6.5 List of tables
Table 1 Compilation of the available datations of the third cave of Goyet ............................................ 9
Table 2 General distribution of the herbivores in Goyet A3, the taxa partially or completely studied by
Dekeyzer (2007) are marked with an * ................................................................................................. 29
Table 3 Horse bones in A3 ..................................................................................................................... 30
Table 4 Bones of auroch/bison in A3 .................................................................................................... 31
Table 5 Woolly mammoth bones in A3 ................................................................................................. 32
Table 6 Woolly rhinoceros bones in A3 ................................................................................................. 33
Table 7 Bones of red deer in A3 ............................................................................................................ 34
Table 8 Bones of Ibex in A3 ................................................................................................................... 35
Table 9 Bones of Muskox in A3 ............................................................................................................. 36
Table 10 Sum and abundance of the different elements (NISP), part of the Cervus and all of the
Rangifer are collected by Dekeyzer (2007). .......................................................................................... 37
Table 11 Traces, NISP and MNI of the horse cranium ........................................................................... 40
Table 12 Position of the upper jaw elements of the horse ................................................................... 41
Table 13 Traces found on the horse upper jaws ................................................................................... 41
Table 14 NISP and MNI of the horse upper jaws................................................................................... 41
Table 15 Measurements of the horse upper jaw fragments................................................................. 41
Table 16 Position of the lower jaw elements of the horse ................................................................... 42
Table 17 Traces found on the horse lower jaws ................................................................................... 42
Table 18 NISP and MNI of the horse lower jaws ................................................................................... 42
Table 19 Measurements of the horse upper jaw teeth fragments ....................................................... 43
Table 20 NISP of the six different horse upper jaw incisor teeth.......................................................... 44
Table 21 NISP of the six different horse lower jaw incisor teeth .......................................................... 44
Table 22 NISP and MNI of all horse incisors .......................................................................................... 44
Table 23 Position of the horse canines ................................................................................................. 44
Table 24 NISP and MNI of the horse canines ........................................................................................ 45
Table 25 NISP of the six different horse upper jaw incisor milk teeth .................................................. 45
Table 26 NISP and MNI of the horse incisor milk teeth ........................................................................ 45
Table 27 Position, NISP and MNI of the horse P2 premolars ................................................................ 45
Table 28 Position, NISP and MNI of the horse P3 and P4 premolars .................................................... 45
Table 29 Position, NISP and MNI of the horse M1 and M2 molars ....................................................... 46
Table 30 Position, NISP and MNI of the horse M3 molars .................................................................... 46
Table 31 Measurements of all isolated horse teeth ............................................................................. 50
Table 32 Position, NISP and MNI of the indeterminate horse teeth..................................................... 51
157
Table 33 Measurements of the horse axis ............................................................................................ 51
Table 34 Measurements of a horse cervical vertebral element ........................................................... 52
Table 35 Measurements of the horse caudal vertebral elements ........................................................ 52
Table 36 Position, NISP and MNI of the horse scapula ......................................................................... 53
Table 37 Measurements of the horse scapula ...................................................................................... 53
Table 38 Position, marks, NISP and MNI of the horse humerus ........................................................... 55
Table 39 Measurements of the horse humerus .................................................................................... 55
Table 40 Position, traces, NISP and MNI of the horse radiocubitus ..................................................... 56
Table 41 Measurements of the horse radiocubitus .............................................................................. 56
Table 42 Position of the carpal bones from the horse .......................................................................... 56
Table 43 Traces on the horse carpal bones .......................................................................................... 57
Table 44 NISP and MNI of the horse carpal bones ................................................................................ 57
Table 45 Measurements taken from the horse carpal bones ............................................................... 57
Table 46 Position, NISP and MNI of the horse metacarpal bones ........................................................ 58
Table 47 Traces on the horse metacarpal bones .................................................................................. 58
Table 48 Measurements taken from the horse metacarpel bones....................................................... 58
Table 49 Position, marks, NISP and MNI of the horse pelvis ................................................................ 60
Table 50 Position of the element in the skeleton of the horse femur bones ....................................... 60
Table 51 Position of the element in the skeleton of the horse foetal femur bones ............................. 60
Table 52 Tracesn NISP and MNI of the horse femur bones .................................................................. 60
Table 53 Measurements of the horse femur bones.............................................................................. 60
Table 54 Position of the element in the skeleton of the horse tibie bones .......................................... 62
Table 55 Traces, NISP and MNI of the horse tibia bones ...................................................................... 62
Table 56 Measurements taken from the horse tibia bones .................................................................. 62
Table 57 Position, traces, NISP and MNI of the horse astragalus bones .............................................. 63
Table 58 Measurements of the horse astragalus bones ....................................................................... 63
Table 59 Position, traces, NISP and MNI of the horse calcaneum bones ............................................. 64
Table 60 Position of the element in the skeleton of the other horse tarsal bones .............................. 64
Table 61 Marks found on the other horse tarsal bones ........................................................................ 64
Table 62 NISP and MNI of the other horse tarsal bones ....................................................................... 64
Table 63 Position and adult MNI of the horse metatarsal bones ......................................................... 65
Table 64 Position of the element in the skeleton, NISP and MNI of all horse metatarsal bones ......... 65
Table 65 Traces found on the horse metatarsal bones ......................................................................... 65
Table 66 Measurements taken from the horse metatarsal bones ....................................................... 65
Table 67 Position of the element in the skeleton, NISP and MNI of the horse first phalanges ............ 68
Table 68 Measurements of the horse first phalanges .......................................................................... 68
Table 69 Position of the element in the skeleton, NISP and MNI of the horse second phalanges ....... 69
Table 70 Measurements of the horse second phalanges ..................................................................... 70
Table 71 Position of the element in the skeleton, NISP and MNI of the horse third phalanges .......... 71
Table 72 Measurements taken from the horse third phalanges .......................................................... 72
Table 73 Position of the element in the skeleton, NISP and MNI of the horse sesamoid bones.......... 73
Table 74 Measurements taken from the horse sesamoid bones.......................................................... 73
Table 75 Position, traces, NISP and MNI of the horse metapodal bones ............................................. 74
Table 76 Measurements of the horse metapodal bones ...................................................................... 74
Table 77 Position of the element in the skeleton of the horse second and fourth metapoda ............. 75
158
Table 78 Traces, NISP and MNI of the horse second and fourth metapoda ......................................... 75
Table 79 Measurements of the horse foetal bones .............................................................................. 76
Table 80 Age estimation in weeks after gestation based on measured element length, following the
correlation of Prummel (1989) .............................................................................................................. 76
Table 81 Measurements of the lower jaw bone of Bos/Bison .............................................................. 78
Table 82 Position of the element in the skeleton of the third and fourth lower jaw premolars from
Bos/Bison ............................................................................................................................................... 78
Table 83 Measurements taken from all teeth of Bos/Bison ................................................................. 80
Table 84 Measurements taken from the cervical vertebrae of Bos/Bison ........................................... 81
Table 85 Measurements taken from the caudal vertebrae of Bos/Bison ............................................. 81
Table 86 NISP and MNI of the scapula bone from Bos/Bison ............................................................... 81
Table 87 Position, NISP and MNI of the humerus bones from Bos/Bison............................................. 82
Table 88 Traces found on the humerus bones from Bos/Bison ............................................................ 82
Table 89 Measurements taken from the humerus bones of Bos/Bison ............................................... 83
Table 90 Position, NISP and MNI of the radiocubitus bones from Bos/Bison ....................................... 83
Table 91 Traces found on the radiocubitus bones from Bos/Bison ...................................................... 83
Table 92 Measurements taken from the radiocubitus bones of Bos/Bison.......................................... 83
Table 93 Traces on the carpal bones of Bos/Bison................................................................................ 84
Table 94 Position, NISP and MNI of the metacarpal bones from Bos/Bison......................................... 84
Table 95 Measurements taken from the metacarpal bones of Bos/Bison ........................................... 85
Table 96 Position, NISP and MNI of the tibia of Bos/Bison ................................................................... 86
Table 97 Traces found on the tibia bones from Bos/Bison ................................................................... 86
Table 98 Measurements of the tibia from Bos/Bison ........................................................................... 86
Table 99 Measurements of the astragalus bone from Bison ................................................................ 86
Table 100 Traces found on the second phalanges of Bos/Bison ........................................................... 87
Table 101 Measurements taken from the second phalanges of Bos/Bison.......................................... 87
Table 102 Measurements taken of the third phalanx of Bos/Bison...................................................... 88
Table 103 Position of the mammoth molars ......................................................................................... 90
Table 104 Measurements of the mammoth teeth ................................................................................ 91
Table 105 List of all woolly mammoth molars which could be given an age at death (expressed in
African elephant years) ......................................................................................................................... 92
Table 106 Position, NISP and MNI of the indeterminate mammoth bones.......................................... 92
Table 107 Traces found on the indeterminate mammoth bones ......................................................... 92
Table 108 Position of the element in the skeleton of the third and fourth upper jaw premolars of
woolly rhinoceros .................................................................................................................................. 93
Table 109 NISP and MNI of the third and fourth upper jaw premolars of woolly rhinoceros .............. 93
Table 110 Position of the element in the skeleton of the first and second upper jaw molars of woolly
rhinoceros.............................................................................................................................................. 93
Table 111 NISP and MNI of the first and second upper jaw molars of woolly rhinoceros ................... 94
Table 112 Position, NISP and MNI of the third upper jaw molar of woolly rhinoceros ........................ 94
Table 113 Position of the element in the skeleton of the third and fourth lower jaw premolars of
woolly rhinoceros .................................................................................................................................. 94
Table 114 NISP and MNI of the third and fourth lower jaw premolars of woolly rhinoceros .............. 94
Table 115 Traces of the third and fourth lower jaw premolars of woolly rhinoceros .......................... 95
159
Table 116 Position of the element in the skeleton of the first and second lower jaw molars of woolly
rhinoceros.............................................................................................................................................. 95
Table 117 NISP and MNI of the first and second lower jaw molars of woolly rhinoceros .................... 95
Table 118 Position of the element in the skeleton of the woolly rhinoceros milk teeth...................... 96
Table 119 NISP and MNI of the woolly rhinoceros milk teeth .............................................................. 96
Table 120 Position of the element in the skeleton of the intederminated woolly rhinoceros teeth ... 96
Table 121 Measurements of all woolly rhinoceros teeth ..................................................................... 98
Table 122 Traces found on the ribs of woolly rhinoceros ..................................................................... 99
Table 123 Position of the element in the skeleton of the humerus bones of woolly rhinoceros ....... 100
Table 124 Traces found on the humerus bones of woolly rhinoceros ................................................ 100
Table 125 Traces found on the radiocubitus bones of woolly rhinoceros .......................................... 100
Table 126 Position of the element in the skeleton of the carpal bones of woolly rhinoceros ........... 100
Table 127 NISP and MNI of the carpal bones of woolly rhinoceros .................................................... 100
Table 128 Traces found on the carpal bones of woolly rhinoceros .................................................... 101
Table 129 Traces found on the femur bones of woolly rhinoceros .................................................... 101
Table 130 Measurements of the astragalus from woolly rhinoceros ................................................. 101
Table 131 Age, NISP and MNI of the first phananges from woolly rhinoceros ................................... 102
Table 132 Traces found on the first phalanges of woolly rhinoceros ................................................. 102
Table 133 Measurements taken from the first phalanges of woolly rhinoceros ................................ 102
Table 134 Traces found on the second phalanges of woolly rhinoceros ............................................ 102
Table 135 Measurements taken from the second phalanges of woolly rhinoceros ........................... 103
Table 136 Age,NISP and MNI of the third phalanges from woolly rhinoceros ................................... 103
Table 137 Traces found on the third phalanges of woolly rhinoceros ................................................ 103
Table 138 Measurements taken of the third phalanges from woolly rhinoceros .............................. 104
Table 139 NISP and MNI of the sesamoid bones from woolly rhinoceros .......................................... 104
Table 140 Traces found on the sesamoid bones of woolly rhinoceros ............................................... 104
Table 141 Traces found on the metapoda of woolly rhinoceros ........................................................ 104
Table 142 Measurements taken from the metapoda of woolly rhinoceros ....................................... 104
Table 143 Measurements taken from the attached teeth of the upper jaw from red deer .............. 106
Table 144 Position of the lower jaw and presence of the teeth from red deer ................................. 107
Table 145 NISP and MNI of the lower jaw fragments of red deer ...................................................... 107
Table 146 Measurements taken on the attached teeth of the lower jaw from red deer................... 107
Table 147 Measurements of all isolated teeth from red deer ............................................................ 108
Table 148 Measurements of the radiocubitus bone from red deer ................................................... 109
Table 149 Measurements taken from the metacarpus of red deer.................................................... 109
Table 150 Measurements taken from the calcaneus bone of red deer .............................................. 110
Table 151 Position, age, NISP and MNI of the metatarsal bones from red deer ................................ 110
Table 152 Measurements taken of the metatarsal bones from red deer........................................... 111
Table 153 Measurements taken of the second phalanx from muskox ............................................... 111
Table 154 Measurements taken of the radiocubitus from ibex.......................................................... 112
Table 155 NISP and MNI of the first three horizons of the third cave of Goyet. The light blue columns
are the results from Dupont (1872). The data per horizon come from: Horizon 1 (Germonpré, 1996);
Horizon 2 (Depestele, 2005; Soenen, 2006), Horizon 3: (this study; Dekeyzer,2007; Depestele, 2005).
............................................................................................................................................................. 128
Table156: The teeth to bone ratios fot the different species from the third horizon of Goyet. ........ 129
160
Table 157 Right to left ratio for the teeth of the different species from the third horizon................ 130
6.6 Labels of Dupont with each tray
General label:
3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH – repaire d’hyènes, puis habitation de troglodytes
L’Hyène semble alors avoir repris possession de la Caverne: on trouve dans ce niveau des restes du
fauve et des os rongés. Or, par contraste saillant avec les deux niveaux inférieurs, ici ce n’est plus
l’Ours, mais l’homme lui-même qui l’expulsa. Ce Troisième niveau a en effet fourni une grande
quantité d’ossements non plus des diverses parties de squelette pour les grands animaux, mais
sutout les restes du crane et des os des membres; les os à moelle sont brisés non plus
tranversalement, mais en longs éclats; il y avait aussi beaucoup de Silex taillés, des os travaillés, des
objets de parure, des os carbonises; le tout particulièrement vers l’entrée, c’est-à-dire dans la partie
élairée du souterrain. Les 24 espèces rencontrées, outré des ossements humains:
Caractéristiques de l’Age du Mammouth
Felix leo
Ursus ferox
Hyaena spelea
Elephas primigenius
Ursus spelaeus
Rhinoceros tichorhinus
Canis lagopus
Antilope rupicapro
Arctomys marmotta
Capra ibex?
Ovibos mosquatus
Cervus tarandus
En commun avec les Ages du Renne et
Canis lupus
Bison europaeus
du Mammouth
Canis vulpes
Bos .........
Mustela ermine
Capra .........
Lepus timidus
Cervus elaphus
Equus caballus
Cervus capreolus
En commun avec l’Age du Mammouth
Sus scrofa
É.Dupont
Juillet 1905
The hyena appears to have taken back control of the cave: remains of big felids and bones with
gnawing traces have been found in this level. Or, with a conspicuous contrast with the two
underlying layers, bears are no longer present because they are expelled by humans. The third
horizon provides a large number of bones, either diverse parts of the skeleton, but mainly remains of
the skull and limbs; the marrowbones are broken either transversally but in long peals. There are also
a lot of worked silex stones and bones, ornaments, charred bones; all this especially near the
entrance of the cave, in the illuminated part. The 24 species present besides human bones are:
161
GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH
Equus caballus. Humérus, radius, cubitus de Chevaux. Ce sont les seuls restes de ces catégories. Un
fragment d'humérus porte une petite entaille.
Equus caballus. Humerus, radius, ulna of horses. These are the only remains of this category. One
fragment of a humerus bears a small cut mark.
2222
É.D. Avril 1906
GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH
Equus caballus. Vertèbres et os du bassin de Chevaux. Ce sont les seuls os de cette sorte. Un os du
bassin a servi de Lissoir et trois autres ont reçu des entailles.
Equus caballus. Vertebrae and bones of the pelvis of horses. These are the only bones from this
category. One bone of the pelvis has been used as a tool and three bear cut marks.
2766
É.D. Avril 1906
GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH
Equus caballus. Omoplates et fémurs de Chevaux. Ce sont les seuls débris d'omoplates retrouvés. Un
de ceux-ci a été utilisé comme Lissoir; un autre porte des entailles; un autre et deux parties de
fémurs ont reçu des coups de Percuteurs.
Equus caballus. Scapulas and femurs of horses. These are the only parts of shoulder blades found.
One of them has been used as a tool, another bears sut marks, yet another and two fragments of a
femur have received impacts.
2221
É.D. Avril 1906
GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH
Equus caballus. Métacarpiens et métatarsiens de Chevaux, dont 1 a servi de Lissoir, 1 autre de
Perçoir; 2 autres portent des entailles, 5 autres des coups de Percuteurs.
Equus caballus. Metacarpals and metatarsals of horses, of which one has been used as a tool,
another has been used as a piercing tool, two other bear cut marks, five others received impacts.
2794
É.D. Avril 1906
GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH
162
Equus caballus. Métacarpiens, métatarsiens, phalanges et sésamoïdes de Chevaux. L'un a été un
Lissoir et porte de plus la marque d'un des coups qui l'a brisé et deux ont été des Perçoirs.
Equus caballus. Metacarpals, metatarsals, phalanges and sesamoids of horses. One of these was used
as a tool and bears traces of the impact by which it was broken. Two have been piercing tools.
2226
É.D. Avril 1906
GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH
Equus caballus. Stylets et os du carpe et du tarse de Chevaux.
Equus caballus. Styli and wrist- and anklebones of horses.
2224
É.D. Avril 1906
GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH
Equus caballus. Tibias et autres os de Chevaux. L'un a été un Lissoir et a reçu un coup de Percuteur,
un autre et un calcaneum portent de fines entailles.
Equus caballus. Tibias and other bones of horses. One tibia has been a tool and received an impact,
another one and a calcaneum bear fine cut marks.
2223
É.D. Avril 1906
GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH
Equus caballus. Fémurs de Chevaux. Un fragment de diaphyse a été un Lissour; quatre autres ont
reçu des coups de Percuteurs et l'un d’eux a été aussi un Lissoir.
Equus caballus. Femurs of horses. A fragment of the diaphyse (shaft) has been used as a tool, four
other received impacts and one of these was also used as a tool.
2799
É.D. Avril 1906
GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH
Equus caballus. Côtes, tibias et autres os de Chevaux. Quatre fragments de tibias ont été des Lissoirs
dont un porte en outre la marque d'un coup de Percuteur; cinq autres portent la même marque.
Equus caballus. Ribs, tibias and other bones of horses. Four fragments of tibias have been used as
tools of which one also bears traces of an impact. Five others bear the same traces.
163
2798
É.D. Avril 1906
GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH
Bison europaeus. Os des membres de Bisons. Ils appartiennent à deux spécimens au moins. Un
fragment de métacarpiens à reçu un coup de Percuteur.
Bison europaeus. Bones of the limbs of bison. The belong to at least two individuals. One fragment of
a metacarpal received an impact.
2231
É.D. Avril 1906
GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH
Bison europaeus. Os divers du Bison. Il y a deux moitiés inférieures de tibias gauches d'adultes dont
une a été transformée en un beau Lissoir-Perçoir, et un fragment d'omoplate de jeune avec entailles.
Ces ossements se rapportent donc à au moins trois individus. Capra ibex. Radius et cubitus de
Bouquetin. Ovibus mosquatus. Phalange de Boeuf musqué.
Bison europaeus. Diverse bones of bison. There are two parts of a lower left tibia of which one has
been shaped into a tool and a fragment of a shoulder blade of a young individual bears cut marks.
These bones indicate at least three individuals. Capra ibex. Radius and ulna of an ibex. Ovibus
mosquatus. Phalanx of a muskox.
2230
É.D. Avril 1906
GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH
Bison europaeus. Molaires et vertèbres de Bisons. Il y a une molaire inférieure de veau et 4
troisièmes supérieures gauches adultes, ce qui implique cinq individus au moins.
Bison europaeus. Molars and vertebrae of bison. There is a lower molar of a calf and four adult third
upper left molars which indicates at least five individuals.
2819
É.D. Avril 1906
GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH
Equus caballus. Fragments de maxillaires inférieurs de Chevaux. Deux ont reçu des entailles fines et
trois des coups de Percuteurs.
Equus caballus. Fragments of the lower jaw of horses. Two received fine cut marks and three have
traces of an impact.
164
2218
É.D. Avril 1906
GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH
Bos... Ossements divers d'un Boeuf plus petit que le Bos primigenius ou Urus, mais n'en différant par
aucun caractère anatomique. Le fait se renouvelle plusieurs fois. Cervus elaphus. Os divers de notre
Cerf. La base d'un bois serait, vu ses dimensions, du C. canadensis et a été rongée. Cervus capreolus.
ou Chevreuil.
Bos... Diverse bones of a bovine smaller than Bos primigenius or Urus but the same in regard to
anatomical characteristics. This occurs several times. Cervus elaphus. Diverse bones of our deer. The
base of an antler belongs (based on its dimensions) to C. Canadensis and has been gnawed. Cervus
capreolus or roe.
2236
É.D. Avril 1906
GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH
Equus caballus. Os du cräne et de la langue de Chevaux adultes, dont un avec entailles. Humérus,
cubitus, fémurs, incisives, etc., de jeunes, mëme de foetus; ils se rapportent à 3 individus.
Equus caballus. Bones of the skull and throat of adult horses, of which one with cut marks. Humerus,
ulna, femur, incisors, etc. of young, maybe even foetus; they belong to three individuals.
2217
É.D. Avril 1906
GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH
Elephas primigenius. Morceaux de défences de Mammouths dont 3 ont été travaillés.
Elephas primigenius. Pieces of tusks of mammoths of which three are worked.
2802
É.D. Avril 1906
GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH
Elephas primigenius. Ossements de Mammouth dont trois fragments de crâne.
Elephas primigenius. Bones of mammoths of which three are fragments of the skull.
2215
É.D. Avril 1906
165
GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH
Elephas primigenius. Fragments d'humérus, de fémur, de cötes et autres de Mammouth, dont 3 ont
servi de Lissoirs.
Elephas primigenius. Fragments of humerus, femur, ribs and other bones of mammoths of which
three have been used as tools.
2216
É.D. Avril 1906
GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH
Elephas primigenius. Molaires, fragments de molaires et de défences de Mammouths jeunes et
adultes.
Elephas primigenius. Molars, fragments of molars and tusks of young mammoths and adults.
2777
É.D. Avril 1906
GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH
Rhinoceros tichorhinus. Molaires supérieures et inférieures de Rhinocéros, jeunes et adultes. D'après
les 5es supérieures et 6es inférieures gauches de ce cadre et de son voisin, ces restes se
rapporteraient à cinq individus adultes. Il y a plusieurs dents de lait. Quoique les Troglodytes
vécussent dans de véritables charniers, on voit qu'ils rejetaient au dehors une grande partie de leurs
restes.
Rhinoceros tichorhinus. Upper and lower molars of rhinoceros, young and adults. Following the left
upper 5th and lower 6th molars of this tray and its neighbour, these remains correspond with five
adult individuals. There are multiple milk teeth. Although the troglodytes live in a charnel house, a
large part of the remains are deposited outside.
2795 & 2232
É.D. Avril 1906
GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH
Rhinoceros tichorhinus. Os des membres de Rhinocéros. Un fragment de radius a sevi de Lissoir.
Rhinoceros tichorhinus. Bones of the limbs of rhinoceros. One fragment of a radius has been used as
a tool.
2792
É.D. Avril 1906
GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH
166
Rhinoceros tichorhinus. Os des membres et cötes de Rhinocéros. Un humérus a été rongé par
l'Hyène. Deux fragments d'humérus et une côte d’adultes ont reçu des coups de Percuteurs; un
radius de jeune porte des entailles.
Rhinoceros tichorhinus. Bones of the limbs and ribs of rhinoceros. A humerus has been gnawed by a
hyena. Two fragments of a humerus and an adult rib received impacts; a radius of a young individual
bears cut marks.
2801
É.D. Avril 1906
GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH
Equus caballus. 116 incisives et 27 fragments, 9 canines, 230 molaires inférieures et 39 fragments.
Dénombrement des molaires:
1e gauche, 10
4e gauche, 12
1e droite, 14
4e droite, 13.
2e gauche, 30
5e gauche, 22
2e droite, 25
5e droite, 11
3e gauche, 31
6e gauche, 16
3e droite, 26
6e droite, 23
Aucun de ces nombres n’atteint le chiffre de 38 fourni par la 3e molaire supérieure droite. Leurs
écarts sont du reste en rapport avec les autres parties presents du squelette toujours fort
incomplete, et ils prouvent que beaucoup de debris étaient rejetés hors de la Caverne.
None of these numbers reach the amount of 38 right upper third molars. This difference and also the
absence of most other parts of the skeleton prove that a lot of waste has been deposited outside the
cave.
2895
É.D. Avril 1906
GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH
Il y a ici 133 molaires supérieures gauches et 143 droites, plus 102 fragments non determinable.
1e gauche, 16
4e gauche, 20
1e droite, 18
4e droite, 21.
2e gauche, 22
5e gauche, 22
2e droite, 18
5e droite, 27
3e gauche, 31
6e gauche, 22
3e droite, 38
6e droite, 20
Les plus nombreuses, étant la 3e droite, dénotent que 38 Chevaux furent tués et apportés ici. Mais ce
nombre fut vraisemblablement plus élevé, attendu que, d’une part, parmi les 102 fragments, doivent
s’en trouver de la molaire en question, et, d’autre part, le classement des os établit qu’une faible
partie des restes de gibier était conserve dans l’habitation.
The most numerous (the right third molar) indicate at least 38 killed and traNISPorted horses. This
number lies most likely higher because, among the 102 fragments, there have to be more of this
molar. The second reason is that this classification relies on the small part of the remains of the prey
who were kept in the cave.
167
2896
É.D. Avril 1906
GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH
Equus caballus. Phalanges, sabot et sésamoides du sabot de Chevaux.
Equus caballus. Phalenges, hooves and sesamoids of the hoof of horses.
2817
É.D. Avril 1906
6.7 Dutch resume
De (derde) grot van Goyet is een belangrijke archeologische en paleontologische Pleistocene site
van België. Deze grot is gesitueerd in de zuidelijke rand van het Synclinorium van Namen, nabij
de vallei van de Maas. De site ligt bij de samenvloeiing van de Strouvia met de Samson, een
kleine zijrivier van de Maas. E. Dupont heeft tijdens de jaren 1860 deze grot uitgegraven en
ontdekte en verzamelde er duizenden beenderen. Hij nam deze vondsten op in een stratigrafie
met vijf horizonten, maar de ruimtelijke verdeling is slecht gekend.
Het doel van deze thesis is een analyse van de herbivoren (tafononomisch, osteometrisch en
archeozoologisch) uit de derde horizon van de derde grot van Goyet, België. Dit kadert in een
reeks onderzoeken om het paleontologisch materiaal nader te bestuderen. De carnivoren
werden het laatste decennium onderzocht (Depestele, 2005; Germonpré, 2004; Germonpré et
al., 2009; 2013: Germonpré en Hämälainen, 2007; Germonpré en Sablin, 2001). De herbivoren
van de eerste horizon werden bestudeerd door Germonpré (1996, 1997) en Dekeyzer (2007).
Soenen (2006) heeft de herbivoren van de tweede horizon onderzocht en Dekeyzer (2007)
analyseerde ook de rendieren van de derde horizon. De resultaten van Dekeyzer (2007) over de
rendieren en over een deel van de edelherten (ongepubliceerde data) werden opgenomen in
deze analyse om een compleet overzicht te geven van alle herbivoren.
De fossielen van Goyet dateren uit het Pleniglaciaal en het Laat-Glaciaal. Er werden niet enkel
overblijfselen van de fauna ondekt maar ook stenen en benen artefacten van prehistorische
mensen. De industrieën uit het Paleolithicum worden toegeschreven aan het Mousteriaan, het
Aurignaciaan, het Gravettiaan en het Magdaleniaan. Er zijn niet alleen artefacten, maar ook
menselijke skeletresten. Deze resten behoren tot Neanderthalers en anatomisch moderne
mensen en getuigen van verschillende fasen in de bewoning van deze grot.
De volgende soorten komen voor in de derde horizon van de derde grot van Goyet: Equus sp.,
Bos, Bison, Mammuthus primigenius, Coelodonta antiquitatis, Cervus elephus, Rangifer tarandus,
Ovibos moschatus en Capra ibex. Rangifer en Equus komen het meest voor. De andere species
zijn (in volgorde van grootste abundantie): Coelodonta antiquitatis, Mammuthus primigenius,
Bos/Bison spp., Cervus elephus, Ovibos moschatus en Capra ibex.
Een vergelijking van de resultaten uit de bovenste drie horizons van de derde grot van Goyet
levert de volgende resultaten op. De derde horizon heft het meeste aantal specimen.
168
Daarentegen bezit deze laag het minste aantal verschillende herbivore soorten and de laagste
MNI (minimum aantal individuen).
Al zijn er een aantal tafonomische effecten aanwezig zoals een selectie van het materiaal in de
grot door prehistorische mensen en roofdieren, toch blijken een aantal zaken uit de fossiele
assemblage. Tanden zijn de best bewaarde elementen in de assemblage wat resulteert in een
dominantie van de craniale over de postcraniale elementen. Wanneer we de postcraniale
elementen nader bekijken blijkt dat de fragmenten afkomstig van grotere botten beter
vertegenwoordigd zijn. Dit wijst op een betere bewaring van dit materiaal. Een groep botten
waar ook veel fragmenten van gevonden zijn, wordt gevormd door de metapodale botten.
Twee ratios konden ook berekend worden aan de hand van de aan- en afwezigheid van bepaalde
elementen om de kwaliteit van bewaring in Goyet in te schatten. De eerste ratio is de verhouding
van tanden ten opzichte van de beenderen. Deze waarde (voor paarden) is vergelijkbaar met
andere sites en lijkt relatief goed. Dit getal kan wel beïnvloed zijn door de invloed van
prehistorische mensen op de initiële waarde. De tweede ratio die berekend werd is de
verhouding van linker- en rechtertanden. Voor de meeste soorten indiceren de waarden een
onevenwicht wat op een verstoring van de resten sinds de dood van de individuen wijst.
De metingen verricht op de paardenbeenderen kunnen op verschillende manieren gebruikt
worden. Paarden uit the Laat Glaciaal bezitten grotere derde falanxen dan modern paarden. Dit
kan aangetoond worden met de metingen uit de derde horizon van Goyet en wijst op een
aanpassing aan zware gronden in de buurt van rivieren. Extra metingen van de tweede horizon
van Goyet en van Zemst IIB bevestigen deze trend. De metingen uit Zemst stammen uit een
oudere periode en kunnen te wijten zijn aan een algemene vergroting. Andere metingen geven
informative over de reductie in lichaamsgrootte van de paarden tijdens het Pleistoceen. Hiervoor
worden de resultaten uit Goyet A3 vergeleken met metingen uitgevoerd door Gemonpré (1993a)
van Zemst IIB, door Soenen (2006) van Goyet A2 en Germonpré (niet gepubliceerd) van Spy. Alle
beenderen met voldoende metingen worden vergeleken en indiceren dat de paarden van Zemst
IIB groter zijn. Aangezien deze resten de grootste ouderdom hebben sluit dit aan bij de reductie
in lichaamsgrootte tijdens het Pleistoceen. De resultaten van de andere gegevens zijn meer
variabel ten opzichte van elkaar.
Vervolgens wordt een schatting van de massa van de paarden gemaakt via de methode van
Alberdi et al. (1995). Deze resultaten zijn minder duidelijk: de eerste metingen geven een massa
die in overeenstemming is met de verwachtingen voor Laat Glaciale paarden. De tweede
metingen echter geven een te zware waarde en lijken minder betrouwbaar. De massa van de
paarden uit Spy en de tweede horizon werd ook bepaald met vergelijkbare resultaten.
De frequentieverdeling van de wolharige mammoet wijst op een duidelijke dominantie van de
cranial elementen, vooral de tanden zijn sterk vertegenwoordigd. Dit komt overeen met andere
sites en kan verklaard worden door de introductie van deze schedels in de grot door
prehistorische mensen. Sommige van deze schedels (en vooral de slagtanden) zijn
binnengebracht voor de vervaardiging van ivoren parels.
169
Op basis van de metingen verricht op de resten van oeros/bison kon ook een reductie van de
lichaamsgrootte vastgesteld worden. Een element dat initieel tot beide soorten kon behoren
werd op basis van vergelijkingsmateriaal geclassificeerd als bison. De wolharige neushoorn lijkt
ook deze trend van een kleinere grootte te ondersteunen. De muskusos vertoont ook deze trend
naar een kleinere lichaamsgrootte. Er is slechts één tweede falanx aanwezig in Goyet A3, maar
deze is groter dan deze van de moderne muskusossen. Deze interpretaties zijn wel gebaseerd op
een zeer beperkt aantal metingen. De lage abundatie in Goyet van deze soort lijkt ook de minder
geschikte klimaatsomstandigheden (nabijheid van de Atlantische oceaan en dus vochtiger) voor
de muskusos in België te bevestigen.
Het toewijzen van een geslacht aan de verschillende species is moeilijk: aan de ene kant is er
weinig sexueel dimorfisme en aan de andere kant ontbreken de karakteristieke elementen door
de beperkte fossiele assemblage. Een mannelijk edelhert kon wel bevestigd worden door de
aanwezigheid van de basis van het gewei.
De leeftijdsverdelingen op basis van de tanden geven de volgende resultaten. Drie soorten
hebben een gelijkaardige belvormige leeftijdsverdeling: paard, wolharige neushoorn en edelhert.
Dit wijst op een selectieve jachtmethode, geassocieerd met prehistorische mensen. De verdeling
van de wolharige mammoet wordt gedomineerd door jongere dieren. In vergelijking met
dezelfde soort in Spy is het aandeel zeer jonge dieren hier minder. De jongere dieren werden hier
toegewezen aan de jacht en het groter aandeel oudere dieren werd toegeschreven aan de
productie van ivoren parels.
Een aantal foetussen van het paard kunnen ook gebruikt worden om een leeftijd bij overlijden te
bepalen. De resultaten hiervan geven aan dat deze individuen gedood werden tussen de 20 en
de 33 weken na de bevruchting. Aangezien de paartijd van paarden in de zomer valt, volgt hieruit
dat deze dieren gedood werden tijdens de winter. Een snijspoor op één van de resten wijst op
menselijk handelen maar andere carnivoren kunnen niet uitgesloten worden.
De invloed van enerzijds prehistorische mensen en anderzijds carnivoren kan geobserveerd
worden bij de derde horizont. Menselijke sporen zijn vertegenwoordigd door snijsporen, oker,
sommige impacten en de vervaardiging van benen werktuigen. Dierlijke sporen zijn de
knaagsporen. Deze informatie wordt gebruikt in het archeozoologisch onderzoek.
Oker is abundant aanwezig in de derde horizont: 23 % van de fossiele herbivore assemblage
draagt sporen van deze kleurstof. De soort die het meest bedekt is met oker is de wolharige
mammoet. Dit wordt veroorzaakt door het grote aantal slagtandfragmenten met oker,
geassocieerd met de productie van ivoren parels.
De herbivoren van de derde horizont vertonen ook snijsporen, 18 % van de totale assemblage.
Deze sporen bevestigen de aanwezigheid van en slachtactiviteiten van de prehistorische mensen.
Dit zijn niet de enige spore die hiermee geassocieerd zijn, ook het openbreken van botten voor
merg is mogelijk. In Goyet hebben wij onderkaken van paarden geobserveerd die met dit doel
gebroken zijn. Een ander spoor is waarschijnlijk afkomstig van een impact door een wapen. Het
verschil tussen toevallige breuken en degene die toegebracht zijn met een bedoeling is niet altijd
170
duidelijk. Sommige botten zijn aan de hand van slijtagepatronen geclassificeerd als werktuigen,
maar ook het charriage-à-sec effect is een mogelijke verklaring hiervoor.
Er zijn minder knaagsporen aanwezig, 13 % van de herbivore assemblage vertonen sporen van
beknaging. De grootste herbivoren (wolharige mammoet en wolharige neushoorn) vertonen
minder knaagsporen dan de overige soorten. Dit bevestigd de stelling dat prehistorische mensen
als enige van de aanwezige predatoren in Goyet actief op deze soorten jaagden. De kleinere
soorten dragen meer knaagsporen want deze soorten werden ook bejaagd door de overige
carnivoren (holenhyena, holenleeuw, caniden, beer).
De ruimtelijke verdeling van de resten is minder goed gedocumenteerd maar een algemene
trend in meer snijsporen nabij de ingang van de grot en meer knaagsporen dieper in de grot kan
waargenomen worden.
171