National Multicultural Interpreter Project
African American/Black Curriculum
Cultural Knowledge and Sensitivity - Lecture Notes
Senior Editor’s note: This curriculum is a work in progress. It was beyond the scope of this project to
have conducted research. The curriculum represents the life experiences of Black Deaf adults and
Black interpreters and their observations. These individuals have been directly with this population. The
topics were listed because they are relevant questions. As more is researched and published these
areas can be more developed. The editors would recommend that these topics be included in panel
discussions, given as research topic and questions to students. It has been the writers observations that
writings by others in directly related fields such as socio linguistics, social work and multicultural studies
are now beginning to provide this information. The information on Black history and Black identity is
provided as supplementary and not in substitution for an appropriate course or speaker on these
complex topics.
Lecture Notes:
I. African American/Black Cultural Terminology
1. Complexity of African American/Black terms and labels
Why have we included the two terms of African American and Black? There are even more
commonly used terms that many individuals and groups prefer to use. We wish to acknowledge and
respect these preferences. These two common terms are used in this document to refer to anyone
residing in the United States who is American (born or naturalized as a United States citizen) either
from African heritage and to those who prefer the term “Black American”, or others to whom the term
“Black” or “African” in the broadest sense also includes individuals who are from other countries who
have more recently immigrated to the United States. For consistency in NMIP documents, the term
African American/Black will be used.
2. Preferential terms in the United States
There are many additional terms used within the African American/Black communities. Some
describe specific groups within the larger racial/ethnic. An examination of culture and how it shapes
behavior must include key cultural definitions, words, phrases as well as those pertaining to, and
descriptive of, African Americans/Blacks and the other African descended cultural communities
including Deaf African Americans/Blacks. There are many intricacies of cultural identity development
and cultural labels, stereotypes and assumptions and how these are linked to how we define
ourselves and or how others impose their labels on groups.
Sources:
Summerfield, E. (1997). Survival kit for multicultural living. Yarmouth: Intercultural Press, Inc.
Anderson, G., & Moore, R. (1995) Myths and Fallacies of Providing Multicultural Services.
Edited by B. D. Snyder. Innovative Partnerships in Recovery: The Diverse Deaf Experience.
Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press.
Guest-Emery, S. (1990) Cousin Hattie’s Sister’s People: The Ties Between Identity and
Leadership Within the Black Deaf Community. Empowerment and Black Deaf Persons.
Washington, DC: Gallaudet University.
3. African American/Black preferred signs
One of the preferred sign comes from Africans who represent the beautiful “mother” continent as
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the human face and long neck as the shape of the continent. Individual countries can be referenced
by indicating a point on the “face” for example Nigeria would be under the neck near the chin, and
Morocco - a little above the forehead. This explanation came from Emmanuel Azodeh, who identifies
as a Deaf African man from Nigeria. It was printed with illustrations in the March 1994 issue of Silent
News. As we become more international we need to become familiar with the other Deaf
communities signs for themselves.
1) Sign for “AFRICA” - Preferred - Move the thumb of the A hand in a counter clockwise
direction around the face and stop at the jaw. (Note: does not touch face)
2) Sign for “AFRICA” - Not-preferred - Trace a half-circle in the air to the right with the flat hand;
then drop the hand away to the right. (the shape of continent traced to the person’s side).
3) Sign for “AFRICA” - Not preferred - Move the right thumb across the right eyebrow. (an
initialized form of the color BLACK).
Black person or African American are derived from the sign in ASL for “BLACK” in the gloss for
the color black or a compound sign AFRICA + AMERICA + agent for person.
There are older signs and derived name signs for some Black persons that indicated the letter “N”
on the nose; or circled the face and touched the nose. These are very socially restricted signs.
Some older signers use them in the same sense as older term “colored” but are not considered
appropriate for non-Black signers and interpreters to use.
Even as this curriculum is being developed there are different useages and opinions,
please consult regional and respected cultural
4. Diversity within United States African American/Black populations
Where are African Americans/Blacks from?
The concept of “race” is a social construct. “Race” lacks a clear biological basis in modern
genetics. In common usage, it refers to a category of people who share certain physical
characteristics as skin color, and other facial and physical features. The concept of “race” as
opposed to “human” has contributed historically to a basis for discrimination and victimization of
groups of people. Race is more accurately a perception of significant biological differences. In the
United States the term “race” often refers to a political use to mean “Black versus White” issues. In
the attempt to provide census data the Equal Opportunity Commission uses the term “Black, not of
Hispanic origin,” since many Cubans and Puerto Ricans also have populations descended from
African ancestry. It is more relevant to speak of ethnic and cultural histories.
The term African American/Black refers to individuals who have directly or indirectly descended
from ancestors who came from the great continent of Africa. Africa was and is composed of a
multitude of ethnic/cultural variations, languages, and traditions. It is and never was a monolithic
culture. Each group brought its own unique language influences, cultural traditions, and religious
beliefs. There is incredible diversity within the cultural groups.
1) Carribean Islands descent - people from the Caribs (the eastern and southern) West Indies or
to the Carribean Sea
2) West Indies descent - people from the string of islands between North and South American
known of as the “West Indies”
3) Jamaican descent - people from the island of Jamaica; an island in the West Indies south of
Cuba
4) Haitian decent - people from the island of the Republic of Haiti, which shares the island of
Hispaniola with the Dominican Republic
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5) African descent - people from the continent of Africa; individuals are from individually named
counties such as i.e. Nigeria, South Africa, or Kenya
There is additional diversity represented by terms of bi-racial, multi-racial. Each indicating that
individuals share more than one identity and ethnic or cultural background.
In describing one’s group identity there differences between the order of terms used in Africa and
in the United States. In Africa Blacks are the overwhelming majority, thus Deaf Kenyans are part of
the majority Kenyan culture. Within the majority hearing Kenyan culture, Deaf Kenyans are a
minority. In the United States Black deaf are a minority within both the majority American cultures
and the majority White deaf cultures. Thus, in Africa individuals tend to identify as Deaf first, i.e. Deaf
Kenyan as opposed to here in the United States where being “Black” may be a unifying factor for
individuals who are Black and Deaf such as in National Black Deaf Advocates. The use of the
capitalization indicates the “cultural” use of the terms.
5. Culturally specific lexicon and Its evolutionary usage
Preferred labels and self-identity
1) Preferred terms have also evolved and changed historically as Negro, Colored, AfroAmerican, and more currently African American, and Black. Some of the older forms still
remain in names of organizations such as the NAACP. The Special Interest Group of RID
currently self-names itself “Interpreter/Transliterators of Color” to refer to all people who are
encompassed. Grappling with what has been termed “people first” language and the
reticence to label people creates editorial and linguistic challenges. More important than any
specific “term” is the attitude of respect for people’s rights to self-identify.
2) Historically terms have evolved to be the current preferred or most representative of specific
groups. It is impossible to gain complete “consensus” however the term “politically correct” or
“PC” is used most times as an attempt to disparage or minimize a group’s legitimate attempt
to request respectful changes of everyday language.
3) Pejorative terminology and phrases
Social evolution and socially restricted uses of “N” word.
The term “N” word is a euphemistic reference to the term “nigger” which is derived from the
French nègre, and the Spanish or Portuguese negro and originally from the Latin for “black” niger.
In the United States, it has been regarded as extremely pejorative since the early nineteenth
century. In the era of slavery, it was often inserted as part of a name, as in the character name of
“Nigger Jim” in Mark Twain’s novel. Later, it was also been added to any other class of “dark”
skinned groups such as Arabs referred to as “sand niggers” during the Reagan Administration
[Terrance H. Bell, in Rawson 1989, 268].
In contemporary usage, it is no longer acceptable to use the term or related words such as
any phrases based on the word such as “niggardly” meaning stingy. Many non-Black individuals
question the use of the term when used by Black individuals in male linguistic behavior or by
Black comedians. Young Black men have used the term at least since the 1990's to mean
“friend”, “person” or other similar meaning. It would be understood to be non-derogatory and
nonracial. This use may indicate a reclaiming of linguistic “control” by some groups and
individuals, while other Black individuals may continue to see the term as very offensive. The
general rule for non-Black individuals can be best expressed by the phrase “don’t go there”. This
may create linguistic issues for interpreters who are non-black interpreting the direct remarks of
other individuals either Black or non-Black who incorporate the term. A more in-depth discussion
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of the these and other terms are found in The Color of Words.
Other pejorative terms and definitions include:
Negro/Negroid - relating to or characteristic of or being a member of the traditional racial division
of mankind having brown to black pigmentation. A person with dark skin who comes from Africa
or whose ancestors came from Africa.
Colored - of some other color than white; specifically applied to Negroes or persons having Negro
blood; as a colored man; the colored people.
Nigger/Nigra/Nigress/Jigaboo/Coon/Spade/ and many others are vulgar insults and ethnic slurs;
are offensive names.
Implied racist or prejudicial statements:
There are a number of phrases that when used are insulting. Often the person uttering them
is “unaware of the layers” of attitudes that they reveal. They frequently feign ignorance of the
statements which further compounds the issue. Some examples are:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
One of my best friends is Black.
I don’t see “color”, I just you as a person.
You people should...
Why are you so upset about...
All African Americans have good voices, play basketball well etc.
Calling an African American/Black male “boy” or “son”
What do Black people think about..
Referring to Blacks as “culturally deprived”
You are not like most other Blacks, you are different
Anyone as a credit to their race
You don’t sound/talk/sign Black
4) Intra-group norms - Afro-centricism refers to normative approach that focuses on
understanding African American culture, attitudes, and behaviors from a perspective of the
community. One of the leading writers on this topic is Asante’s writings on Afrocentricism.
5) External group norms - Euro-centricism the normative approach that places European and
United States White history, language, culture’s attitudes and behaviors as the preferred
standard with the effect of labeling individuals and groups as invisible or marginalized or
deviant at its most extreme is it termed “white supremacy.”
6. African American Deaf Community Acronyms
Some commonly used, please check with other groups
1) NBDA - National Black Deaf Advocates
2) NAOBI - National Alliance of Black Interpreters
3) NCCD - National Christian Conference of the Deaf
4) IIDS - International Institute of Deaf Services
7. Frequently used terminology and acronyms
1) NAACP - National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
2) HBCU - Historically Black Colleges and Universities (includes Howard University in
Washington, DC)
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3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
13)
14)
BPB - Black Panther Party - 1966
CORE - The Congress of Racial Equality
COCIG - Church of God in Christ
NBC - National Baptist Convention
NCNW - National Council of Negro Woman
NFAAW - National Federation of Afro American Women
NUL - National Urban League
RAM - Revolutionary Action Movement
SCLC - Southern Christian Leadership Conference
SNCC (pronounced “snick”) - Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee
UNCF - United Negro College Fund
UNIA - United Negro Improvement Association (1914)
II. United States Historical Perspectives: African American/Black Views on History
On these topics of historical perspectives and chronology, it is beyond the often beyond the
scope of an interpreter education program to provide in-depth and current information on these
topics. Even as this curriculum was being developed many new resources have been published on
many of these topics. The curriculum writers suggest that instructors facilitate students to facilitate
their own independent learning. Students who are unfamiliar with Black History should be
encouraged to take a course from the African American/Black Studies department. There are in
addition several available bibliographies of books on the topic. In addition there are some
outstanding PBS and documentary video programs available: “Africans in America”, “History of
Jazz.” and the videodocumentary on the civil rights era “Eyes on the Prize.”
1. African American/Black Historical Chronology
The “history” of the United States has only recently begun to include an Afro-centric viewpoint of
the individuals, events, practices that have created the unique culture known as African American.
There are many controversial issues that have only recently begun to become part of the national
awareness. Topics that have been in the spotlight very recently such as the discussions of the
offspring of Sally Hemmings and Thomas Jefferson. Controversial questions: Did slavery destroy
African roots or did it create and strengthen a new cultural identity “American Black culture?” These
are some of the challenging questions that are being addressed in the post Civil Rights era in the
United States
A comprehensive examination of historical views about African Americans/Blacks from the EuroAmerican traditional perspective; the African American/Black perspective; includes a comparison of
similarities and differences in viewpoints. Emphasis should be placed on the value of opposing
viewpoints as well as the acknowledgment of the diverse views of other sub-groups.
Resource: Bender, D. L., & Leone, B. Series Editors. Racism in America: Opposing
Viewpoints. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, Inc.
The following are a listing of significant historical periods in the United States. This historical
legacy of United States history and that of other countries that had slavery systems has created for
many groups a shared cultural history and set of cultural values, beliefs, and attitudes especially as
they relate to White cultures.
1) Pre-arrival and arrival into the United States (Pre-history to 1500 -1600 AD)
Some of the world’s most sophisticated cultures and civilizations began on the continent of
Africa. Today, in Africa, there are many nations, and tribal nations that are composed of
incredible diversity. There is some evidence to suggest that Africans came to what we now call
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North America and interacted with Native Americans over 1,000 years ago.
Some of the earliest Africans were brought into the United States and were not slaves. They
were free and could own land. By the mid-1600's the practice of slavery was established in the
American colonies.
2) Slave trade period (1500-1865)
The majority of our contemporary United States populations are descended from the Africans
from multiple tribal heritages that were brought with explorers and settlers after 1500. Millions of
Africans were brought to America as slaves before 1860.
The Revolutionary War - among many others Crispus Attucks, an escaped slave, and sailor
that was among the first people killed at the Boston Massacre in 1770. James Armistead, and
Pompey were two spies who helped in colonial victories. Mark Starlin was a captain in the
revolutionary navy.
3) The Institution of Slavery
The institution of slavery was established by law; and the codes designated slaves as
property not as people. The practice was widespread in the South, although many Northerners
benefitted from the economic gain, and also bought and sold slaves. There were resistence and
revolt efforts among slaves, some well known leaders were Gabriel Prosser, Denmark Vesey, Nat
Turner and Harriet Tubman. There were many more.
Other individuals obtained an education and fought using moral and legal arguments, most
notable were Frederick Douglass, Dred Scott, and Sojourners Truth. There were many more.
4) Civil War era (1861-1865)
The Civil War brought a complex set of North versus South ideological and economic
conflicts. Individuals who resided in both the North and South found themselves in a bloody civil
War. The Union enlisted former slaves and allowed them to fight in the war. Approximately
38,000 lost their lives. The Emancipation Proclamation signed by President Abraham Lincoln
freed all slaves. This did not extend to the states or parts of states that were in rebellion against
the United States until the Union victory in 1865.
5) Post Civil War - Triumphs and Setbacks (1865-1950's)
Amendments to the United States Constitution - During this time, there were several amendments
to the United States Constitution:
th
13 Amendment Abolished Slavery
th
14 Amendment made African Americans United Stated citizens
th
15 Amendment helped protect African American voting rights
Reconstruction - Federal policies provided political, social and economic gains especially in the
south.
Rise of the Ku Klux Klan - Jim Crow Laws - in White backlash, many Whites joined the rise of the
Ku Klux Klan formed in 1865; and in political retaliation passed a series of discriminatory laws
referred to as “Jim Crow Laws” - these backed inequalities and solidified segregation in the
South.
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The Tuskegee Institute
“The Tuskegee Institute was founded by Booker T. Washington in 1881 under a charter from
the Alabama legislature for the purpose of training teachers in Alabama. Tuskegee’s program
provided students with both academic and vocational training. The students, under Washington’s
direction built their own buildings, produced their own food, and provided for most of their own
necessities. The Tuskegee faculty utilized each of these activities to teach the students basic
skills that they could share with African American communities throughout the South.
Source: http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/odyssey/educate/bookert.html
Founding of the NAACP in 1909 - The National Association for the Advancement of Colored
People
“Founded in 1909 in New York City by a group of black and white citizens committed to social
justice, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) is the nation's
largest and strongest civil rights organization.”
“The NAACP's principal objective is to ensure the political, educational, social and economic
equality of minority group citizens of United States and eliminate race prejudice. The NAACP
seeks to remove all barriers of racial discrimination through democratic processes. This mission
is accomplished by seeking the enactment and enforcement of federal, state, and local laws
securing civil rights, and by informing the public of the adverse effects of racial discrimination.”
Source: www.naacp.org - September 20, 2000.
The National Urban League was formed in 1911.
“Founded in 1910, the National Urban League is the premier social service and civil rights
organization in America. The League is a nonprofit, community-based organization
headquartered in New York City, with 115 affiliates in 34 states and the District of Columbia.”
“The mission of the National Urban League is to assist African Americans in the achievement
of social and economic equality. The Board of Trustees of the National Urban League and all of
its affiliates reflect a diverse body of community, government, and corporate leaders. The
League implements its mission through advocacy, bridge building, program services, and
research.“
Source: www.nul.org September 20, 2000.
Movement to the North - In the 1910's thousands of African Americans began to migrate from the
South to the North for employment and perceptions of more political freedoms.
6) World War I and World War II
During these wars Blacks served in all-Black units. Fighting and serving with honor for their
country, however these veterans were not treated with equal military respect and honors upon
returning home. During World War I over 200,000 Black soldiers were sent overseas. Until 1991,
of the 127 Medals of Honor none were awarded to Black soldiers. Then, in 1991 President Bush
th
posthumously awarded the 128 Medal of Honor to Corporal Freddie Stowers.
In World War II, over 700,000 Blacks had served in the Army, 165,000 in the Navy, 5,000 in
the Coast Guard, and 17,000 in the Marine Corps. Nearly 4,000 Black women served in the
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Women’s Army Corp. At the end of the war, no black soldier, or sailor had been awarded the
Medal of Honor. In 1997, after a congressional inquiry, President Clinton presented six heroes
Medals of Honor posthumously to their families, and one to Vernon Baker, the only surviving
member of the group. One excellent example of Black excellence and participation is the story of
the Tuskegee pilots which was made into a motion picture.
After World War II, President Truman, issued Executive Order 9981 establishing a policy of
equal treatment and opportunity for all persons in the Armed Forces. Many thousands of African
Americans fought in combat, or served at home in the war effort. Upon their return, they were
dismayed that they were not treated as equal war “heroes.”
7) Korean War
The Executive Order of Truman to integrate military units was ignored until General
MacArthur was replaced by General Ridgeway. By the end of the war more than 220,000 Blacks
had enlisted in the Army making up approximately 13% of the world-wide strength. The last allBlack active-duty unit had been disbanded, and Black enlistments continued to grow.
8) Modern Civil Rights Movement
1. 1954 Brown v Board of Education overturned “Separate but Equal”
2. 1964 Civil Rights Act
9) Vietnam War era
During Vietnam a disproportionate number of African Americans were drafted and served in
Vietnam, under represented on draft boards, they were less likely to obtain deferments. When
the general population was 13% Black, Blacks accounted for 20% of the casualties from 1965-67
so the military transferred more Blacks to support positions. By the end of Vietnam 7,115 of the
58,151 Americans that were killed were Black (12.2 percent).
Today’s Military
African Americans account for approximately 20% of the current military forces. More and
more Blacks are achieving higher officer ranks. The contributions of General Colin L. Powell,
who was selected as the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in 1989, is perhaps the most well
known. Thousands of African Americans have contributed to the strength and stability of our
modern nation.
Resource for African American/Black in the Military - A Review of Data on Black Americans
prepared by the Directorate of Research Defense Equal Opportunity Management Institute ROD
Series Pamphlet 98-3.
10) Reactions to apartheid in South Africa Separate But Equal
11) 1990's - Emergence of the concept of “ multiculturalism” has refocused the traditional “Black
and White” references and has produced several challenges:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Diversity of views on “multiculturalism”
Opposing United States majority or “White” views
African American views
Other groups views
Comparison of Views/ Similarities and Differences
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6. Merging of Views
7. Prevalence of hate crimes and hate groups in the United States
12) The New Millennium - Our Future
African American/Black citizens will build on the political, economic, and social gains of the
decade of the 1990's to continue to gain equality, not only here in the United States, but in the
world, build increased political power, and voting strength and turnout. Seek solutions to the
continued disproportionate underemployment, and access to educational, and social services.
Continue to do historical and educational research to preserve their unique cultural heritage as
African American/Black citizens.
African American/Black Deaf Community
The African American/Black Deaf community is a mirror of the greater African
American/Black population, and continues to meet the same challenges within the larger
American Deaf Community. However, according to an article in the NAD Broadcaster (February,
1994) “To be a member of a minority and a disability spells double jeopardy of encountering
double discriminations.” Quoting other sources writer Leye J. Chrzanwoski writes “that 77% of
African Americans with disabilities do not work. Although the government is aware of this
information, almost no funding is spent on researching minorities with disabilties. Tracking and
surveying individuals is more difficult because often the two demographic questions are not linked
in surveys, or other census counting techniques.
After 1860 additional Black individuals have come into the United States from the Carribean
Islands and other countries.
III. Demographics and Diversity Within the African American/Black Communities
1. United States population and census projections
As of 1990 the United States counted 30 million Blacks an increase of 4 million from 1980. This
accounts for a 13% increase and about 12% of the nation’s total population. Although most is from
natural increase. Individuals immigrating from the Carribean Islands and Africa also contributed.
Population projections
Between 1970 and 1992, the African American/Black population of the United States increased
by 68%, from 22.6 million to 33.1 million.
Between 1990 and 1995, the African American/Black population grew at double the rate of the
White population, increasing by 9 percent versus 4.5 percent for Whites, and 5.5% nationwide.
2. Geographical and Regional populations and characteristics
1) Urban population trends
1. The South - In 1990, the total of all Black Americans residing in the South was 52.8
percent, making up 18.5% of the total southern population.
2. Metropolitan cities - In 1992 approximately 56 percent of the Black population lived in
major metropolitan cities like New York, Los Angeles, Washington, DC, Chicago, Detroit,
and Atlanta. This compares to 26 percent of Whites. There has been a recent trend with
a reverse migration of people moving from Northen cities back to cities in the New South
such as Atlanta.
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3. Neighborhoods - The majority, but not all, African American/Blacks reside in
disproportionately Black neighborhoods.
Source: Massey, D. S. & Denton, N. A. (December 1992). “American Apartheid,”
American Demographics. 22-39.
2) Rural populations trends
3) Housing and household
1. Fair Housing Act
2. Income
3. Civilian Labor Force - In 1995, of the approximately 14.8 million African American/Black
people who were in the civilian labor force in 1995, 10.6 percent of males were
unemployed, and 10.2 percent of females were unemployed. This compares with an
unemployment rate for Whites of 4.9 percent for males, and 4.8 percent for females.
These rates are an improvement from 1983 when the rates were comparatively 21% for
Blacks, and 9.7% for Whites. The numbers are better while the ratio remains the same.
4) Underemployment
1. In 1995, African American/Black made up only:
4.9 percent of all physicians
3.6 percent of all teachers
4.7 percent of all engineers
6.2 percent of all college professors
7.5 percent of all managers and administrators
In 1995, although African American/Black comprised 10.6 percent of the total civilian
workforce, they were 20 percent of all the private household cleaners and servants, down
from 42.4% in 1983.
3. Distribution of Deaf African-Americans/ Black communities
Resource: United States Census Bureau Data at http://www.census.gov/
IV. African American/Black (Deaf and Hearing) Community Roles and Status
The complexity of identify development in the African American/Black Communities may be best
addressed in a psychology, or sociology course that focuses on either Ethnic Identity Development,
or Black Identity. A guest lecturer may be specifically invited to present this topic.
1. Identify issues within the African American/Black community and theories of “Nigrescence”
There is no one simple theory of Black identity development. Theories of “Nigrescence” and ego
development attempt to capture the unique psychological and cultural experiences of individuals who
are raised as a member of a minority group in the United States. The “ethnic identity development”
model of Jean Phinney builds on the Erikson’s Stages of identity development and compares ethnic
development of various ethnic groups to adolescent identity development.
William E. Cross and Peony Fhagen-Smith, in their chapter “Nigrescence” and Ego Identity
Development Accounting for Differential Black Identity Patterns in Counseling Across Cultures
attempt to merge the theories of Erikson and “Nigrescence” theories in a way that applies to
individuals who have achieved positive self identity with, or without, race being the most salient
aspect of identity. See attached graphic.
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Sector 1. As Spencer et al. (1985) would say, a Black infant is born into a context defined by; (a)
family and kinship factors; (b) family socioeconomic status; neighborhood, school, and church
characteristics, inclusive of local cultural traditions; and (d) macro forces, such as national
political trends, (the drift to the far right today, and the civil rights movement of yesterday). These
contextual variables interact in complex ways to create an “identity niche” for the growing child,
providing early form and substance to her or his emerging identity. The majority of Black children
are likely to be raised in human ecologies that steer identity development toward high race
salience. However, a significant numbers of other Black children will exist in niches for which
something other than race is given preference. (Taylor, 1995).
Sector 2. During preadolescence, each Black child’s identity begins to flower. Depending on
family preferences and the multitude of ways context may affect self-concept development, some
Black children will show signs of an emergent identity that gives high salience to race and culture,
and others will not. In Sector 2 of the model, identity content variability is represented as Identity
A, Identity B, Identity C, and so on.
Sector 3. At adolescence, Black youth will burst onto the scene with a broad spectrum of identity
agendas; some will be attached to religious issues, others to sexual preference, and still others to
their social class status, or school affiliation. Because of housing segregation and the
prominence of race in American society, race and culture are likely to be a high priority in the selfconcept struggles for many Black children. For those Black youth who make race a central
organizing feature of their identities, the moratorium experience will be very Nigrescence-like in
dynamics. This is shown by the line that connects adolescence (Sector 3) and Nigrescence
(Sector 5). However, because Blacks are living and growing in a multitude of circumstances, the
identity content of Black youth will vary from context to context. Consequently, the moratorium
stage for some Black youth will focus on their religious ideas, for others on their gang
membership, and were still others, on issues that have little race content. Most Black
adolescents will go through the various Eriksonian stages, yet the content of each young person’s
identity crisis will not always center on race. Studies showing a relationship between the level of
Blackness and self-esteem indicate that most Black youth live in the contexts in which optimal
adjustment requires that they address race matters. On the other hand, the limited amount of
variance explained by such correlations reveals, in part, that the context for many Black children
allows issues other than race to drive their movement toward an achieved identity.
Sectors 4 and 5. At late adolescence and early childhood, each person will be “stuck” with
whatever identity status has unfolded to this point. This identity (in the model it is called one’s
“foundational identity) defines one’s psychological foundation for adult living; this is the identity
frame that will both define the person, and guide his, or her emotions, ideas, and actions. A
psychological analysis may show that one’s foundational identity is diffused, foreclosed, or
achieved in its characteristics and psychodynamics. Black persons who reach this point with a
foundational identity that is low in race content, or anti-Black in nature are prime subjects for
Nigrescence. What sets the stage for Nigrescence is not one’s identity status per se (foreclosed,
diffused, or achieved), but one’s identity content (race salience). A Black person with a
foundational identity that is “achieved” but low in Black content may become susceptible to
Nigrescence in the face of an encounter. As the model shows, however, a person with a low race
salience may go through life and never experience Nigrescence. One exception to the content
rule pertains to Blacks who have a foundational identity that is foreclosed in nature. Such a
person may have been taught to have positive ideas about the Black experience; however, if the
person never questioned or explored such teachings, he or she may go through Nigrescence, not
to “become Black,” but as a substitute for the missing “moratorium” experience.
Sector 6. The last sector highlights Thomas Parham’s concept of Nigrescence recycling
(Parham, 1989). Parham suggested that whether one develops a Black identity at adolescence
NMIP © 2000 African American/Black Cultural Knowledge and Sensitivity - Lecture Notes
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or at some later point in life, certain questions or unexpected challenges lie in waiting. As
Parham explained, a youthful persons in experience makes it impossible to anticipate all of the
issues that are related to Blackness. Consequently, as one progresses through the life-cycle,
certain questions and challenges take on new significance. These new challenges or questions
are experienced by the person as a new Encounter. If the Encounter triggers a strong emotional
response in the person, the recycling may take on the intensity of the persons first span through
Immersion-Emersion and Internalization. The response to a less striking Encounter may be a
cognitive “walk-through” of the stages. Periodic recycling will likely lead the person to a sense of
“wisdom” about the self and Black life in general.
This work may be critical to individuals who have Deafness as a significant factor in their identity
development as Black Deaf individuals. The following three individuals can provide a comparison
of three different paths to an integrated identity.
In the videotape of the life experiences of Dr. Laurene Gallimore, Dr. Gallimore expresses
eloquently her encounters and discovery of the various aspects of her identity as Deaf, Black, and
female.
Resource: Region X Interpreter Education Center (1999). Understanding Diversity in the
Deaf Community: Laurene Gallimore [Videotape]. Monmouth, Oregon: Western
Oregon University.
Debra Fuller, New Jersey Black Deaf Advocates sees the need for Black Deaf leadership. Her
identity was developed by access to Black Deaf role models. She wrote, “I grew up in a Deaf
family...I was extremely fortunate in that my father took me to the Deaf Club quite often when I
was young. My exposure to other Deaf people, and particularly Black Deaf adults proved to be
invaluable....I learned a great deal by observing the interactions going on around me. I owe a
large part of my growth as a person, and my identity as a Black Deaf woman to those early
experiences. Unfortunately most of the Deaf Clubs...are no longer in existence. (p.31).
Resource: Fuller, D. The Current Need for Black Deaf Leadership.
Lindsey Moeletsi Dunn, Special Assistant for Diversity and Community Relations at Gallaudet
University gives us an poignant glimpse into own identify development his autobiographical essay
entitled “Thembalethu (Our Hope)” that appeared in the Unrealized Visions: What’s Next for the
Deaf and Hard of Hearing Community? NAD Deaf American Monograph 1998/1999. He
chronicles the challenges of integrating his identity as a Zulu from South Africa into the academic
world of pre-dominantly White Deaf of Gallaudet. His memorable experiences and insight
challenge’s the deaf community’s definitions of itself. He concludes” He was envisioning a
beautifully diverse world where deaf people, regardless of their degree of hearing loss,
communication preference, sexual orientation, gender, ethnic affiliation, and economic status,
would acknowledge the unifying reality of their cultural base. Where its richly diverse members
would be accepted unconditionally. After all, the major barrier to equality for deaf and hard of
hearing people is people who choose to see the deaf not as a language minority, but rather as a
handicapped disabled community. Themba believed that he is a perfectly able, Black gentleman
who happens to be deaf. He understood that the reality of demographic changes in the next
millennium will demand paradigm adjustments within the deaf community’s current exclusive
definition of itself. ”Dunn (p 29).
A discussion about Deaf and hearing African Americans/Blacks from the perspectives of the
major institutions within the United States.
2. The African American/Black family
NMIP © 2000 African American/Black Cultural Knowledge and Sensitivity - Lecture Notes
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1) The nuclear family
In the United States the traditional American family is comprised of a father, a mother, and
children often referred to as the nuclear family. Examination of the nuclear family within the
African American/Black community and the perceived and/or real advantages of children from
nuclear families.
The traditional African American/Black family has survived in the face of the historical
oppression that occurred in the times of slavery when males, and children were sold off in
separate units breaking up families. In this environment, the extended family assisted maintain
the family’s survival.
Filial Piety - During slavery times, and after, caring for one’s community “brothers” and
“sisters” extended to anyone of color. The reliance on the extended family, filial piety, respect for
elders, of family values. In families, older brothers and sisters often are responsible for younger.
One member of the family will work to support another to finish school for example.
A comprehensive examination of the African American/Black family is needed from a realistic
point of view as well as prevalent national perceptions. Included in the presentation: the 1965
Moynihan Report, with its belief that “at the heart of the deterioration of the fabric of the Negro
society is the deterioration of the Negro family.” It is the fundamental cause of weakness on the
Negro community.”
Resources : The Negro Family: The Case for National Action, Washington, DC, the United
States Department of Labor Office of Policy Planning and Research. (1965)
Rainwater, L., & Yancey, W. L. (1997). The Moynihan Report and the Politics of
Controversy. Cambridge: MIT Press.
United States Census Bureau: http://www.census.gov/
Bradford, W. D. (September 1990) “Wealth, Assets, and Income of Black Households,”
College Park, Maryland: Department of Finance, University of Maryland College Park.
2) The single parent family
The myths and realities of single parent African American/Black families in the United States
including a discussion of the need to examine the acceptability and functionality of such families.
Successful Black single-parent families should be included in the class discussion.
United States Census Bureau, Population Division, Fertility and Family Statistics Branch;
United States Government Printing Office.
Dowd, N. E. (1997) In Defense of Single Parent Families. New York: New York.
3) The extended family
African American/Black families often consist of large numbers of relatives, including older
children, grandparents, aunts, uncles, etc. and close friends who join forces to provide emotional
and economic support in maintaining the family and raising children. There is a general
acceptance of all members of the family regardless of their current circumstances. It is common
to “take in” family members in times of trouble, such as death, unwanted pregnancy, divorce until
the situation improves.
NMIP © 2000 African American/Black Cultural Knowledge and Sensitivity - Lecture Notes
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The Role of the Matriarch
An examination of the concept of the matriarch within the African American/Black community:
is it myth or reality? The female role in the family is respected. African American males are
raised to defend their mothers.
Additional resources:
Davis, Angela. “Reflections on the Black Woman’s Role in the
Community of Slaves,” Black Scholar [November-December 1981]
Staples, Robert, “The Myth of the Black Matriarchy,” Black Scholar (November- December
1981], repr., p.32 Smith 1982.
4) Impact of Deafness on the family
African American perspectives on disabilities
African American/Black views on deafness
5) Factors of age and life cycle
1. Socialization of children - It is a critical role of African American parents to provide a
secure identity as a “Black child” and how to survive in a “White” world. Unfortunately,
lessons in handling name calling and discrimination must be included in parental lessons,
as well as additional issues of raising males. Children develop bi-cultural skills to survive
in both worlds. Children should be raised to retain pride in their racial/cultural identity
while acquiring the skills necessary to function in the mainstream of United States
society. Education is another value that is stressed as a key to success in life and
achieving upward mobility.
2. Age of maturity
3. Youth self-esteem and empowerment
4. Respect for elders
Elderly persons are highly respected and play key roles in the family, community and in
the churches. Elders pass down the cultural stories and oral traditions of the family. There
are many grandparents who have raised or cared for their grandchildren while the children
worked or were otherwise unable to care for their own children. Elderly family members
frequently live with their children. It is a cultural tradition to care for frail elderly at home, and
nursing home care would be seen as a very last resort.
6) Gender Issues within the African American/Black Community
Historic and current defined gender roles from the “Reconstruction” era through the Civil
Rights Movement up to the present.
1. Male Dominance Issues -Inter-Group
Issues of importance among African-American males.
Resource: Hutchinson, Ph.D., Earl Ofari. The Assassination of the Black Male Image.
Los Angeles, CA: Middle Passage Press, 1994.
Male issues of importance between African American and non-African American males.
NMIP © 2000 African American/Black Cultural Knowledge and Sensitivity - Lecture Notes
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Resource: Hutchinson, Ph.D., E. O. (1994). The Assassination of the Black Male
Image. Los Angeles: Middle Passage Press.
2. Deaf male identity issues
Issues of importance to African American Deaf males.
3. Female identity issues - Inter-Group
4. Identity issues between African American and non-African American women
This includes the concept and/or perception of the “double minority,” being African
American/Black and female.
Resource: Hooks, bell. Ain’t I A Woman: Black Women and Feminism. Boston, MA:
South End Press, (1981)
Resource: Epstein, Cynthia Fuchs, “Positive Effects of Double-Negative: Explaining the
Success of Black Professionals, “ The American Journal of Sociology (1972),
p.919).
5. Female identity issues - Intra-Group
Issues of importance among African American women including a discussion of conflict
of gender versus race issues.
Resource: Hooks, Bell. Ain’t I A Woman: Black Women and Feminism. Boston, MA:
South End Press, 1981)
Resource: Epstein, Cynthia Fuchs, “Positive Effects of Double-Negative: Explaining the
Success of Black Professionals, “ The American Journal of Sociology (1972),
p.919).
6. African American/Black Deaf female identity issues
The research is just beginning. We can gain an awareness of some of the issues in the
autobiographical videotape presentation by Dr. Laurene Gallimore. In her videotape she
discusses the complex relationship of her identity as a Deaf individual, a person of color, and
a woman.
Resource: Understanding Diversity in the Deaf Community: Laurene Gallimore,
RSA Region X Produced by RSA NCRTM 1-800-223-5219. www.nchrtm.ok.state.edu
Modern issues impacting Deaf African-American females.
Resource: Emerson, Carolyn and Angela Gilchrist. A Minority Within a Minority Within a
Minority: Being Black, Deaf, and Female. Empowerment and Black Deaf
Persons. Washington, D. C: Gallaudet University, 1990.
7. African American/Black views of sexual orientation
A discussion of heterosexuality and homosexuality in the African American/Black
community includes positions about homophobia. Individuals who are Black Deaf and gay,
lesbian, bi-sexual and or transgendered may face significant issues in receiving social
NMIP © 2000 African American/Black Cultural Knowledge and Sensitivity - Lecture Notes
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services and community support.
3. Education of Deaf African American/Blacks in the United States
The education of African American/Black students includes the residual influences of slavery.
Slaves were not permitted to learn to read and write, although many freemen and other slaves
obtained literacy skills. There were outstanding writers from these early times. In 1896 “Plessy
versus Ferguson” the Supreme Court upheld the doctrine of “separate but equal” educational
programs for African American children.
1) Public and Private Schools, Charter School and Home Schooling
Learning and cognitive styles in African American communities
1. Elementary/ middle school issues
2. High school issues
3. Decreasing the “drop out” rate
4. Promoting achievement
Prior to formal education, the informal education of many Blacks occurred in the context of an
oral tradition and in Black churches. In addition, there are cultural and social differences that
affect the learning styles among ethnic and cultural groups that affect classroom dynamics.
2) African American/Black Deaf Students
There is a legacy of segregated schools for the deaf. This also included Black Deaf children
who were not educated with their White peers. In Mary Wrights book “Sounds Like Home,“ she
chronicles her experiences growing up Black and Deaf in the South.
“The Kendall School on the campus of Gallaudet University has enjoyed national recognition
as a leader in the education of young deaf children for over one hundred years. Once welcoming
all deaf children who resided within the boundaries of the District of Colombia, Kendall closed its
doors to Black children in 1905, forcing these children to seek education in their neighborhood
states. This is the story of those children, their parents, their teachers and their struggle to gain
admittance to the Kendell School...this is the story of “The Class of 52".”
Resource: Pam Baldwin, NBDA Historian, 1996 NBDA Conference materials.
Resource - Department of Television, Film, and Photography, Gallaudet University, 800
Florida Avenue NE, Washington, D.C. 20002-3695, (202) 651-5115 (TDD/V.
3) Colleges and university programs - Hearing and Deaf
1. Historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs)
Historically Black colleges and universities were another outcome of the “Plessy vs.
Ferguson” decision establishing segregated programs. W.E.B. Dubois believed in higher
education in professional field. In 1978, the Supreme Court ruled that race could be used as a
factor in admitting students to colleges and universities. Institutions were permitted to use
affirmative action measures to increase the number of African American students admitted to
undergraduate and graduate programs. Recently, in several states Affirmative Action measures
have come under attack.
Prior to the 1950's Gallaudet College was itself a segregated institution. Andrew Foster was
the first Black student to be enrolled in 1951 and graduate with a B. A. Now more Black students
are attending both Gallaudet University, and also taking classes at Howard University a HCBU
NMIP © 2000 African American/Black Cultural Knowledge and Sensitivity - Lecture Notes
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nearby, and also at the National Technical Institute for the Deaf. However, the enrollments are
still considerably behind their White Deaf peers. To date there have been less than 10 Black
Deaf individuals from the United States to have earned a doctorate. Several other Black students
from African countries, and other countries are their post-secondary, graduate and post-graduate
studies in the United States.
Resource: National Multicultural Interpreter Project (2000). Cultural and Linguistic Diversity
Series: Life Experiences of Victor Vodounou - Benin, Africa [Videotape]. El
Paso, TX: El Paso Community College. (TRT 00:22.30) ASL/PSE Signed with
English transcript
Resource: Brooks, Dianne, Carl Moore, and Shirley J. Allen. Black Deaf People in Higher
Education. Empowerment and Black Deaf Persons. Washington, DC: Gallaudet
University, 1992.(p112-138).
Many of the issues and challenges for Black Deaf students at Gallaudet were presented at
the Empowerment and Black Deaf Persons conference held in 1990. As with the African
American community, Black Deaf students encounter significant challenges in pursuing higher
educational opportunities. These were outlined in “Advising Black Students: Enhancing Their
Academic Progress.” Although parity is a long way from being achieved, it is significant that since
that conference several significant Black Deaf individuals are now in more visible positions. Dr.
Glenn B. Anderson is serving as the Chair of the Board of the University. Dr. Reginald Redding is
in the department of Continuing Education. There are others serving at both Gallaudet and the
National Technical Institute for the Deaf.
Lindsay Dunn, Gallaudet Class of ‘84, is now serving as the Special Assistant to President I.
King Jordan for Diversity and Community Relations. He wrote to fellow alumni in the Gallaudet
Today newsletter (August/September 1999)
“....Gallaudet has taken the lead in developing strategies which will prepare our students
for a smooth transition into the “Global Society” that our world has become. In this society,
we are NOT just tolerant of those with different ethnic, linguistic, gender, religious, or sexual
orientations, we wholeheartedly accept and embrace those differences. At Gallaudet we are
enthusiastic in making our campus a model community for the coming millennium. I believe
we are committed to this ideal and that we will indeed accomplish it.” (p.4)
Resource: LaRue-Atuonah, Sanremi, and Doland, Charlotte. Advising Black Students:
Enhancing Their Academic Progress in Empowerment and Black Deaf Persons.
Washington, DC: Gallaudet University, 1992. (p104-105).
There are pros and cons regarding African Americans/Blacks attending HBCUs and predominantly Black institutions are similar to the concept of Deaf students attending Gallaudet and
NTID. Many argue that the opportunities that are available for leadership, role models, and
support at predominantly Black institutions exceed those available at most other colleges and
universities. HCBUs have and will continue to have a significant place in the education of African
American students.
2. Mainstream colleges and universities
There are pros and cons regarding African Americans/Blacks attending predominantly
White traditional colleges and universities. Research studies of Jewel Taylor Gibs in 1971-72
found that black hearing students experienced academic, social and psychological problems
when attending a predominantly White university, these included: selective segregation,
NMIP © 2000 African American/Black Cultural Knowledge and Sensitivity - Lecture Notes
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identity problems, “island syndrome”, cultural “trade-offs”, and a general refusal to
surrender ethnic identity.
Although this study was done over 20 years ago, these same issues occur at national
conferences such as the National Conference on Race and Ethnicity in Higher Education
(NCORE) where students continue to discuss these issues as well as minority faculty.
3. Importance of sororities and fraternities
The roles of sororities and fraternities within the African-American/ Black community, as
social outlet, community service vehicle, college and university activity, and post-graduate
commitment.
Many join: Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority
Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity
Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternity
Delta Sigma Theta Sorority
Omega Psi Phi Fraternity
4. Historically Black political and social organizations and issues
1) Blacks in government
The late Hubert Anderson, Jr. was the Executive Director of the West Virginia Commission
for the Hearing Impaired. He was the first Black basketball coach for Gallaudet University
from 1975 to 1980. He was named Man of the Year by Silent News. He was legendary in
the American Athletic Association of the Deaf and lead the basketball team to a gold medal at
the World Games for the Deaf.
2) Elected and appointed officials
3) Significant supreme court, legal decisions and issues
1. Separate but equal
2. Affirmative Action
3. Discrimination and “reverse” discrimination
4. Racism and Hate Crime legislation
4) Active political affiliation and participation
1. Elected and appointed officials - Dr. Glenn Anderson as Chair of Board of Gallaudet
University
An examination of progress made by African Americans/Blacks in elective office as well
as strides made in terms of political, social and educational appointments.
2. Voting rights and patterns
Stereotypes and assumptions about African American/Black political party affiliation, and
attitudes and statistics about voting and national, state, and local political processes.
3. Gender roles in activism
5) African American/Black political and social organizations
6) Black Deaf organizations
1. National Black Deaf Advocates - NBDA
2. National Black Deaf Advocates chapters and activities
5. Economics
1) Issues of poverty and wealth
Poverty rates from 1979 to 1989 declined by less than half a percentage point to 29.5%.
In 1989 8.4 million Black persons were poor, compared with 19.0 million Whites (10%).
NMIP © 2000 African American/Black Cultural Knowledge and Sensitivity - Lecture Notes
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In 1989 45 percent of Black female householders and 11 percent married-couple families were
poor for whites (23% and 5% respectively).
2) Employment
In 1990, of the 21 million Blacks over the age of 16, 63% were in the labor force (65% for
both the White and general populations); 67% of Black males compared with 75% White males
3) Unemployment
1990 census reports indicated that Black unemployment rates (13%) twice the rate for Whites
(5%).
According to the recent United States Bureau of Census figures, gains have been achieved in
the last 20 years in Black educational attainment, school enrollment, home ownership, and
income levels of married-couple families. Despite these gains, and the slow downs in the
economy that happened in the late 1970's and the early 1980's disproportionally affected Blacks.
In the 1990s, there has been increased divorce and separation rate. This has caused a rise in
family households headed by Black women.
4) Perspectives on status and success
1. Self-employed Black entrepreneurs
2. Employment Trends
In 1990, 22 percent of all Black managers and professional were teachers. The
majority to both Black male and Black female teachers were elementary school teachers.
Nearly 3 out of every 10 Black females employed in technical, sales, and
administrative support jobs were cashiers, secretaries, and typists.
Half of the Black females employed in service occupations were nursing aides,
orderlies, and attendants, cooks, janitors, and cleaners.
Thirty-one percent of Black males were operators, fabricators, and laborers. Of these
30 percent were truck drivers, assemblers, and stock handlers and baggers.
Within service occupations, 45 percent of Black males were employed as janitors and
cleaners, or as cooks, and 12 percent as guards and police, except public services.
6. Medical and Mental Health issues
In 1990, life expectancy for Blacks averaged 69 years, about six years less than that for Whites.
Black women dominate the older age groups. In 1990, 62 percent of Black elderly persons were
women, on 38 percent were men.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Cultural perspective on health care and medicine
Prevalent diseases and conditions in the African American/Black Community
Access to appropriate healthcare services
Emerging regional trends
Socio-economic status of Deaf African Americans/Blacks
7. General issues impacting the unemployment and underemployment rate of African
Americans/Blacks in the United States for both men and women
1. Issues of unemployment and underemployment of African Americans/Blacks
2. Causes and long term effects of underemployment on African Americans/Blacks
3. Vocational implications and trends on African American/Black Deaf
NMIP © 2000 African American/Black Cultural Knowledge and Sensitivity - Lecture Notes
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8. Role of the Black churches and spiritual traditions in the United States
1) Historic roles of religion and the church in Black Communities.
The African American churches have been the religious, social and political support of the
Black community. Churches were the home of oral traditions and the reading lessons of the
bible. Many of the civil rights meetings occurred in churches where Black leaders were able to
organize the congregations. They have been and continue to be the cornerstone of the support
of educational programs, mutual aid societies, and social services. From the congregations,
economic support was able to flow to the community.
2) Contemporary roles of religion and pre-dominantly Black churches
Today, African American churches continue the same spiritual, social, political and economic
roles. Services can last for hours and often form the emotional and spiritual support and renewal
for members weekly. In many churches there are many support roles provided by the members
in a variety of ministries and other positions.
3) The African American/Black Minister and Preaching Styles
The African American/Black minister provides many roles within in the community. He/she is
seen as a mora and spiritual leader, as a and counselor. In addition, politically, ministers are very
important in bringing critical issues to the attention of their congregation and mobilizing support
for a variety of social causes. Ministers develop personal styles and have been called
“charismatic” in their powerful use of language and rhetoric to move a congregation. Since so
many of these ministries currently have a television outreach program within communities, it is
easy to observe many different styles.
4) Black Deaf ministries and Black interpreters
Currently in the United States there are more and more ministries serving Black Deaf people.
In variety demonination. National Christian Conference of the Deaf NCCD. IIDS [email protected]. The Jehovah Witness provide training for interpreters. This has been
a major influence in the lives of Black interpreters. Many interpreters come from their church
programs. Many have moved professional status within our organizations.
5) The significance of music in Black Communities. The importance of music cannot
6) Major religious denominations and influences
There is much diversity within African American/Black communities. Although there are
majority populations that are protestant, there are many other denominations and other practices.
Some common Black churches are:
1. Baptist
2. Jehovah Witness
3. Black Muslim
4. Catholic
5. Seventh Day Adventist
6. Other practices may include Voodoo from the Carribean Islands, Santaria from Cuba,
other practices that blend ancient African practices with Catholic and other Christian
influences.
V. Afro Centric World View, Cultural Attitudes, Values and Behaviors
1. Afro-centric world views and orientations - Unity of History and Reality
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In Communication Between Cultures (1998) African American culture was defined by American
history. Samovar, Porter, and Stefani write, “Africans were not willing immigrants. They and their
ancestors were captured and enslaved in their own home, brought to the United States, and sold to
the colonists as laborers and servants. Life on the plantation was hard. Most slaves worked fifteen to
eighteen hours a day and had few rights or privileges.” Family and tribal links were almost
immediately cut.
...”They became a group robbed of much of their cultural identity: slaves were forced to adopt a
new language and religion and were even assigned new names. Being denied access to the culture
of their captors while being told they could not preserve their own culture, they attempted to forge a
new one. It was a culture that, in order to survive, stressed companionship and group solidarity. This
solidarity was accomplished in part by maintaining historical traditions that had their roots in Africa.
As in the case with so many customs, this social bonding still exists in the 1990's. Then and now, the
bond of the extended families was communicated through the use of names; it became the custom to
identify everyone as a member of the same family. As the poet and novelist May Angel our notes, “In
salve society maria became Aunt Mariah and Jo become Uncle joe. Young girls were called Sister,
Sis, or Tutta. Boys became Brother, Bubba, and Bro and Buddy.” Angelou adds, “We have used
these terms to help us survive slavery, its aftermath, and today’s crisis of revived racism.” The terms
brother and sister are still heard throughout African American communities.
During the years of enslavement and afterward, African men were often removed from their
families and required to work apart. Thus, African women became a commanding force in the family,
and the influence of mothers predominated. Even today we see the impact of this treatment upon
many African American families.
Because most history is written by the dominant culture, African Americans, until recently, have
had their stories told, and their identities defined, by historians who were mainly white. In many
cases, this did not ensure an accurate or complete portrayal of their culture. In the 1960's as a
means of overcoming the problems of accuracy and identity, African American adopted the slogan
“Black is Beautiful” and demanded that other versions of their history be made known. In many
instances, this concept of “Black Pride” frightened some Whites and historically has contributed to
increased racism.” Communication Between Cultures (p.114).
This cultural history and attitudes that individuals hold and their views of others based on their
collective history and one’s own perceptions of behaviors and attitudes. Cultural programming
involves describing what you see; interpreting your observations; and drawing conclusions and
making evaluations based on your own experiences.
African American/Black communities comprise a number of widely diverse ethnicities and cultural
styles such as American Southern Black compared or urban Haitian immigrant. In addition, each
person is an individual with their own personal values, attitudes, behaviors, and experiences. In
addition, when interacting with non-Black individuals, there is cultural “code-switching” that takes
place. This “code-switching” may be unconscious or a conscious choice to be bi-cultural. It is
important to remember that it is stressful for an individual to constantly monitor one’s natural
behaviors and responses to adapt to a “dominant” cultural style so as not to be misunderstood or
negatively judged. Cultural programing includes and there are clearly Black influenced cultural styles
and behaviors.
Sense of self and space
Communication and language
Dress and appearance
Food and eating habits
Time and time consciousness
Relationships
Values and norms
NMIP © 2000 African American/Black Cultural Knowledge and Sensitivity - Lecture Notes
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Beliefs and attitudes
Mental processes and learning
Work habits and practices
This chart on “Suggested Cultural Contrasts” is not presented to increase “stereotypes” but to
provide some general information that is useful in cultural comparisons. The information was adapted
from Cultural Foundations by Young Pai, 1190 with input from Jaime Wuzel, Boston University School
of Education, Cultural Studies Program)
African American Culture:
World View Values Work StylesIdentityThinking Styles-
Communication Styles
Focus on people and activities
Concern for others, attach importance to creativity, freedom, justice
On present, past (day to day achievement)
See problems in context (holistic).
Motivated by the community concerns rather than sole self-interest
Based on position within the group
Motivation derived from the group
Global, conceptual
Less emphasis on details
Combine fact with feeling
Stylized speech with delivery
Emotion on par with reason
Spontaneous expression
Not afraid of confrontation
It is critical to note that although most racial/ethnic discussions often involve “Black/White”
dynamics. There are other cultural groups such as Asians whose cultural or communication traits
may be more contrasted on a continuum of expression for example “turn-taking behaviors” or use
of “emotional expressive speech.”
2. Social protocols and taboos
3. African American/Black styles:
1) Sense of beauty and body shape
2) Use of color and personal styles of dress
3) Black hairstyles
4. Space, physical touch, and body language
In general Blacks tend towards a collective “we” versus individualistic “I” point of world view.
In many families, there has been a sharing of personal space and living areas. It would not be
uncommon to share a bed, or bedroom with a sibling or grandparent.
There is a reference to time that in-group is known as “BPT” Black Peoples Time. This refers to
the importance of having time to socialize and connect as people. The phrase “What’s happening” is
being present in the here and now and connecting as people.
Eye contact is more direct when speaking, eyes may be averted when listening. African
American children are socialized into not looking when being spoken to. The reverse is true for
Whites who make more continuous eye contact when listening.
There is a preference for ”style”. Style is a way of being, walking, talking, dressing and acting.
NMIP © 2000 African American/Black Cultural Knowledge and Sensitivity - Lecture Notes
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This Black “style” has been marketed by corporate America. Several Black women have become
“Super Models” a recognition of the beauty of the Black woman. Brighter colors and manner of dress
is observable. Black “hair” and “skin color” has many cultural overtones in the Black and non-Black
communities. Since Black hair is generally course and naturally curly there are unique products and
ways to take care of it. When Black people sought after a “White standard” of beauty, many
dangerous chemicals and painful treatments were applied to straighten the hair. There were
pronouncements made by family and others regarding children possessing “good” hair or “bad” hair.
Later, when that standard of beauty was Afrocentric, hair was left “natural” and the “Afro” was a
popular trend. Now, there are a range of beauty products and more trained stylists. Black hair is
styled in a range of manners that include many braiding and other styling techniques. Most Black
women pride themselves on their appearance and may spend a longer amount of time on hair and
nail grooming. The Black owned barber shop and beauty shops were and are important businesses
in the Black community. Touching another’s person’s hair without express permission is seen as
offensive.
Anthony Aramburo explained, “Groups differ in their style of dress and their views of what
constitutes appropriate dress. The respect and admiration that certain African Americans receive
from their peers for the vital imagery of their dress often contrasts markedly with the reception that
they get from Whites. As an example, White people often regard hats and sunglasses as “outer
wear,” one designed to protect the head from the cold and the other to shield the eyes from the sun.
Once indoors, Whites expect “outer wear” to be removed. However, certain African American
individuals consider hats and sunglasses to be artistic adornments.”
Gardenswartz, Lee and Anita Rowe. Managing Diversity: A Complete Desk Reference and
Planning Guide. 1993. San Diego: Pfeiffer & Company.
Kochman, Thomas. Black and White Styles in Conflict. Chicago: The University of Chicago
Press, 1981.
VI. African American/Black Discourse, Language Use and Cultural Vocabularies
1. African American/Black general discourse styles
Assumptions that African American/Black, Euro-Americans and various cultural groups operate
according to identical speech patterns, and cultural styles and conventions often contribute to
misunderstandings and conflicts. An examination of African American/Black lexicon and usage
should be conducted. There are lexical borrowing and usages of words and phrases among
individuals and groups outside of the African American/Black community.
Anthony Aramburo writes on expressions. “Individuals express themselves differently across
cultures. Often we notice African American presenters, be it in church or public speaking, are
emotionally intense, dynamic, and demonstrative. Whereas White presenters tend to be more
modest and emotionally restrained. As part of the culture, African American learn at an early age
certain expressions that they carry through adulthood. Expressions of friendship taught are “You
don’t hold back from a handshake,” “When you laugh, you are not afraid to make a big noise,” “Your
smile is open, like a child’s.”
Kochman, Thomas. Black and White Styles in Conflict. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press,
1981).
1) Conversation discourse patterns - There is a cultural emphasis on “The Word” the primacy of
the power and magic of words is discussed by Asante and Smitherman. The Word is the
basis for stories, songs, and folk sayings. It is an emphasis on the lively and expressive
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verbal interactions between people. The oral traditions of Africa are carried down in African
Americans. There is a value on improvisation and inventiveness.
2) Use of rhetoric
Communication and language - From the African influences, there high use of shared sayings
and proverbs. There is a comparatively more emotional intensity, and expression during
conversations. Turn-taking may overlap, and interruptions are more tolerated. There may be
competition for “the floor”. The floor may go to the most assertive person. There is a preference for
an interactive style of communication with frequent “back channeling”. Back channeling is verbal and
non-verbal cues that indicate active listening. There is a preference for topic-associating discourse
strategy. There is a “call and response” style. There are strong “in-group” tendencies resulting in
perceptions of insults when “out-group” members use “in-group” rules without authorization or social
permission.
3) Argument and Debate
Anthony Aramburo shared, “African Americans do make a distinction between argument used
to debate a difference of opinion and argument used to ventilate anger and hostility. The two
kinds of argument function differently in African American culture. There is a clear distinction
between arguing and fighting. Verbal intensity is not a precursor to violence or physical actions,
in fact, it is sometimes the opposite. Whites on the other hand, fail to make these distinctions
because argument for them functions to ventilate anger and hostility.” Some other cultures do not
encourage any kind of public “argument” or disagreement.
4) Tonal semantics - There is a general cultural use of voice rhythm and vocal inflection to carry
meaning. Many Blacks finds the discourse of Whites to be bland and uninspiring; while Whites
may view the speech of Blacks to be loud and emotional. Many African languages are tonal and
carry meaning by the change of inflections.
5) Narrative story telling style - there are many unique narrative and story telling forms in African
American hertiage. The use of ghost stories, stories that give a reason...Why something
happens...Brer Rabbit stories that teach a moral or lesson.
2. African American/Black Communities use of languages
1) Use of “Standard English”
In the United States the use of standard English which is epitomized by television
announcers from the Midwest, and educated speakers, and is accorded a high status. Any
nonstandard dialect, or regional accent can be “stigmatizing” especially by minority speakers in
the United States. Most African Americans are well aware of this tendency, and have developed
several strategies for dealing with this language oppression. Many African American/Blacks will
use style, or coding switching selectively in the varying contexts and with different individuals.
Many African American/Blacks associate the adoption of standard English with being
professional, well and educated, while others code-switch depending upon the setting.
Individuals who do not know when or how to code-switch into mainstream are viewed as
uneducated by both African Americans and European Americans. In contrast, African Americans
who do not know how to use Black English within the culture can be viewed with suspicion.
2) Use of Black Vernacular English
According to Samovar, Porter, and Stefani“ African Americans have evolved a particular use
of English referred to as Black English or Black Vernacular English. It reflects the influences of
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African languages, and the adjustments users of multiple languages made in accommodating to
English without the benefit of an education. It has been passed on from generation to generation
through socialization. It has been shared in oral traditions, in songs, and stories, and in written
form by authors such as Zora Neale Hurston. It has a unique syntax, semantic system, grammar
and rhythm. Some examples of sentence structure are:
1) Subject nouns that repeat the pronoun reference - “My father, he.....”
2) Questions omit the helping verb “do” What it...?
3) Use of “to be” verbs for recurring and habitual patterns “He bees dat way”
4) Phonological use of “d” for “th” in words such as “this” become “dis”; other sound substitutions
5) Use of encouraging remarks - “all right now” and others to show support
6) Use of semantic inversion - a word is used to mean the opposite i.e. Bad for “good”
There are many other phonological, semantic and grammatical rules. In addition there are
several unique “styles” of communication:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Shucking and jiving - Language behavior strategies, and gestures derived from the
oppression of Whites, and a need to “stay out of trouble” with authority figures. Meanings of
words and phrases can be coded or reversed.
Rapping - A poetic and fluent language pattern that is used to impress the listener who
appreciates the cleverness and verbal virtuosity. It has now been popularized by “Rap
Music” and has crossed cultures. A Black male can use a good “rap” in the attempt to
impress a female as a sexual entree.
The Dozens - “Playing the dozens” refers to a verbal “insult” battle in which on-lookers can
judge the most creative or witty “insult”. This in general includes phrases such as “Your
mama was so ugly that she had to..... or so fat, etc.
Boasting - is humerous exaggeration of abilities or accomplishments
Dissing or to diss someone is verbal put downs.
Many of the styles of Black speech are often not supported by dominant culture. Many Blacks
actively code switch when trying to succeed in the dominant culture and will actively suppress their
African American communication styles when around whites. For example, with the speech of Black
women the use of the term “girl” will often signify when code-switching to cultural discourse if there is
a safe environment. There can be considerable contradictory feelings regarding the stresses of
managing cultural connections while knowing that success in the dominant culture requires the use of
standard communication and language patterns.
3. Culturally Specific Lexicon and Its Evolutionary Usage
John Lewis has created an excellent workshop on Ebonics which explores a variety of issues
related to language and culture. An examination of the history and usage of Black Vernacular
English/ Ebonics including the patterns of grammar and pronunciation; verbal rituals; and lexicon, or
vocabulary is important to the interpreter. The beauty and power of authentic dialects, accents, and
language traditions are being studied by socio-linguists. Most African American/Blacks realize the
value of being bicultural and interpreters should develop their receptive skills in this area.
Resources: Smitherman, G. (1994). Black Talk: Words and Phrases from the Hood to the Amen
Corner. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Resources: Aramburo, A. J. (1992). Sociolinguistic Aspects of the Black Deaf Community.
Empowerment and Black Deaf Persons. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University.
Resources: Valli, C., Reed R., Ingram, Jr. N., & Ceil Lucas. (1992). Sociolinguistic Issues in the
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Black Deaf Community. Empowerment and Black Deaf Persons. Washington, DC:
Gallaudet University.
1) The “Ebonics” Debate - Rethinking Schools On Line
The Oakland Public schools were attempting to build a bridge between the home language
and school languages of many African American/Black children whose home language was Black
English. The American Speech Hearing and Language Association (ASHA) has a position paper
on Ebonics. “It is the position of ASHA that no dialectical variety of English is a disorder or
pathological of speech or language. Each serves a communication function as well as a social
solidarity function. It maintains the communication network and the social construct of the
community of speakers who use it. However, society has adopted the linguistic model that
standard English is the linguistic archetype. Standard English is the linguistic variety used by
government, the mass media, business, education, science, and the arts. Therefore, there may
be nonstandard English speaker who find it advantageous to have access to the use of standard
English.” It is important to make a distinction between a dialect and a deficit. However, dialects
of English include Appalachian English, southern English, New York dialect and Spanishinfluenced English. Within a dialect someone can still have a communication disorder.
Source: “Ebonics Debate Continues, But SLP’s Role is Clear ASHA Leader Vol.2 No.3
February 11, 1997.
Resource http://www.rethinkingschools.org/Archives/12_01/ebperry.htm
2) Use of Creoles and other English dialects
3) Other language usage
4. African American/Black Deaf use of language
1) Prevalence of “oralism” within the Black Deaf Community
There is a sizeable population of Black Deaf individuals from born both in the United States
and who have come from Africa that have been educated with an oral emphasis. Many have
learned to sign and may possess “oral” skills in one or more languages. Mouthing may be
very English based.
2) Use of American Sign Language - American Sign Language with its many cultural and
regional variations is widely used within the Black Deaf Community.
3) Influence of segregated schools on ASL sign variation - Many older Black Deaf persons
attended segregated schools and socialized primarily within the Black Deaf Community.
There are a number of signs that are variations used within the community. Regional
differences are also prevalent. There are significant differences between generations of
signers due to the change from segregated to integrated and mainstream school programs.
4) Influence of Black Vernacular English, and Ebonics on signing
Dr. Glenn B. Anderson, in his lecture notes, that he prepared for the national teleclass
entitled ”Enhancing Racial and Ethnic Diversity in the Interpreting Profession” he discusses the
wide use of Black English in the Black Community and its cross over to the Black Deaf
Community.
“Regardless of job, social position, and place of residence, most Black people get their hair
done in Black beauty shops, they worship in Black churches, they attend Black social events, and
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in general, they “party” with other Black people.
This in-group interaction, and exposure to the language, and culture of the black community
also crosses over to Black Deaf people. It is helpful for interpreters to be aware that many Black
Deaf people, especially the younger generation, (they) take pride in using words and expressions
from Black English.
For example, I have had deaf friends come by my house and say, “Hi, I thought I’d come by
and holler at ya.” I have had others say, “Hey, Bro, can I cop five dollars from ya?” This cross
over process can be observed in social events, and entertainment programs sponsored by Black
Deaf people. Many people keep up with the latest dances and songs popular in the Black
community.
Another incorporation is the “call and response” style. Dr. Anderson says, “Call-response
behavior is also common in the Black Deaf community. It can be observed easily at NBDA
conferences, especially when a performer really “gits down” and people in the audience
respond affirmatively.”
Recommended:
Lewis, J. (2000). Ebonics in American Sign Language: Stylistic Variation in
African American Signers. In Deaf Studies V: Toward 2000 Unity and
Diversity Conference Proceedings. A publication of the College for
Continuing Education, Gallaudet University. (pp. 229-240).
5) Specific ASL vocabulary and signs - Vocabulary from African American speech community
heavily influences the Black Deaf Community. There are several good lexicons available.
Black Deaf signers and interpreters employ many specific signs with “in-group” as well as out
of group culture. Signs that especially indicate race, pejoratives, the continent of Africa, etc
need to be observed in a variety of cultural contexts as used by both in and out of group
members. As one Black woman related at a conference often the vocabulary of a culture is
related to what is culturally relevant and important. She made a conscious effort to listen to
the topics discussed during her regular appointment at the beauty shop. It was a Black
owned business. She realized it was more “what” was discussed that was so different.
Vocabulary will reflect those aspects of culture. It is quite obvious that the vocabulary of hip
Black teens is now crossing over to “mainstream” America through exposure of music, TV
and other forms of popular culture. Other vocabulary that may be attributed as “Black signs
or words” may be more regional than ethnic.
Resources: Smitherman, G. (1994) Black talk: Words and phrases from the hood to the
Amen corner. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
6) Variations in sign affect and use of space
It is commonly observed and commented upon that Black signers and interpreters may use
and do interlingual “code-switching” and employ a different signing affect and use of sign space
when signing to other Black signers. This has been observed to be larger in space and more
animated or dramatic. Some beginning research has been conducted. Many Black interpreters
code switch styles depending upon the context and consumers involved. Some students are
initially confused when the signing style of the interpreter program is in cultural contrast to the
signing styles of Black Deaf Community members. They are initially unaware of these differences
since they have may have had little or no exposure to a variety of signers from the African
American/Black Community or in contrast may have learned to sign in this context.
Additional reading: “Existence of Attitudes Toward Black Variations of Sign Language” by Lewis,
Palmer and Williams.
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7) Facial expression, eye contact, body language, and gestures
The Black Deaf community utilizes the rules of ASL but adapts them to the cultural and
stylistic expressions of the Black community. Body language and gestures are used in
relationship to the amount of code-switching that is reflective of the Black style. Black interpreters
who learn to sign from members of the Black Deaf community are incorporating this style into
their signing repertoire.
Non verbal behaviors may include rhythmic “head shaking,” “finger snapping,” “high fives,”
“talk to the hand,” head, neck, hip movements, and hands on hips. Several of these are gender
specific, that is done by “males” or “females” or in parody of the gender roles.
5. Internal and External group norms
1) Attitudes towards Black Signing Styles
Do non-Black interpreters recognize the code switching that occurs, do they understand the
cultural, and linguistic nuances of the message? When standard English, and standard ASL
norms are applied to signing and interpreting within the Black Deaf community, it is frequently
critiqued as signing or interpreting in “too big a signing space,” or “using too much expression.”
Often phrases are voiced into English without adaptation to Black English. What are the attitudes
towards socio-linguistic variations in the Black Deaf Community? An excellent resource is Lewis,
Palmer, and Williams (1996) they undertook a research project entitled ”Existence of and
Attitudes Toward Black Variations in Sign Language.
2) Differences in Conversational Patterns
In her paper Jackie Bruce (1993) did a study entitled “A Comparative Study of
Backchanneling Signals Between an African American Deaf Speaker and African American and
White Deaf Speakers.” The paper presents a discussion of the conversational feature of “back
channeling.” Back channeling is the mechanism by which one speaker indicates involvement and
understanding of the conversation. There are differences between Black and White speakers
both hearing and Deaf.
Laurie Gugenheim (1993) explores “Ethnic Variation in ASL: The Signing of African
Americans, and How It Is Influenced by Conversational Topic. She presents several topics
related to variations in signing dialects and styles.
3) African American/Black and Signed Music and Performances
In Black churches with Deaf ministries, at National Black Deaf Advocates conferences and at
other public events, there is an appreciation for signed music performances and theatrical events
that focus on Black culture. Shirley Childress Saxton, who is a nationally known interpreter,
professionally interprets for “Sweet Honey and the Rock” a Black musical group. The African
American/Black Community both Deaf and Hearing apply the “Black style” to produce church
related and theatrical interpretations that capture the “color” of the music and the lyrics. These
performances are warmly received at major conferences and in churches.
“Eli Sheppard’s “Plantation Songs” is the first book/videotape performance pieces from old
American Ebonics into sign language as interpreted by a Black Deaf storyteller. The video
chronicles the language patterns and lifestyle of southern Black people at the turn of the century,
and it is an excellent instructional tool for historical, cultural and linguistic information about
African Americans. For more information contact Gallaudet’s Department of Television and
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Photography (202) 651-5115.
Jackie Bruce is available on videotape with a discussion of religious signing and
interpretation produced by Glorious Hands Productions.
4) Trying to “Sign” or “Talk Black”
Information regarding African American/Black communities is now much more available and
many more individuals have access to Black styles and discourse patterns and in “Ebonic”
dictionaries. As verbal expressions make the cultural cross-over to United States mainstream
culture on televison and movies, there is a concern that non-Black individuals will, in an effort to
acquire additional cultural competencies begin to “sign or voice” for Black individuals in a style
that is out of character to that individual. This is not encouraged. The intention of cultural
learning is to be able to discern the differences, and appropriately interpret without an overlay of
cultural bias. It is better to remain in a style that is comfortable and natural.
6. Regional and generational variations
The African American/Black community is composed of a diverse population. There are
regional variations of signs. Some signs that have been designated as “Black” may be more
regional, other signs may be used by older Black Deaf individuals who were attended segregated
schools. As previously discussed younger signers are the MTV generation with song lyrics that
are captioned. Some additional research regarding variations of signs was done by Ruth Reed.
She has presented on this topic at various national conventions.
7. Oral Tradition: Proverbs, Sayings and Storytelling
1) Proverbs and African wisdom
In the African American/Black community there is a use of proverbs and sayings to transmit
truth and value systems. There is also a use of “sayings” to speak the truth of a situation without
being direct. Dr. Anderson wrote regarding the use of proverbs and wise sayings to teach
lessons about life and how to live it. “Proverbs and wise sayings are part of the Oral Tradition
that has been passed from one generation to another. Many Black people can recall “words of
wisdom” they learned from their families, especially from their parents and grandparents. Most of
these “words of wisdom” use metaphors and visual imagery to appeal to both the intellect and the
emotions. Some examples are:
1. “A hard head makes a soft behind” - being stubborn and refusing to listen has a stiff
price.
2. “You don’t git to be old being no fool”
3. “What goes around, comes around”, “You reap what you sow.”
4. “Many people know how to criticize, but few know how to praise.”
5. “Opportunity does not send letters of introduction.”
6. “Positive anything is better than negative nothing.”
7. “It’s pretty hard for the Lord to guide you if you haven’t made up your mind which way you
want to go.”
8. Use of Scriptural quotes and use of idiomatic expressions
The influence of the scripture in observed in many African American/Black communities. Many
churches have memorized bible verses which are easily recited in a variety of church as well as
secular sayings. One interpreter who was non-White, but also non-Black, commented that at a
professional workplace gathering to recognize the changes that “equal opportunity” had brought into
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the workplace, when one of the speakers who was African American/Black addressed the audience
(over half of whom were Black) there was an immediate shift into call and response style. The
speaker used a number of known quotations and expressions. The speaker would start the quotation
and the audience was able to complete it. In addition, many “Amens,” and “say the word,” and other
expressions were used. The interpreter at a large equal opportunity meeting a predominantly large
Black professional audience. The interpreter was unable to “interpret” the expressions and the
gestures that the audience used.
9. Connotation and denotations of specific English vocabulary items
Jackie Bruce frequently lectures on the connotations and denotations of English words that
become incorporated into African American/Black signers. She gives, for example, the meaning
of the term “perm” which as used by most White individuals would mean to “curl” the hair;
however when used by Blacks it most frequently means to “straighten” the hair. Another example
is the ASL sign for “SORRY” that when used in the sentence “MY BOYFRIEND HE SORRY HE”
(with facial and body language) translates not as “My boyfriend apologized”, but rather “My
boyfriend is so “lazy!” Thus, the connotation is “lazy.” English words have specific connotations
that must be analyzed within the socio linguistic context of the Black culture or they can’t be
accurately conveyed.
Our word choices also give insight, Asante and Davis (1985) state in African American/White
conversations, both will bring their cultural “baggage” to the situation. Recently (June 12, 1999),
a board member of a state interpreter organization, forwarded an email to alert interested
individuals, and garner support for an important issue within the Deaf Community relating to
another state’s deaf education issues. The individual wrote, “I received this article from (state)
and was talking to a couple of people here in (state) who hadn’t heard about this. I thought you
all might be interested. Anyone want to join a good ol’ lynching party? (Italics and bold
added). This state board’s leadership has had difficulties understanding that the connotations of
the words they choose directly convey deeply historical, and racist overtones. The readers of this
email could not get past the phrase to read about the legitimate professional concern. The
readers forwarded a private email to the individual discussing the connotations of the phrase, no
response was received. It is critical to be able as interpreters to have a historical and, cultural
perspective of the deeper meanings of words.
Resources: Smitherman, G. (1994). Black Talk: Words and Phrases from the Hood to the Amen
Corner. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Maggio, R. (1997). Talking about People: A Guide to Fair and Accurate Language.
Phoenix: The Oryx Press.
Herbst, P. H. (1997). The Color of Words: An Encyclopaedia Dictionary of Ethnic
Bias in the United States. Yarmouth: Intercultural Press, Inc.
VII.
African American/Black Cultural and Social Events and Celebrations
1. Holidays and Celebrations, and their significance
1) Martin Luther King Jr.’s birthday is not only a celebration for the African American/Black of
hard won civil rights, but a national holiday celebrating the core values and principles of the
entire nation.
2) Kwaanza - A cultural, not religious, holiday emphasizing seven days of festivities honoring
family, ancestors, and heritage.
3) Black History Month is celebrated in February. It should be noted that Black history should
be infused throughout all the year in all aspects of cultural and educational planning.
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However, this month provides a “spotlight” on the contributions and struggles of the African
American/Black communities.
4) African Heritage Day may be regionally or locally recognized.
5) Juneteenth celebrates the end of the Civil War and the Emancipation of Slaves by Abraham
Lincoln. Slaves residing in the South were not aware of their freedom until much later
“Juneteenth” is the recognized remembrance.
VIII.
African American/Black Deaf and Hearing Community Contributions: Concerns, Triumphs
and Role Models
A discussion of the ways that media sources including television, radio, magazines, newspapers,
the Internet, etc. influence the positive and negative images of African Americans/Blacks in the United
States. The roles and responsibilities of media sources as well as viewers should be considered.
Resources Calvert, Sandra L. Gender and ethnic portrayals in Saturday morning television
programs. Paper presented at the Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in
Child Development, Washington, DC [April 1997])
Chideya, Farai. Don’t Believe the Hype: Fighting Cultural Misinformation about
African-Americans. New York: Plume Books, 1995.
The following are a but a few of a long list of individuals who have contributed in a variety of fields:
1. Activists and Advocates:
Several leaders both religious and political leaders that are referenced frequently are:
1) Mary McClead Bethune - founder of Bethune-Cookman College she was the first African
American woman to head a federal office, and was an advisor to President Franklin D.
Roosevelt.
2) Malcolm X - leader of the Nation of Islam often referred to as “Black Muslims.” He was a
leader in the movement against racism and stressed Black pride. He was assassinated in
1965.
3) Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. - was the single most influential leader in the Civil Rights
movement. He led many of the critical nonviolent protests. Dr. King was awarded the Nobel
Peace Prize in 1964 and was assassinated in 1968.
4) Thurgood Marshall was the first African American to serve on the Supreme Court (19671991). He fought legal battles for the NAACP.
5) Reverend Adam Clayton Powell, Jr. - United States representative from Harlem. Equal rights
leader, and led protests in Harlem.
6) Reverend Jesse Jackson - civil rights and human rights leader. He was a candidate for the
democratic nomination for President in 1968.
2. Entertainment and Fine Arts
1) Theater/Film - Michelle Banks, Anne Marie Bryant (Film Makers, Ann Marie Smith
2) Stage, screen and television actors have included Sidney Poitier, Paul Robeson, Sammy
Davis, Jr., Bill Cosby, Cicely Tyson, Whoopi Goldberg, Spike Lee, Denzel Washington, and
Oprah
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3) Artists have included - Edward M. Bannister, Archibald Motley, painters, Edmonia Lewis,
Selma Burke, Elizabeth Catlett, sculptors
4) Music includes the unique American musical forms “Dixie Land” and “Jazz” and individuals
such as Duke Ellington, Miles Davis, Ray Charles, Ella Fitzgerald, Nat King Cole, Little
Richard, Whitney Houston, and Stevie Wonder to name but a few.
5) Dance 1. African rhythms and classical forms have created stunning choreography and dancers Katherine Dunham, Pearl Primus, Kariamu Welsh Asante, and Alvin Alley.
2. African American/Black Deaf Dancers nationally known are:
a. Jimmy Turner - member of the American Deaf Dance Company
b. The Wild Zappers - Deaf dance company and “sign rappers”
6) Comedy - Bill Cosby, Richard Pryor, Eddie Murphy were but a few of the many famous Black
comedians - C J Jones (Deaf), Evon Black (Deaf)
3. Literature
1) Frederick Douglass -orator, writer and editor of the anti-slavery paper North Star
2) William Monroe Trotter - founder of the Guardian. African American paper in 1901
3) W. E. B. DuBois - professor, writer and editor, co-founder of the NAACP
4) Langston Hughes - poetry and short story
5) James Baldwin - author
6) Alex Haley - author of Roots in 1976
7) Authors of the Harlem Renaissance - 1920's writers and artists
8) Women writers
1. Zora Neale Hurston - 1900's
2. Jessie Redmon Fauset - 1900's
3. Lorraine Hansberry wrote A Raisin in the Sun - first play on Broadway - 1959
4. Alice Walker - novelist The Color Purple - 1982 Pulitzer Prize
5. Toni Morrison - novelist, teacher, 1968 Pulitzer and 1993 Nobel Prize for Literature
6. Maya Angelou - writer I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, and poet “Again I Rise”
9) Deaf Poetry and ASL Storytelling
1. Nathie Marbury (Deaf)
4. Education
1) Scholars
1. Alain Locke - First Black Rhodes scholar
2. Abram Harris and Sadie Alexander - economics
3. Cater G. Woodson - the “father of African American history’
4. Mary Frances Berry assistant secretary for education in the Dept. of Health, Education
and Welfare
2) African Americans Deaf Scholars
1. Reverend Andrew Foster (Deaf) - founder of schools for the Deaf in Africa
2. Dr. Glenn Anderson, Ph.D. (Deaf) Chairman of the Board of Gallaudet University
3. Dr. Reginald Redding, Ph.D (Deaf) - Gallaudet University
4. Dr. Laurene Gallimore, Ph.D. (Deaf) - professor of Deaf education
5. Dr. Shirley Allen (Deaf)
3) Medicine and Scientists
1. Charles Drew - first blood bank in England
2. William Hinton - developed a test for syphilis
3. Dr. Irene Long’s - aerospace medicine
4. Dr. Daniel Hale Williams - first open heart surgery
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5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Samuel Kountz - pioneer in kidney transplant
George Alcorn - physics - innovations in semiconductors and instrumentation
George Carruthers - physics - designed camera that photographed moon’s surface
Percy Julian - chemist - drugs for glaucoma and arthritis
James Mitchell - chemist - detect impurities
Robert Lawrence - first African American/Black astronaut; then Guion Bluford, Jr.,
Bharles Boldern, Jr. Frederick Gregory, Mae Jemison and Ronald McNair - Challenger
Hero
4) Inventors - African American/Black Contributions to the World
5. Sports, Athletes, Coaches - Jesse Owens, Joe Louis, Jackie Robinson, Althea Gibson, Wilma
Rudolph, Muhammad Ali, Willie Mays, Magic Johnson, Michael Jordan, and Jackie-JoynerKersee and many others have broken “color” barriers and represented the finest in American
athletes.
6. Politics and Elected Officials - Barbara Jordan, Elinor Holmes, Julian Bond, identify national and
local individuals
7. Business - Madame Walker -
NMIP © 2000 African American/Black Cultural Knowledge and Sensitivity - Lecture Notes
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“What If There Were No Black People....” sent through internet original source unknown
This is a story of a little boy named Theo, who woke up one morning and
asked God, "What if there were no Black people in the world?" Well God
thought about that for a moment and then said, "Son, follow me around today
and let's just see what it would be like if there were no Black people in
the world. Get dressed and we will get started."
Theo ran to his room to put on his clothes and shoes. But there were no
shoes, and his clothes were all wrinkled. He looked for the iron, but when
he reached for the ironing board, it was no longer there. You see Sarah
Boone, a Black woman, invented the ironing board and Jan E. Matzelinger, a
Black man, invented the shoe lasting machine.
"Oh well, God said, go and do your hair." Theo ran in his room to comb his
hair, but the comb was not there. You see, Walter Sammons, a Black man,
invented the comb. Theo decided to just brush his hair, but the brush was
gone. You see, Lydia O. Newman, a Black female invented the brush. Well, he
was a sight, no shoes, wrinkled clothes, hair a mess without the hair care
inventions of Madam C.J. Walker, well, you get the picture.
God told Theo, "Let's do the chores around the house and then take a trip
to the grocery store." Theo's job was to sweep the floor. He swept and
swept and swept. When he reached for the dustpan, it was not there. You
see, Lloyd P. Ray, a Black man, invented the dustpan. So he swept his pile
of dirt over in the corner and left it there. He then decided to mop the
floor, but the mop was gone. You see, Thomas W. Stewart, a Black man,
invented the mop.
Theo thought to himself, "I'm not having any luck." "Well son," God said.
"We should wash the clothes and prepare a list for the grocery store." When
he was finished, Theo went to place the clothes in the dryer, but it was
not there. You see, George T. Samon, a Black man, invented the clothes
dryer.
Theo got a pencil and some paper to prepare the list for the market, but
noticed that the pencil lead was broken, well he was out of luck because
John Love, a black man, invented the pencil sharpener. He reached for a
pen, but it was not there because William Purvis, a Black man, invented the
fountain pen. As a matter of fact, Lee Burridge invented the type writing
machine, and W.A.Lavette, the printing press.
So they decided to head out to the market. Well, when Theo opened the door,
he noticed the grass was as high as he was tall. You see the lawn mower was
invented by John Burr, a Black man. They made their way over to the car and
found that it just wouldn't go. You see, Robert Spikes, a Black man,
invented the automatic gear shift and Joseph Gammel invented the
supercharge system for internal combustion engines. They noticed that the
few cars that were moving were running into each other and having wrecks
because there were no traffic signals. You see, Garrett A. Morgan, a Black
man invented the traffic light.
Well, it was getting late, so they walked to the market, got their groceries and returned home.
NMIP © 2000 African American/Black Cultural Knowledge and Sensitivity - Lecture Notes
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Just when they were about to put away the milk, eggs and butter, they noticed
the refrigerator was gone. You see, John Standard, a Black man, invented the
refrigerator. So they put the food on the counter. By this time, they noticed it
was getting mighty cold. Theo went to turn up the heat and what do you know,
Alice Parker, a Black female, invented the heating furnace. Even in the summer
time they would have been out of luck because Frederick Jones, a Black man,
invented the air conditioner.
It was almost time for Theo's father to arrive home. He usually took the
bus, but there was no bus because it precursor was the electric trolley,
invented by another Black man, Elbert T. Robinson. He usually took the
elevator from his office on the 20th floor, but there was no elevator
because Alexander Miles, a Black man, invented the elevator.
He usually dropped off the office mail at a nearby mailbox, but it was no
longer there because Phillip Downing, a Black man, invented the letter drop
mailbox and William Barry invented the postmarking and canceling machine.
Theo sat at the kitchen table with his head in his hands. When his father
arrived, he asked, "Why are you sitting in the dark?" Why?? Because Lewis
Howard Latimer, a Black man, invented the filament within the light bulb.
Theo quickly learned what it would be like if there were no Black people In
the world.
Not to mention if he were ever sick and needed blood. Charles Drew, a Black
scientist, found a way to preserve and store blood which led to his
starting the world's first blood bank.
And what if a family Member had to have surgery. This would not have been
possible without Dr. Daniel Hale Williams, a Black doctor, who performed
the first open heart surgery.
So if you ever wonder, like Theo, where we would be without Blacks? Well,
it's pretty plain to see, we could very well still be in the dark!!!
Source: author unknown
NMIP © 2000 African American/Black Cultural Knowledge and Sensitivity - Lecture Notes
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List of Influential African American/Black Role Deaf Models
In “Listening to the Deaf” in Emerge, January, 1996 p.56-61, a popular national magazine had a
feature article featuring several Black Deaf individuals and interpreters, photographs and personal
interviews including Pam Lloyd, former NBDA President, Jeff Bowden and Shirley Childress Johnson,
interpreters; and Lindsay Moeletsi Dunn, Professor David James and many others are mentioned.
The following is a list of individuals there are a host of others; forgive us if names have been
omitted, it was not intentional.”
Shirley Allen - educator/advocate/presenter
Elizabeth Creamer - advocate/presenter/educator
Hubert Anderson - former advocate
Dr. Glenn Anderson - educator/presenter
Michelle Banks - actress/presenter
Fred Beam - professional dancer/presenter/educator
Evon Black - comedian/presenter
Connie Briscoe - writer
Al Couthen - advocate/presenter/educator
Lottie Crook - advocate/presenter
Lindsey Dunn - advocate/presenter
Sheryl Guest Emory - advocate/presenter
Andrew Foster - former educator/presenter
Laurene Gallimore - educator/advocate/presenter
CJ (Charles Jones) - educator/professional comedian
Angela Gilchrist - educator/advocate/presenter
Teresa King - author/advocate/educator
Ernest Hairston - writer
Pam Lloyd - advocate/presenter
Claudia Gordan - lawyer/presenter
Ann Marie Bryant - professional filmaker/presenter/advocate
Nathie Marbury - educator/comedian/advocate
Carolyn McCaskill-Henry - advocate/presenter
Carl Moore - educator/advocate/presenter
Reginald Redding - advocate/presenter/educator
Ruth Reed - educator/advocate/presenter
Thomas Samuels - advocate/educator/presenter
Ann Lynn Smith - advocate/presenter
Linwood Smith - former poet
James Womack - ASL instructor/presenter
Warren Snipes - professional dancer/presenter/educator
Kenny Walker - pro football star
Chuck Williams - advocate/presenter
Willie Woodson - advocate/presenter
Pam Baldwin - NBDA historian
Curtis Young - minister
Stephen Younger II - Advocate/presenter
NMIP © 2000 African American/Black Cultural Knowledge and Sensitivity - Lecture Notes
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IX. Contemporary Issues, Challenges, and Solutions within the Deaf African American/Black
Community
African American/Black Deaf and Hearing Community Concerns and Triumphs
This section can be presented as an open ended individual or group process. Students can
research and/or brainstorm, and bring new topics and information to entire class; or arrange for a
panel discussion to come to class to address:
1. Issues of the Deaf African American/Black Community
1) National Black Deaf Advocates (NBDA) www.nbda.org
The mission of the National Black Deaf Advocates, Inc. (NBDA) is to promote the well-being,
culture, and empowerment of African American persons who are deaf or hard of hearing.
Through its mission, NBDA aims to strengthen the educational, cultural, social and economic
advancement of deaf and hard of hearing African Americans.
2) Resources - African American/Black Presenters
A few nationally well known presenters: African American/Black Deaf Presenters listed
alphabetically
Dr. Glenn Anderson
Dr. Laurene Gallimore
Al Couthen
C. J. Jones
Carl Moore
Ruth Reed
Thomas Samuels
Teresa King
Carolyn McCaskill
Nathie Marbury
See the NMIP Directory of Presenters and contact NBDA for additional resources.
2. Issues of International Communities
Many Black and Deaf individuals are coming to the United States to receive training and
educational skills and then return to their home countries to create increased educational and social
opportunities in their home countries. However, other countries have active Deaf communities that
meet in social clubs, at designated public locations, and share language and news. As international
travel and exchange opportunities increase better documentation will be collected regarding the
individual countries.
Reverend Andrew Foster was responsible for establishing the first school for the deaf in Ghana,
and later in Senegal, Nigeria, Benin, the Ivory Coast, and Cameroon. He established 20 schools
before his tragic and untimely death in 1987 in a plane crash over Rwanda. Victor Vodounou, Ph. D.,
shares how he was found by Foster in his home country of Benin and provided an education.
Resource: NMIP Cultural and Linguistic Diversity: Life Experiences of Victor Vodounou.
:Andrew Foster Movers and Shakers
The history of the language use in Africa is further complicated by the colonial and missionary
influences. The Deaf communities, too, were influenced in the development. Lindsay Dunn
responded to an email question for clarification of the existence of “Zulu” sign language. He wrote:
NMIP © 2000 African American/Black Cultural Knowledge and Sensitivity - Lecture Notes
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“As a matter of fact, there are several sign language variations in South African (actually 12) and
the most widely used sign language is Wittebome signs which are Irish based (Irish sign language).
This is used by most students, and former students who attended the Dominican School for the Deaf
at Wittebome, Cape Town. In Durban, the V. K. Naik School for the Deaf utilizes American Sign
Language. At the Inchanga school for the Deaf (Kwa Thintwa), the language used is Zulu but the
sign language is rudimentary and very much distinct from the other widely used forms. I went to
school at Wittebome which then was the only school that accepted Black deaf students until the
opening of the other schools for the Black deaf in the early 1880's – prior to that, there were several
schools for White deaf which were Afrikaans dominated and used British sign language (BBL) outside
of the oral based method used in the classroom.
The KwaThintwa school in Umtata is Xhosa based and like the Inchanga school, one must know
Zulu in order to be able to communicate effectively. The same for the Filadelphia School for the deaf
which has a diverse student population consisting of various tribes (Zulu, Xhosa, Tswana etc.) I think
the Filadelphia School has a sign language that could perhaps evolve into one that serves as a good
vehicle for translating Zulu, Xhosa and Swati (Nguni languages). I am not sure how it would serve
the Tswana languages (Sotho, Pedi, Venda etc). I am a native Zulu and when visiting the Inchanga
school last year, I noticed I had difficulty understanding the signs and had to look at the lips and
utilize my knowledge of Zulu in order to maintain communication. The principal of this school appears
to be leaning towards either the Wittebome method or American Sign language. Apparently there is
a movement towards finding the most appropriate English equivalent sign language, and both
Wittebome and ASL appear to meet this requirement best. It is complex – it is not as simple as a
simple Zulu sign language, Xhosa, Sotho etc. That is the dilemma facing most African nations where
there are huge diverse tribal divisions.
I could help with the translation of Zulu to English, I am not sure about the sign language unless
you might have a Zulu signer from South Africa whom I might attempt to communicate with and
provide translation. That is possible I believe, however, keep in mind the complexity of the reality that
is South Africa and the challenge we have of not just removing the remnants of an evil divisive
apartheid system, but attempting to bring together Deaf people who use a variety of sign languages
based on tribal and ethnic affiliation.” (From NMIP Email correspondence dated May 4, 1998).
At the recent conference of multicultural issues on the education of the deaf in Washington, D.C.
2000 provided an overview of the issues of deafness in Kenya. Many individuals both deaf and
hearing are now having international contacts with African nations and their unique Deaf community
experiences.
3. Impact on the Sign Language Interpreting Profession
RID Statistics on African American/Black interpreters
A survey quoted RID membership as being 93% White. Recently RID as a result of input
from NMIP has created membership data on the ethnicity of members. As of June 3, 2000, RID
had received 3,843 (53%) responses out of a total membership of 4,329. Of this 53% only 165
self-identified as African American/Black or (4%). Since the number of African American/Black
individuals in the nation is 12% this number is 75% behind a national percentage for our
profession. Our recruitment and retention efforts must be increased.
It is positive to note that several of these interpreters are receiving professional certification
by the RID and NAD.
1) Impacts on the Sign Language Interpreter Profession
1. African American Interpreters solutions
2. Non-African American Interpreters solutions
NMIP © 2000 African American/Black Cultural Knowledge and Sensitivity - Lecture Notes
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To become more effective in working with African American/Black colleagues and within the
African American/Black Deaf communities.
Get to know members of the African American/Black Community both Deaf and Hearing
Attend functions within the community.
Observe, then when the appropriate time come, get involved.
As an interpreter:
Consider the implications of accepting certain assignments
Know your comfort level in an assignment
Be aware of the subtleties of the culture
2) History of the National Alliance of Black Interpreters - attached.
1. Interpreter education programs
2. African American/Black role models and support for interpreters
A few of the nationally known African American/Black Interpreter presenters:
Anthony J. Aramburo, President of NAOBI
Jackie Bruce
Shirley Childress Johnson
Jeff Bowden
Jo Linda Greenfield
Barbara Hunt
Aaron Orange
John Lewis
Mark Morrison
Wanda Newman
Pamela Harrison
Peaches Weddington
Leandra Williams
Lynette Vickers
Sharon Vickers
Lordy Smith, CDI
Ruth Reed, CDI
Glendia Boon
Jason Burnley
Erick Regan, CDI
Lovelyn (Lee) Ocharo
Mary Lightfoot
Greg Marrow
Celeste Owen
Howard Hines
Contact NAOBI and NBDA for additional contacts and resources.
3. Recruitment issues
African American/Blacks are still under represented in the interpreting profession.
The NMIP has produced a recruitment manual and sample recruitment materials.
These are available.
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3) Educational access and training needs of African American/Black interpreters
The National Alliance of Black Interpreters, Inc.
Compiled by Anthony Aramburo, President
I. History
A. 1980 - New York City / Washington DC a large number of African American/Black
interpreters
B. Pamela Dinkins formally creates the name
C. NAOBI Conference
D. 1990 - As a result of African American/Black interpreters and professionals in the field of
deafness getting together at conferences, meetings, and other functions.
E. NAOBI DC begins to formally establish itself
F. Mid 90's Summit begins
G. NAOBI elects a board
H. Begins meeting regularly
I. Summits become conferences
J. 1999 Myrtle Beach SC;
K. New York City; 2000
L. Las Vegas, 2001
M. New Orleans 2002
II.Mission Statement
A. Promote excellence and empowerment among African American/Blacks in the profession
of sign language interpreting in the context of a multi-cultural, multi-lingual environment.
III.
A.
B.
C.
Goals
Recruitment of African American/Black into the profession of interpreting
Retain African American/Black in our interpreter training programs and in the profession
Mentoring opportunities
1. NBDA
2. NAOBI Conferences
3. Developing distance mentoring program
D. Increase the number of certified African American/Black interpreters
E. Directory of African American/Black interpreters
F. History of African American/Black interpreters
IV.
A.
B.
C.
D.
Collaboration
NBDA
RID
CIT
NMIP
V.
Future
A. Chapters
1. Chapter #1 - Washington, DC
2. Chapter #2 - Mobile, AL
3. Chapter #3 - New York, NY
4. Chapter #4 - Chicago, IL
5. Chapter #5 - New Orleans, LA
6. Chapter #6 - Atlanta, Georgia
7. Chapter #7 - Houston, Texas
B. World Wide Web site - www.NAOBI.org
C. Encourage African American / Black members to publish
D. Develop video tapes
NMIP © 2000 African American/Black Cultural Knowledge and Sensitivity - Lecture Notes
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VI.
Closing
A. Recognize the need for an organization such as NAOBI to foster growth and
development for African American / Black interpreters and ITP students
Using the “Everyday Interactions Between Black and Whites in Interpreting Situations See attached. interactions. Discuss the attached case studies.
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