Class 2 - 03/06
Study Questions
• What are the two main parts of arguments?
– Premise(s) and Conclusion
• What are the two main elements of argument analysis?
– Reconstruction and Evaluation
• We often say that people who yell at each other are
having an argument. What is the connection, if any,
between this type of argument and the arguments
discussed in class?
– There is little connection, if any, between the two kinds of
argument. The first mostly involves trying to convince the
other person of one’s point of view; the other involves
careful reasoning about issues.
Ways People Deal with Arguments
The credulous person
• is easily convinced, even
without evidence, by new
books, good speakers, etc.
• does not hold strong
beliefs (changes beliefs
easily)
Ways People Deal with Arguments
The person of contradiction
• opposes everything, rather
than seeking truth
• ignores the reasons of
others
Ways People Deal with Arguments
The dogmatist
• holds all beliefs
as certainties
• refuses to listen
to objections
Ways People Deal with Arguments
The skeptic
• believes nothing
• is afraid to assent
to anything
Ways People Deal with Arguments
Ways People Deal with Arguments
The relativist
• believes that different
things are true for
different people or
different groups
What’s Wrong with These Ways?
Ways People Deal with Arguments
The rational thinker
Can:
• distinguish genuine arguments from other things
• understand and interpret arguments
• evaluate arguments
Will:
• examine arguments with an open mind
• change his/her mind when the arguments call for it
• give up comfortable or popular beliefs when the
arguments call for it
• go along with popular views when the arguments
call for it
• form beliefs even when matters are uncertain
Impediments to Good Reasoning
Lack of an Adequate Vocabulary
Question
Is the lack of an adequate vocabulary really an
impediment to good reasoning? After all, one
can play baseball well without being able to
describe the bodily motions involved.
Impediments to Good Reasoning
The Desire to Be Tolerant
Question
Is there really a conflict between engaging in
argument analysis and being tolerant and
respectful?
Impediments to Good Reasoning
Misunderstanding the Point of Argument Analysis
Questions
What should be the point of argument
analysis?
How can literary style or rhetorical power
affect people’s perception of arguments?
Impediments to Good Reasoning
Misconceptions about Truth and Rationality
Question
What are some of the problems involved with
believing that, especially for moral issues,
everything is just a matter of opinion?
Impediments to Good Reasoning
The Use of “Argument Stoppers”
• “Well, that’s a matter of opinion.”
• “Who’s to say what the truth is about that?”
• “That’s a subjective judgment.”
Question
Can you think of any other argument stoppers?
Key Terms
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argument
conclusion
premise
reconstructing an argument
evaluating an argument
argument analysis
rational strength
rational thinker
argument stopper
Uses of Language
• Interrogative sentences
– What time is it?
– Did you feed the dog?
• Imperative sentences
– Tell me the time!
– Feed the dog!
• Declarative sentences
– It’s two o’clock.
– I fed the dog.
Uses of Language
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Boston is west of Chicago.
When is the next train to Los Angeles?
The house is on fire!
There’s a fly in my soup.
Close the door!
Will whoever took my bicycle please return it?
Appearances can be deceiving.
I don’t know what time it is.
I oppose capital punishment.
You should do your homework.
Do your homework!
Truth and Correspondence to Facts
Correspondence Principle:
A declarative sentence is true just in case it
corresponds to the facts as they actually are.
A declarative sentence is false just in case it
fails to correspond to the facts as they actually
are.
An Objection to CP
In ancient times it was widely believed that the
earth was flat. Children were told by their teachers
that the earth was flat. The experts agreed.
Furthermore, the earth did look flat (ignoring, of
course, all the mountains and valleys). Suppose
some child in those days said (in her language):
The earth is flat.
Was that sentence true? Did it correspond to the
facts? Was it true for the ancients but false for us?
Improving the Basic Idea of CP
Notice that both Feeder and Walker use the same sentence:
I fed the dog.
Solution (Part 1): Types and Tokens
Same costume?
Worn in 1956 and 1990
Question
Explain the source of confusion in the
following discussion.
Student 1: How many classes do you have this week?
Student 2: Only three – philosophy, chemistry, and psychology. My history
class is cancelled this week.
Student 1: Only three! I have twelve – three English classes, four biology
classes, three sociology classes, and two art history classes.
Solution (Part 2a):
Sentences and Propositions
I fed the dog.
I fed the dog.
Context
What features of the situation help to
determine which proposition is expressed?
1.
2.
3.
4.
I am sleepy.
You will not be here tomorrow.
It is sunny today.
We will not be happy if he wins that prize.
Solution (Part 2a):
Sentences and Propositions
I fed the dog.
뭐?
Solution (Part 2a):
Sentences and Propositions
저는 강아지 먹이를
주었습니다.
아!
Revised CP
“One Truth Value Principle”
OTV:
Every proposition has exactly one truth value.
It is either true, or false, but not both.
The number of pebbles is even.
Zombies are scary.
Consequence of Revised CP
Questions
Does the truth value of this proposition
depend on how people feel about the topic?
Pop U. Lar is well liked.
What mistake is made in the following claim?
The statement that there are an odd number of stars in the
sky is neither true nor false since no one knows how many
stars there are in the sky.
Key Terms
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sentence
interrogative sentence
imperative sentence
declarative sentence
truth
falsity
token
type
proposition (statement)
truth value
For Next Class
Visit the class website at:
www.teacherpage.com/ktct
Read and be ready to discuss the posted study
questions and readings.