DAC Global Relations
The Development Assistance Committee: Enabling effective development
TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION:
What’s the literature telling us?
TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION:
What’s the Literature Telling Us?
Literature review prepared by the
OECD Development Co-operation Directorate
May 2013
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS – 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This literature review forms part of a series of activities conducted by the OECD
Development Co-operation Directorate in 2012 and 2013 with the aim of helping to
clarify what triangular co-operation is, how it is implemented and how it can be effective
in promoting development. Alongside this literature review, other activities included: a
survey of countries and organisations involved in triangular co-operation, a
brainstorming meeting with 24 experts and a policy dialogue that brought together 70
representatives from the different constituencies in triangular co-operation. The OECD
adopted an inclusive approach, involving all key partners in triangular co-operation:
providers of development cooperation, developing countries and international
organisations. These activities were managed by Talita Yamashiro Fordelone (OECD),
under the responsibility of Michael Laird (OECD) and Karen Jorgensen (OECD).
The literature review was produced by Talita Yamashiro Fordelone (OECD) with
research assistance from Folashadé Soule-Kohndou (OECD). Formatting, proof-reading
and logistical support was assured by Angela Stuart (OECD). The cover page was
designed by Stephanie Coic (OECD).
TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION LITERATURE REVIEW © OECD 2013
TABLE OF CONTENTS – 5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACRONYMS ..................................................................................................................................... 7
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY..................................................................................................................... 9
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................11
WHAT IS TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION? ........................................................................................ 13
Multiple descriptions but no common definition ................................................................................. 13
Different ways of establishing triangular co-operation ........................................................................ 14
PARTNERS INVOLVED IN TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION .................................................................. 17
Governments are the main players ...................................................................................................... 17
Providers of development co-operation............................................................................................... 17
Pivotal countries ................................................................................................................................... 18
International organisations................................................................................................................... 19
Non-governmental actors ..................................................................................................................... 20
SECTORAL AND REGIONAL SPREAD OF TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION ............................................. 21
Sectors of intervention ......................................................................................................................... 21
Regions and contexts of intervention ................................................................................................... 21
HOW TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION CONTRIBUTES TO DEVELOPMENT ............................................ 23
Benefits and challenges of triangular co-operation ............................................................................. 23
Improving triangular co-operation ....................................................................................................... 24
CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................................................... 27
ANNEX 1: Triangular Co-operation in International Agreements ..................................................... 29
ANNEX 2: Some Different Definitions of Triangular Co-operation.................................................... 31
ANNEX 3: Triangular Co-operation in Policies of International Organisations .................................. 33
ANNEX 4: Indicative List of Triangular Co-operation Activities ........................................................ 35
BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................................................................. 39
TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION LITERATURE REVIEW © OECD 2013
ACRONYMS – 7
ACRONYMS
ACP
Africa Caribbean Pacific
AECID*
Spanish Agency for International Co-operation
(Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional)
Association of South East Asian Nations
African Union
Belgian Technical Co-operation
OECD Development Assistance Committee
South African Department of International Relations and Co-operation
Food and Agriculture Organisation
Group of 20
Germany Agency for International Co-operation
(Gesellchäft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit)
International Labour Organisation
Japan International Co-operation Agency
Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development
Ibero-american General Secretariat
(Secretaría General Iberoamericana)
South-South co-operation
Special Unit for South-South Co-operation, UNDP
Technical Co-operation among Developing Countries
Triangular Development Co-operation
Working Party on Aid Effectiveness Task Team on South-South
Co-operation
United Nations
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs
United Nations Development Programme
United Nations Environment Programme
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation
United Nations Industrial Development Organisation
United Nations Joint Inspection Unit
United Nations Population Fund
United States Agency for International Development
ASEAN
AU
BTC
DAC
DIRCO
FAO
G20
GIZ*
ILO
JICA
OECD
SEGIB*
SSC
SU/SSC
TCDC
TDC
TT-SSC
UN
UNCTAD
UN-DESA
UNDP
UNEP
UN-ESCAP
UNESCO
UNIDO
UN-JIU
UNPF
USAID
* Denotes acronyms in original language
TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION LITERATURE REVIEW © OECD 2013
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY – 9
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
International attention to triangular co-operation has been growing, with an
increasing number of development partners becoming involved in this form of
development co-operation. In part, this is due to the advantages it offers. It brings
together different partners to share knowledge and implement projects that support the
common goal of reducing poverty and promoting development.
This literature review describes the “state of play” in triangular co-operation. It
builds on the report “Triangular Co-operation and Aid Effectiveness” (OECD, 2009) and
addresses four questions:

What do we understand by triangular co-operation and how has this
understanding evolved?

Which partners are involved in triangular co-operation and why?

In which sectors, regions and contexts is triangular co-operation happening?

How can triangular co-operation contribute to development?
Multiple descriptions, but no agreed definition of what triangular co-operation is
There are multiple descriptions of triangular co-operation in the literature but no
internationally agreed definition. Understanding of the term has evolved over time since
the first implicit reference in the Buenos Aires Plan of Action (United Nations, UN, 1978).
A recent report of the United Nations (UN) Joint Inspection Unit (2011) recommended
the adoption of a common definition in the UN system, but this has not happened yet.
Today, descriptions take greater account of a wide range of partners involved in
triangular co-operation, including international organisations and the private sector.
Triangular co-operation can start in different ways and the division of labour among
different partners is not fixed but constantly evolving.
An increasingly wide range of partners are involved in triangular co-operation
Triangular co-operation involves not only governments but also international
organisations and, increasingly, non-governmental actors. Several international
organisations are including triangular co-operation in their strategies as an important
means of supporting development. Despite this evolution, it is clear from the literature
that governments remain the main partners in triangular co-operation.
Triangular co-operation is happening almost everywhere
According to the literature, triangular co-operation takes place in different sectors,
regions and contexts. It tends to take place among countries with similar features
(e.g. geographic proximity, common language, similar cultural heritage) and is
implemented in many sectors (e.g. agriculture, education, environment, food security,
TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION LITERATURE REVIEW © OECD 2013
10 – EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
governance and health). Recently, security and risk management is becoming an
important area for triangular co-operation, with more activities being conducted in
fragile states.
There is a growing consensus that the benefits of triangular co-operation outweigh
the disadvantages
Triangular co-operation presents both benefits and challenges. The literature
suggests that the benefits (e.g. additional financial and technical support from providers
of development co-operation1 or international organisations, knowledge sharing among
all partners, and building development co-operation management capacities) outweigh
the disadvantages (notably high transaction costs). In addition, there are means of
addressing these challenges to make triangular co-operation more effective and
enhance its impact. Looking ahead, partners could focus on clarifying the characteristics
of triangular co-operation and sharing lessons on how to build on its benefits and
minimise its disadvantages.
1
For the purposes of this report, a provider of development co-operation is every country that only
provides development co-operation and is not eligible to receive official development assistance. This
includes DAC members, non-DAC Eastern European donors, Arab donors, among other high-income
countries
TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION LITERATURE REVIEW © OECD 2013
INTRODUCTION – 11
INTRODUCTION
Triangular co-operation has received increased international attention and
recognition in recent years. This interest has been prompted by the economic growth
and development in several middle-income countries. There has also been a renewed
focus on knowledge sharing as a powerful engine for development. As a result, providers
of development co-operation1, international organisations and developing countries are
becoming more involved in triangular co-operation as a way to achieve the common
goal of reducing poverty reduction and promoting development. Furthermore, several
high-level meetings on development co-operation, including the United Nations
High-Level Conference on South-South Co-operation in 2009 in Nairobi and the 4th
High-Level Forum on Aid Effectiveness in 2011 in Busan, have recognised the importance
of triangular co-operation as a means of achieving development results (see Annex 1 for
references to triangular co-operation in a selected number of international agreements
on development co-operation).
This increased attention and recognition brings a need for more clarity on what
triangular co-operation is, how it is implemented and how it can best support
development. Building on a previous study entitled “Triangular Co-operation and Aid
Effectiveness” (OECD, 2009), this report presents the “state of play” in triangular
co-operation, drawing on studies, reports and summaries of relevant conferences
prepared from mid-2009 to mid-2012.
This report addresses the following questions:

What do we understand by triangular co-operation and how has this
understanding evolved?

Which partners are involved in triangular co-operation and why?

In which sectors, regions and contexts is triangular co-operation happening?

How can triangular co-operation contribute to development?
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12 – EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
NOTES
1
For the purposes of this report, a provider of development co-operation is every
country that only provides development co-operation and is not eligible to receive
official development assistance. This includes DAC members, non-DAC Eastern
European donors, Arab donors, among other high-income countries
TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION LITERATURE REVIEW © OECD 2013
WHAT IS TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION? – 13
WHAT IS TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION?
This literature review finds that there are different understandings of what
triangular co-operation is and shows that triangular co-operation can be established in
several ways.
Multiple descriptions but no common definition
There is no internationally agreed definition or common understanding of what
“triangular co-operation” is. In fact, even the term “triangular co-operation” has several
variations. Some countries, such as China and the United States, refer to “trilateral
co-operation” (Li and Bonschab, 2012; USA White House, 2012), while some regional
organisations, such as the Ibero-American General Secretariat (SEGIB), refer to
“triangular South-South co-operation”. The expression “tripartite co-operation” is also
used. For the purposes of this report, the term “triangular co-operation” is used
throughout.
Triangular co-operation when defined as providers of development co­operation’s
support to South-South co-operation has existed for about three decades. The first
implicit reference to triangular co-operation was made in the Buenos Aires Plan of
Action of 1978 (United Nations, UN, 1978) which recommended that developed
countries “support…technical co-operation among developing countries” and that “all
the United Nations organisations should play a prominent role as promoters and
catalysts of technical co-operation among developing countries (TCDC)”. The term
“triangular co-operation” originated in 1980, when the Independent Commission on
International Development issues, chaired by former German Chancellor Willy Brandt,
suggested the development of triangular co-operation schemes in the context of
economic co-operation between developing countries (Chaturvedi, 2012).
Since the first reference to the term “triangular co-operation”, interpretations of
what triangular co-operation is have evolved, varying according to the nature, partners
involved and the scope of triangular co-operation (United Nations Joint Inspection Unit,
UN-JIU, 2011; Special Unit for South-South Co-operation, UNDP, SU/SSC, n.d.) (See
Annex 2 for different definitions of triangular co-operation). For instance, as
international organisations started supporting co-operation among developing
countries, they have become explicitly mentioned in definitions of triangular
co-operation (UN-DESA, 2009). However, according to a report from the United Nations
Joint Inspection Unit (UN-JIU), some consider “the United Nations system (and other
international organisations) contribution to South-South activities as triangular
co-operation, while others consider it as necessarily involving the participation of a
traditional donor in the process” (UN-JIU, 2011). The UN-JIU report recommended the
adoption of a common definition in the UN system, but this has not yet happened. Other
institutions propose that triangular co-operation is not necessarily limited to three
partners, and can, for instance, involve two or more developing countries that wish to
co-operate with one another and ask for the support of one or more providers of
development co-operation or international organisations, to leverage additional
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14 – WHAT IS TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION?
financial, technical or logistical resources (SU/SSC, n.d). The report “Triangular
Co-operation and Aid Effectiveness” describes triangular co-operation as partnerships
between members of the OECD Development Assistance Committee (DAC)2 and pivotal
countries3 to implement programmes or projects in beneficiary countries (OECD, 2009).
A recent article on challenges for triangular co-operation takes a different approach,
proposing both weak and strong definitions of triangular co-operation
(Li and Bonschab, 2012). According to the weak definition, triangular co-operation
“unites the approaches of two donors into one project in which the two different
approaches work simultaneously but in a co-ordinated way”, i.e. partners use their
comparative advantages and work in a co-ordinated way. The stronger definition is “the
three parties are united at each step of the project: the planning, financing,
implementation, and monitoring”, i.e. partners share values and align their
methodologies.
Although there is no agreed definition, the literature on triangular co-operation
suggests a widely held understanding that, in practice, triangular co-operation involves
at least one provider of development co-operation or an international organisation and
one or more providers of South-South co-operation (i.e. pivotal countries) to promote a
sharing of knowledge and experience or implement development co-operation projects
in one or more beneficiary countries. A common feature of many examples of triangular
co-operation is that know-how, skills, experiences and resources from both developed
and developing countries are combined. Often, the “pivotal country” plays a central
role, as the name suggests, contributing expertise adapted to the context in the
beneficiary country and more direct or recent knowledge of development challenges,
while the provider of development co-operation or the international organisation shares
their development co-operation experience and provides funds. However, such a
division of labour is not fixed and the role performed by different partners can vary. For
instance, there are several examples of triangular co-operation where there is a
two-way flow of knowledge and experiences, with all developing countries involved
acting as pivotal and beneficiary of the co-operation. In other cases, providers of
development co-operation and international organisations can have an important role in
contributing knowledge and expertise alongside the pivotal countries.
Different ways of establishing triangular co-operation
The literature shows that there are different ways to establish triangular
co-operation. Four main models were identified:4
1.
South-South co-operation as the starting point: a provider of development
co-operation supports an existing South-South co-operation. An example is the
project “GIRESOL environmental network”, conducted by Mexico and Guatemala
with Germany’s support (see Annex 4).
Pivotal country
Provider of
development
co-operation
Beneficiary
country
TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION LITERATURE REVIEW © OECD 2013
WHAT IS TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION? – 15
2.
Bilateral co-operation between a provider of development co-operation and
pivotal country as the starting point: a provider of development co-operation
and a pivotal country sign a partnership agreement to co-operate with a third,
beneficiary country. Japan and Brazil’s project with Angola to build capacity in
the health sector is an example (see Annex 4).
Provider of
development
co-operation
Beneficiary
country
Pivotal country
3.
Bilateral co-operation between a provider of development co-operation and a
beneficiary country as the starting point: a pivotal country joins an existing
partnership between a provider of development co-operation and a beneficiary
country. The project “Clean Development Mechanism” is an example: it was first
conducted by Germany and India, then China joined later (see Annex 4).
Beneficiary
country
Pivotal country
Provider of
development
co-operation
4.
Triangular agreement as the starting point: the co-operation is set up jointly by
the three partners (provider of development co-operation, pivotal country and
beneficiary country) who identify, negotiate, formulate and implement the
activity. An example is the partnership between Spain, Chile and Paraguay to
build capacity in the public sector (see Annex 4).
Beneficiary
country
Provider of
development
co-operation
TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION LITERATURE REVIEW © OECD 2013
Pivotal country
16 – WHAT IS TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION?
NOTES
2
Current members of the DAC are: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark,
Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea, Luxembourg,
the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the
United Kingdom, the United States and the European Union.
3
The expression “pivotal country” is used in this report to refer to countries that
provide South­South co­operation. According to the Special Unit for South-South
Co-operation, UNDP (SU/SSC), “pivotal countries can be defined as developing
countries which, by virtue of their capacities and experience in promoting
South­South co­operation, are positioned to play a ‘lead’ role in the promotion and
application of TCDC [technical co-operation among developing countries], mainly by
sharing their capacities and experience with other developing countries; although
they could themselves also benefit from the experience of such countries.” The
concept of pivotal countries emerged in 1995 from a recommendation contained in
the “New Directions Strategy on TCDC” that was approved by the High-level
Committee on TCDC and the United Nations General Assembly (for further
information, please refer to http://ssc.undp.org/content/ssc/about/faq.html). The
terms “emerging donors” and “non­DAC donors” are employed more often but do
not describe this group of countries accurately. Some pivotal countries began to
engage in development co-operation as early as some DAC members; therefore, it is
not adequate to call them “emerging donors.” “Non­DAC donors” do not define
what the group is, but rather what it is not.
4
For each model presented, there can be more than one provider of development cooperation, pivotal and/or beneficiary countries. The lines represent the partnership
established first and the arrows represent the partner that joined the co-operation
after.
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PARTNERS INVOLVED IN TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION - 17
PARTNERS INVOLVED IN TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION
The literature shows that governments are the main partners in triangular
co-operation. However, international organisations are increasingly involved and they
are including triangular co-operation in their development strategies. Civil society
organisations (CSOs) are also participating more in triangular co-operation.
Governments are the main players
Providers of development co-operation
According to the United Nations (UN) (2012b) and Ashoff (2009), roughly two thirds
of DAC members are engaged in triangular co-operation, with Japan at the top of the
list, followed by Germany and Spain. Few of them include triangular co-operation in
their policies and strategies, with the exception of Japan and Spain. Since 1975, Japan
has promoted triangular co-operation through its regional co-operation strategies and
country co-operation programmes in selected pivotal countries as a way of supporting
South-South co-operation (Japan International Co-operation Agency, JICA, 2012; SU/SSC,
2009). Japan is conducting triangular co-operation through “partnership programmes”
signed in 2009 with 12 partners: Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Egypt, Indonesia, Jordan,
Mexico, Morocco, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Tunisia (JICA, 2012). Germany
and Spain have also signed triangular co-operation agreements with Brazil, Chile and
South Africa (SU/SSC, 2009).
Other DAC members involved in triangular co-operation are Australia, Canada,
Denmark, Ireland, Italy, Korea, Luxembourg, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Sweden,
Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States (OECD, 2013; UN-JIU, 2011). The
United States included triangular co-operation in its development co-operation policies
and strategies “with the aim of helping to meet the needs of developing countries by
working with partners” (USA White House, 2010). It has established triangular
co-operation partnerships with Brazil, India and South Africa, referring to these
arrangements as “trilateral co-operation” or “trilateral assistance programs”. Brazil also
signed Memoranda of Understanding with Denmark and Sweden, agreeing with each of
these countries to explore the possibility for joint co-operation in development in third
countries (Government of the Kingdom of Denmark and Government of the Federative
Republic of Brazil, 2012; Government of the Kingdom of Sweden and Government of the
Federative Republic of Brazil, 2012).
According to the World Bank’s report on Arab development assistance, the so-called
“Arab donors” are also becoming more involved in triangular co-operation
(World Bank, 2010). For example, Arab agencies have supported the establishment of
training institutes for officials from developing countries and have provided grant
assistance for knowledge sharing initiatives. These activities are designed to help
developing countries’ officials to develop policy solutions tailored to their own
development challenges.
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18 – PARTNERS INVOLVED IN TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION
According to a major report by the Special Unit for South-South Co-operation, UNDP
(SU/SSC, 2009), providers of development co-operation engage in triangular
co-operation with the aim to:

Make development co-operation more effective through jointly developed
projects.

Strengthen the capacities of providers of South-South co-operation.

Encourage horizontal relationships between two or more developing countries.
Pivotal countries
According to several reports (Agencia de Cooperación Internacional de Chile, AGCI,
2011; Government of Argentina, n.d.; Government of Mexico, 2010; OECD, 2013; SEGIB,
2011; SU/SSC, 2009; Ashoff, 2009), the main pivotal countries involved in triangular
co-operation are:

In Asia: Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore,
Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam.

In Latin America and the Caribbean: Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa
Rica, Cuba, Mexico and Peru.

In Africa: Egypt, Kenya, Morocco, South Africa and Tunisia.
There is little information on whether triangular co-operation is part of pivotal
countries’ co­operation strategies. South Africa is an exception, as triangular
co-operation is part of the strategic orientation of the South African Development
Partnership Agency (Government of South Africa, 2011).
According to the SU/SSC (2009), pivotal countries engage in triangular co-operation
to:

Obtain support and additional resources to foster South-South co-operation,
particularly for demand-driven projects in least-developed countries.

Learn from each other and share lessons on development.
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PARTNERS INVOLVED IN TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION - 19
International organisations
International organisations consider triangular co-operation an important means of
supporting development and several of them are incorporating triangular co-operation
in their strategies. As shown below, triangular co-operation supported by international
organisations happens in two ways: i) a joint activity conducted by the organisation, the
pivotal country and the beneficiary country; or ii) support to a South-South co-operation
activity. As mentioned above, it is important to note that the role performed by
different partners in triangular co-operation can vary; the international organisation can
therefore bring financial and technical support to the partnership, or even be involved in
implementation.
International
organisation
Beneficiary
country
International
organisation
Pivotal
country
South-South
co-operation
A range of international organisations, mostly UN agencies, are involved in triangular
co-operation. This includes the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), the
International Labour Organisation (ILO), the Pan-American Health Organization, the
United Nations Conference and Trade and Development (UNCTAD), the UNDP and the
United Nations Environment Program (UNEP). Other international organisations beyond
the UN also participate in triangular co-operation, such as the Africa Caribbean
Pacific (ACP) Group of States, the African Development Bank, the Asian Development
Bank, the Caribbean Community, the Inter-American Development Bank, the
International Monetary Fund, the Islamic Development Bank, the New Partnership for
Africa’s Development, the Organization of American States, the Organisation
Internationale de la Francophonie and the World Bank. Some of these organisations are
developing policy and institutional frameworks to guide these efforts (Annex 3 provides
some examples).
A UN report shows substantial progress in the South-South and triangular
co-operation activities involving international organisations (UN, 2012b). Three trends
are emerging:

Triangular and South-South co-operation are increasingly included in the policies
of international organisations.

There is greater use of web-based platforms to foster the sharing of knowledge
and experience.

Thematic “centres of excellence” in developing countries are being established
or strengthened.
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20 – PARTNERS INVOLVED IN TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION
Regional organisations are also involved in triangular co-operation. Examples include
the Ibero-American programme to strengthen South-South Co-operation (SEGIB, 2011)
and the Organisation of Islamic Co-operation’s promotion of South-South co-operation
through the 10-year action plan adopted in 2005 (World Bank, 2010). The African
Union (AU) also underscores “the broadening and strengthening of international
development through the emerging modalities and promising mechanisms in
South-South co-operation and Triangular Co-operation as a relevant and cost-effective
approach side by side with North-South co-operation” (AU, 2011).
According to the SU/SSC (2009), international organisations engage in triangular
co-operation to:

Enhance country ownership and promote the comparative advantages of
South-South co-operation, by making developing countries’ technology and
know-how more readily available to other developing countries and taking
advantage of common languages and similar social and cultural contexts.

Replicate and build on past successful development co-operation.
Non-governmental actors
According to the UN, the private sector and civil society are playing an increasingly
important role in triangular co-operation and can strengthen both South-South and
triangular co-operation (UN, 2012a). However, aside from references by the UN, there is
currently little information available on the involvement of the private sector in
triangular co-operation and there are few experiences reported on CSOs participating in
triangular co-operation. CSOs have mostly been working with governments as well as
with UN agencies and programmes, providing advice and support to their South-South
and triangular co-operation activities. One example is the project conducted by the
Belgian Development Agency (BTC), the University of Cordoba (Argentina) and the El
Alto municipality (Bolivia) between 2007-10, through which BTC and the University of
Cordoba provided technical assistance for the hospitals of the Bolivian municipality and
training for their health personnel (BTC, 2010).
Potentially, CSOs can have different roles in triangular co-operation. They can
implement and help adapt projects to local realities; they can broker demand and supply
for co-operation or they can advocate for greater transparency and local ownership.
Civil society can also facilitate interactions among individuals, associations and
businesses through, for example, student exchanges, tourism, web-based knowledge
platforms and electronic networks. Relevant on-line fora and social networks include the
“South-South opportunity” (www.southsouth.info) and a Facebook page
(www.facebook.com/TriangularCo-operation?filter=1) created in April 2011. The aim of
these platforms is to promote discussions and disseminate the latest information about
past and upcoming events, reports, summaries of conferences and workshops related to
South-South and triangular co-operation.
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SECTORAL AND REGIONAL SPREAD OF TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION - 21
SECTORAL AND REGIONAL SPREAD OF TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION
According to the available literature, triangular co-operation takes place in many
sectors and regions. Security and risk management is becoming an important sector,
with increasing focus on fragile states.
Sectors of intervention
The literature shows that triangular co-operation takes place in a variety of sectors
(see Annex 4 for an indicative list of activities). The main sectors include: agriculture,
education, employment, energy, environment, fishery, food security, government,
health and water and sanitation. Most providers of development co-operation do not
have priority sectors for triangular co-operation except Spain, which gives priority to
governance, climate change and environment, and research and development. Most
international organisations set priority sectors in line with their areas of work. For
instance, a SU/SSC report shows that the United Nations Industrial Development
Organisation’s (UNIDO) main areas of triangular co-operation in Latin America are
agro-industries, trade capacity building and renewable energy, while the United Nations
Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation’s (UNESCO) focuses on education,
science and sustainable development, information and communication technologies,
physics and mathematics (SU/SSC, 2009).
A relatively new and increasingly important sector for triangular co-operation is
security and risk management. Projects in this sector are usually implemented in
countries experiencing post-conflict and other situations of fragility. According to the
literature, the United States, Canada and South Africa are the main partners involved in
triangular co-operation in fragile states. Examples of activities include (see Annex 4 for
other examples):

Combating child labour: USA and Brazil in Ecuador, Bolivia, Paraguay and
Lusophone Africa.

Counter-narcotics co-operation: USA, Brazil and Bolivia; Australia, Singapore and
ASEAN countries – Association of South East Asian Nations.

Conflict and post-conflict resolution: Canada and South Africa in Rwanda,
Burundi, Sudan and South Sudan; Norway, South Africa and Burundi.
Regions and contexts of intervention
Triangular co-operation projects are implemented in all regions of the world: Africa,
Latin America and the Caribbean, Asia, Oceania and Europe. The literature shows that,
as with the sectors of intervention, most countries do not have priority regions for their
triangular co-operation activities. However, Spain and Japan are exceptions: the first
focuses on Latin America, and the second focuses on Asia, Latin America and Africa.
Because of their global reach, most UN agencies and programmes do not set geographic
TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION LITERATURE REVIEW © OECD 2013
22 – SECTORAL AND REGIONAL SPREAD OF TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION
priorities for their triangular co-operation either, although UNIDO prioritises West Africa
(SU/SSC, 2009).
Most triangular co-operation projects happen among developing countries from the
same region. For instance, in triangular co-operation partnerships involving Japan or
Spain as providers of development co-operation and Brazil or Chile as pivotal countries,
most projects are implemented in Latin America and the Caribbean. This is also the case
for triangular co-operation partnerships involving the United States or Germany as
providers of development co-operation and South Africa as the pivotal country: the
projects are mostly implemented in Africa. The geographic proximity as well as culture
and language similarities explain the preference for triangular co-operation among
countries from the same region. Nevertheless, there is increasing triangular
co-operation involving partners from different continents, such as:

Germany, Singapore and Afghanistan’s co-operation in human resource capacity
development and civil aviation safety.

Islamic Development Bank, Malaysia and Sierra Leone’s co-operation in palm oil
industry techniques.

Japan, Brazil and Mozambique’s project to promote agricultural development in
Mozambique’s tropical savannah.

Japan, Sri Lanka and Tanzania’s co-operation on improvement of hospital
management and quality of health services.

United States, China and Liberia’s collaboration to improve higher education
facilities.
TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION LITERATURE REVIEW © OECD 2013
HOW TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION CONTRIBUTES TO DEVELOPMENT – 23
HOW TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION CONTRIBUTES TO DEVELOPMENT
The literature shows that triangular co-operation has both benefits and challenges,
as is the case with most aid modalities. According to the SU/SSC (2009), most of the
pivotal and beneficiary countries estimate that the merits of triangular co-operation
outweighed the drawbacks, and that the challenges can be addressed. In fact,
maximising the benefits and overcoming the challenges in triangular co-operation has
been the topic of several recent international meetings. These have underscored the
common ground in the principles underpinning South-South and North-South
co-operation and have concluded that there are many different ways of jointly tackling
challenges in triangular co-operation.
Benefits and challenges of triangular co-operation
Drawing from the various perspectives found in the literature, different partners
have distinct perceptions of the benefits and challenges of triangular co-operation
(see Table 1).
Table 1. Benefits of triangular co-operation according to each type of partner
Partner
Providers of
development
co-international
organisations
Benefits of Triangular Co-operation






Pivotal countries



Beneficiary
countries


Promotes mutual learning among the partners involved.
Builds on and shares developing countries’ experiences and
know-how.
Helps to scale up successful co-operation activities.
Is cost-effective.
Can promote new forms of partnership more adapted to development
challenges and more responsive to increasingly complex
development contexts.
Can strengthen capacities of pivotal countries to provide development
co-operation, making relations between “Northern” and “Southern”
providers more horizontal.
Provides financial support to South-South co-operation.
Strengthens technical
co-operation.
capacity
for
implementing
South-South
Creates opportunities for networking and knowledge-sharing with
providers of development co-operation.
Facilitates communication and networking with pivotal countries.
Provides additional technical and financial support from providers of
development co-operation to South-South co-operation.
TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION LITERATURE REVIEW © OECD 2013
24 – HOW TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION CONTRIBUTES TO DEVELOPMENT
However, there is a general perception that high transaction costs are one of the
main drawbacks of triangular co-operation. For providers of development co-operation,
transaction costs increase due to greater difficulty in planning and arranging the
co-operation activities as well as in involving staff from headquarters and two country
offices. For the pivotal and beneficiary countries, transaction costs rise due to difficulties
in co-ordinating with providers of development co-operation and international
organisations (e.g. on planning, implementing and monitoring). Besides transaction
costs, pivotal and beneficiary countries also identify other challenges, notably that
providers of development co-operation’s policies and priorities tend to take precedence
over those of the beneficiary countries whose policies and priorities are not sufficiently
respected.
Improving triangular co-operation
There is an increasing debate on how to make the most out of the benefits and
address the challenges of triangular co-operation. These debates often happen in
meetings on South-South and triangular co-operation involving governments,
non-governmental actors and academia.5
Overall, the conclusions from the different workshops, seminars and conferences
that have taken place since 2009 underscored the common ground in the principles
underpinning South-South and North-South co-operation. There is notably recognition
of the importance of ownership, with developing countries driving demand for
co-operation projects, as well as recognition of the need for transparency and better
accountability among the different partners involved.6 Ownership is particularly
emphasised: the impact of triangular co-operation can improve if all partners “own” the
activity and are involved from its inception. This helps to promote two-way learning, as
well as guaranteeing that the project is in line with the beneficiary country’s
development plans and priorities. Ideally, the process should be driven by the
beneficiary country.
These meetings also highlighted the benefits of establishing institutional frameworks
for triangular co-operation, which can reduce transaction costs. For example, a room
document from the 17th session of the UN High-level Committee on South-South
Co-operation mentions that “for South-South co-operation as well as triangular
co-operation to have its intended impact, it is necessary to improve overall system-wide
policy frameworks, governance, coordination, structures, mechanisms, and dedicated
resources” (UN, 2012a). Similarly, a seminar on “Triangular co-operation: Lessons
Learned and Management Challenges” organised by the SEGIB in 2010, recommended
that “triangular co-operation projects must be systematised in order to build on lessons
learned, capitalise on the knowledge generated and strengthen ongoing discussions.
Concerning triangular co-operation management, all project phases (identification,
formulation, monitoring and evaluation) need to be standardised because three
different bureaucracies are involved. For this purpose, the various stakeholders must
create and agree on definitions, methodologies, procedures, indicators and standards,
and give visibility to transaction costs for triangular co-operation projects”
(SEGIB, 2011). Regular consultations on policy and programmes help with jointly tackling
the problems (SU/SSC, 2009).
TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION LITERATURE REVIEW © OECD 2013
HOW TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION CONTRIBUTES TO DEVELOPMENT – 25
Other ways of reducing transaction costs and making triangular co-operation more
effective were discussed during these meetings:

Establish a single, leading national interlocutor or focal point in the provider of
development co-operation, pivotal country and beneficiary country involved in
triangular co-operation for smoother and quicker co-ordination.

Strengthen co-operation agencies and executing units in providers of
development co-operation, pivotal countries and beneficiary countries, and build
interagency co-ordination capacity to conduct triangular co-operation.

Ensure that both pivotal countries and providers of development co-operation
have well-defined objectives and a strategy for triangular co-operation that takes
into account the needs and demands of beneficiary countries.

Create guidelines agreed upon by all parties using a standard template.

Set up a clear country framework with minimal documents and signatures for
conducting triangular co-operation.

Use a project structure with a clear division of roles, based on the comparative
advantages of each of the partners involved, ensuring close co-ordination and
communication.
Some providers of development co-operation have made progress in reducing
transaction costs. Spain has streamlined its procedures while Japan has standardised
procedures, prepared operational guidelines and increased delegation of authority to
country offices (SU/SSC, 2009).
There are also diverging views on some issues. For example, regarding the respective
roles of the partners involved in triangular co-operation, some favour establishing a
clear division of responsibilities whereas others stress the need for flexibility, believing
that a strict division of responsibilities should not be applied beforehand.
TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION LITERATURE REVIEW © OECD 2013
26 – HOW TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION CONTRIBUTES TO DEVELOPMENT
NOTES
5
6
A non-exhaustive list of these seminars and workshops:

“Triangular Co-operation: Towards Horizontal Partnerships, But How?”, seminar
organized by the Asian Development Bank Institute, the Gemeinschaft für
Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) and the Task Team on South-South
Co-operation, in Bali, 28 February-1 March 2011;

“The role of South-South and triangular co-operation in development”, jointly
organized by JICA, SU/SSC and the United Nations Economic and Social Commission
for Asia and the Pacific (UN ESCAP), in Bangkok, 20 May 2011;

“Teaming Up for South-South and Capacity Development: the Role of Triangular
Co-operation”, High Level Event on South-South Co-operation and Capacity
Development, in Bogota, 24-26 March 2010;

“Triangular Co-operation in the Context of Aid Effectiveness, Experiences and Views of
EU donors”, workshop organized by Spanish Agency for International development
Co-operation (AECID), in Madrid, 8-10 March 2010;

“Triangular Co-operation: Lessons Learned and Management Challenges”,
seminar-workshop co-organised by SEGIB’s Ibero-American Programme to Strengthen
South-South Co-operation, JICA, GIZ, AECID in Santo Domingo, 25-26 July 2010.
For a further reading on the similarities and complementarities between
North-South and South-South co-operation, see Tortora, P. (2011), “Common
Ground between South-South and North-South Co-operation Principles”, Issues
Brief, OECD Development Co-operation Directorate,
www.oecd.org/dataoecd/43/43/49245423.pdf
TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION LITERATURE REVIEW © OECD 2013
CONCLUSIONS – 27
CONCLUSIONS
Drawing on recent available literature, this report shows that triangular co-operation
is attracting increasing attention from the international development co-operation
community, particularly because it provides an opportunity to combine the efforts of
both North-South and South-South co-operation. It constitutes a bridge between these
two forms of co-operation based on a set of common principles. Furthermore, triangular
co-operation is involving an increasingly wide and diverse range of partners and is taking
place in different regions and in various sectors. Triangular co-operation is also
becoming part of the development co-operation policies of the providers of
development co-operation and the strategies of international organisations.
Current international debate shows that triangular co-operation can contribute
substantially to development, even if there are still challenges to achieving its full
potential. Triangular co-operation promotes mutual learning and sharing of successful
development experiences among all partners, drawing on the financial and technical
support of providers of development co-operation and international organisations.
However, a lack of institutional frameworks and an expectation of high transaction costs
may discourage partners from entering into such arrangements. They may also hamper
the results of triangular co-operation.
Finding solutions to these challenges is fundamental in order to make triangular
co-operation more effective and enhance its impact. In particular, there is a need to
clarify the characteristics of triangular co-operation and to better understand how to
build on its benefits and minimise its challenges. Looking further ahead, partners could
focus on:

Building consensus on the characteristics of triangular co-operation.

Regularly tracking minimal statistics and information on triangular co-operation
(in in-coming and out-going aid reporting).

Evaluating triangular co-operation, to help understand its advantages and draw
more lessons on how to meet its challenges.

Sharing lessons on how to deal with transaction costs, particularly examining
which types of institutional frameworks and arrangements can help reduce these
costs.

Strengthening development co-operation management capacities in developing
countries.
Moving this agenda forward should be a joint effort by all partners in triangular
co-operation. Each partner can contribute their own perspective and comparative
advantage to collectively promote better and more effective triangular co-operation.
TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION LITERATURE REVIEW © OECD 2013
ANNEX 1 – 29
ANNEX 1: Triangular Co-operation in International Agreements
International agreement
Reference to Triangular co-operation
Buenos Aires Plan of
Action (UN, 1978)
Paragraph 45: “The entire United Nations development system must be permeated
by the spirit of TCDC and all its organisations should play a prominent role as
promoters and catalysts of TCDC.”
Paragraph 60: “Recommendation 35: Support by developed countries for technical
co-operation among developing countries.
Developed countries and their institutions should give their full support to TCDC
initiatives by inter alia:
(a) Increasing their voluntary contributions to the operational programmes of the
United Nations development system in order to permit a greater quantum of
multilateral technical co-operation funds to be devoted to supporting TCDC;
(b) Providing financial support on a voluntary basis to technical co-operation
between two or more developing countries and to institutions in developing
countries that have a TCDC outreach potential;
(c) Accelerating the process of untying their aid resources, so as to make possible
more rapid progress in the promotion and strengthening of TCDC;
(d) Giving, in their economic and technical co-operation activities, due priority to
inter-country projects and programmes at the bilateral, sub-regional, regional
and interregional levels which promote TCDC;
(e) Making qualitative improvements, if they have not yet done so, in their policies
and procedures related to technical co-operation, in order to be able to support
TCDC activities and projects at the request of participating developing countries
so as to contribute to the greater reliance by those countries on resources
available locally or in other developing countries.”
Accra Agenda for Action
(OECD, 2008)
Paragraph 19, item b): “We acknowledge the contributions made by all development
actors, and in particular the role of middle-income countries as both providers and
recipients of aid. We recognise the importance and particularities of South-South
co-operation and acknowledge that we can learn from the experience of developing
countries. We encourage further development of triangular co-operation.”
Nairobi Outcome
Document of the United
Nations High-Level
Conference on
South-South Co-operation
(UN, 2009)
Paragraph 15: “We recognize the value of the increasing support provided by
developed countries, international organisations and civil society to developing
countries, upon their request, in improving their expertise and national capacities
through triangular co-operation mechanisms, including direct support or cost-sharing
arrangements, joint research and development projects, third-country training
programmes and support for South-South centres, as well as by providing the
necessary knowledge, experience and resources, so as to assist other developing
countries, in accordance with their national development priorities and strategies.”
Paragraph 20, item b): “[We] Invite developed countries to support South-South
co-operation through triangular co-operation, including for capacity development.”
Paragraph 20, item d): “[We] Also encourage developing countries to enhance their
national coordination mechanisms, as appropriate, in order to improve South-South
and triangular co-operation (…)”
Bogota Statement
Towards Effective and
Inclusive Development
Partnerships
(TT-SSC, 2010a)
Section 2, item c. ii: “There is room to improve complementarities and promote
synergies between partner countries and traditional donors, including through
triangular co-operation, by reducing transaction costs and engaging in mixed
modalities that combine capacities, know-how, and resources from the North and the
South.”
TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION LITERATURE REVIEW © OECD 2013
30 – ANNEX 1
International agreement
Reference to Triangular co-operation
Busan Partnership for
Effective Development
Co-operation
(OECD, 2011)
Paragraph 30: “(…) South-South and triangular co-operation have the potential to
transform developing countries’ policies and approaches to service delivery by
bringing effective, locally owned solutions that are appropriate to country contexts.”
Paragraph 31: “(…) We will strengthen the sharing of knowledge and mutual learning
by:
a) Scaling up – where appropriate – the use of triangular approaches to
development co-operation.
b) Making fuller use of South-South and triangular co-operation, recognising the
success of these approaches to date and the synergies they offer
(…)
d) Supporting efforts to strengthen local and national capacities to engage
effectively in South-South and triangular co-operation.”
G20 Progress Report Of
The Development Working
Group (G20, 2012)
Paragraph 54: “We recognize that to achieve economic growth, action must be taken
to help vulnerable populations manage risks and the impact of external shocks, such
as economic crises and natural disasters. To that end, we reaffirm our 2011 Cannes
commitment to support the implementation or expansion of national social protection
floors in LICs, on a demand-driven basis, including through coordinated North-South,
South-South and Triangular co-operation, and we welcome the IOs’ efforts to
progress this initiative.”
Paragraph 65: “We recognize the importance of Knowledge Sharing (KS) activities,
through North-South, South-South and Triangular Co-operation, accepting that there
is no “one-size-fits-all” model of development.”
TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION LITERATURE REVIEW © OECD 2013
ANNEX 2 – 31
ANNEX 2: Some Different Definitions of Triangular Co-operation
Institution / Author
Definition
UN – ECOSOC (2008)
“Triangular development co-operation has been interpreted as OECD/DAC
donors or multilateral institutions providing development assistance to Southern
governments to execute projects/programmes with the aim of assisting other
developing countries.”
UN-DESA (2009)
“Triangular co-operation is Northern donors, multilateral institutions or Southern
partners providing co-operation to one Southern partner country to execute
projects/programmes with the aim of assisting a third Southern partner country.”
Nairobi Outcome Document
on South-South Co-operation
(UN, 2009)
“Triangular co-operation is support provided by developed countries,
international organisations and civil society to developing countries, upon their
request, in improving their expertise and national capacities through triangular
co-operation mechanisms, including direct support or cost-sharing
arrangements, joint research and development projects, third-country training
programmes and support for South-South centres, as well as by providing the
necessary knowledge, experience and resources, so as to assist other
developing countries, in accordance with their national development priorities
and strategies.”
Special Unit for South-South
Co-operation, UNDP (n.d.)
Describes a “triangular South-South co-operation” as an activity that “can be the
initiative of one or more Southern countries that wish to cooperate with one
another. In order to leverage additional financial, technical or logistical resources,
such countries can ask for the support of a Northern donor as the third partner.
Alternatively, a Northern donor can identify a developing country willing to
provide technical co-operation to other Southern partners and whose initiative
will meet the Northern donor's priorities and interests. The Northern donor offers
to support South-South co-operation through a triangular approach in order to
ensure the effectiveness of the intended co-operation activity. The Northern
donor will make financial and sometimes technical support to the co-operation
programme.”
TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION LITERATURE REVIEW © OECD 2013
ANNEX 3 – 33
ANNEX 3: Triangular Co-operation in Policies of International Organisations
Institution
Framework
FAO
FAO does not explicitly refer to triangular co-operation in its policies. However, its South-South
co-operation programme is established through tripartite agreements among pivotal countries,
recipient countries and the FAO, and mainly focuses on technical agreements. By the end of
2011, the organisation had 47 South-South co-operation projects supported by 1500 agricultural
experts and technicians. Under its Strategic Alliance Framework with China, the FAO signed new
tripartite agreements in 2011 with China for implementation in Liberia and Senegal to support food
security initiatives. These activities were financed through the USD 30-million FAO-China Trust
Fund. Under other agreements signed in 2010, Vietnamese experts are helping with irrigation
activities, rice cultivation, fishing, beekeeping and food processing in Chad (FAO, n.d.).
ILO
At its 100 session in June 2011, the International Labour Conference placed particular emphasis
on South-South and triangular co-operation as a means of achieving the organisation’s objectives.
In March 2012, the ILO Governing Body adopted a South-South and triangular co-operation
strategy. It will allow the ILO to have greater institutional capacity to identify and implement
South-South and triangular co-operation with a view to establishing and implementing an initiative
on South-South co-operation (ILO, 2012).
UNDP
Adopted in 2008, the UNDP strategic plan (2008-2011) provides a results-oriented strategy to
promote and accelerate sustainable human development, including the Millennium Development
Goals, through South-South and triangular co-operation (UNDP, 2008).
UNEP
UNEP has included South-South and triangular co-operation as a key modality of its medium-term
strategy (2010-2013) and established a focal point to oversee implementation. The UNEP
regularly promotes triangular co-operation, but it recognises, however, that “[in] terms of financial
investment and frequency, it is clear that South-South and triangular co-operation are still rather
the exception than the rule in the Convention on Biological Diversity. Increasing and enhancing
South-South and triangular co-operation is, therefore, a critical element for the success of the
Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020.” The vision of the multi-year plan released in May 2012
is: “By 2020, effective South-South and triangular co-operation will be used in the Convention on
Biological Diversity and the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, as a complement to North-South
co-operation and in support of the Convention’s Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 and the
Millennium Development Goals, in order to enhance human well-being, promote development and
eradicate poverty” (UNEP, 2010).
th
TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION LITERATURE REVIEW © OECD 2013
ANNEX 4 – 35
ANNEX 4: Indicative List of Triangular Co-operation Activities7
Provider of
development
co-operation/
International
organisation
Pivotal
country
Project
Beneficiary
country
AGRICULTURE
Food and
Agriculture
Organization
Food and
Agriculture
Organization
Japan
China
Support to food security initiatives
Liberia, Senegal
Vietnam
Support to irrigation activities, rice
cultivation, fishing, beekeeping and food
processing
Improvement of animal health
Chad
Japan
Argentina
Paraguay
Japan
Brazil
Japan
Brazil
Japan
Mexico
United Kingdom
China
Strengthening of microbiology and food
science laboratories
International course on agro-forestry
systems technology
Promoting agricultural development in
Mozambique’s tropical savannah
Strengthening production of sesame seeds
for small farmers
Sharing China’s experience in agriculture
United States
Brazil
Improvement of food security
Haiti
United States
Brazil
Mozambique
United States
India
Increase the productivity of vegetable crops,
and agro-processing techniques
Promoting food security
Argentina
Bolivia
Pan-Amazon
countries
Mozambique
Paraguay
Malawi, Uganda
Kenya, Liberia,
Malawi
CONSTRUCTION
Japan
Mexico
Enhancement of the construction
technology
EDUCATION
El Salvador
United States
China
Improvement of higher education facilities
Liberia
ENERGY GENERATION AND SUPPLY
United States
Brazil
Biofuels implementation, technical support
for the development of biofuels blending
legislation
TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION LITERATURE REVIEW © OECD 2013
El Salvador,
Guatemala,
Honduras
36 – ANNEX 4
FISHING
Canada
Brazil
Aquaculture and Amazonian fish
Bolivia
Islamic
Development Bank
Malaysia
Capacity development for marine fisheries
Bangladesh
FORESTRY
United States
Brazil
Expertise-sharing in forest inventory
Peru
GENERAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
Germany
Brazil
Environmental technology centre
Peru
Germany
India
Clean Development Mechanism
China
Germany
Mexico
Environmental promoter network RED
GIRESOL
Germany
Fire management coordination project
Japan
South
Africa
China
Dominican
Republic, Ecuador,
Guatemala
Tanzania
Training courses in environmental protection
ASEAN countries
United Kingdom
China
Sharing of China’s experience with preparing
for and responding to natural disasters
GOVERNMENT AND CIVIL SOCIETY
Bangladesh, Nepal
Canada
South
Africa
Brazil
Strengthening of public sector capacities in
post-conflict countries
Strengthening of general procedures
Rwanda, Burundi,
South Sudan
Uruguay
Development of a post-conflict
reconstruction and development strategy
Development of an investigation manual and
training support
Organisation of a national anti-corruption
summit
Sharing municipal development experiences
Democratic
Republic of Congo
Tanzania, Kenya
Germany, Sweden
South
Africa
South
Africa
South
Africa
Colombia
Japan
Chile
Bolivia
Norway
Spain
South
Africa
Chile
Inclusive rehabilitation of persons with
disabilities
Lessons sharing in conflict resolutions,
reconciliation and prevention
Public sector capacity building project
Spain
Mexico
Strengthening public administration
Sweden
South
Africa
Police training and capacity building
Central American
countries
Rwanda
Germany
Germany
Germany
Germany
Democratic
Republic of Congo
Guatemala
Burundi
Paraguay
TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION LITERATURE REVIEW © OECD 2013
ANNEX 4 – 37
HEALTH
Australia
China
Project on malaria
Papua New Guinea
Japan
Argentina
Paraguay
Japan
Brazil
Japan
Sri Lanka
Pan American
Health Organisation
Argentina
Institutional strengthening and
development of diagnostic methods for
epidemiological surveillance, prevention,
control and eradication of household animal
diseases
Training for capacity building of Josina
Machel Hospital
Programme of Quality Improvement of
Health Services by 5S-KAIZEN-TQM
Approach
Common regulations for medicines for the
Anglophone Caribbean countries
Pan American
Health Organization
Cuba
Technical co-operation project between
countries on health issues
INDUSTRY
Islamic
Development Bank
Islamic
Development Bank
Malaysia
Capacity development for small enterprises
Indonesia
and microfinance schemes
Capacity development for palm oil industries Sierra Leone
Malaysia
Angola
Tanzania
Caribbean
Community
countries
Ecuador
MINERAL RESOURCES AND MINING
Islamic
Development Bank
Malaysia
Capacity development for oil and mineral
exploitation
OTHER SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE AND SERVICES
International
Labour Organisation
Japan
Brazil
Child labour eradication project
Ecuador
Argentina
Bolivia
Spain
Argentina
United Kingdom
Brazil
United States
Brazil
United States
Brazil
Strengthening of statistics information
generation at the regional level for
monitoring progress towards the
Millennium Development Goal's
Quantification of public spending targeted
to children
Enhancement of social protection
programmes
Counternarcotics co-operation: measure
excess coca cultivation and progress in coca
eradication targets
Combat child labour
TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION LITERATURE REVIEW © OECD 2013
Mauritania
Haiti
Kenya
Bolivia
Ecuador, Bolivia and
Paraguay,
Lusophone Africa
38 – ANNEX 4
POPULATION POLICIES/PROGRAMMES AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
Germany
Brazil
Sub regional South-South co-operation on
HIV/AIDS
Paraguay,
Dominican
Republic, El
Salvador, Uruguay
United States
Brazil
Monitoring, evaluating and civil society
strengthening on HIV/Aids
TRANSPORT
Mozambique
Germany
Singapore Human resource capacity development and
civil aviation safety
WATER AND SANITATION
Afghanistan
Germany
Brazil
Co-operation in water and sanitation
resources
Bolivia
Germany
Brazil
Environmental protection and sustainable
development of the Guarani Aquifer System
Paraguay
New Zealand
China
Improve water mains system in Rarotonga
Cook Islands
Spain
Brazil
Water resources and sanitation project
Bolivia
Spain
Mexico
Rehabilitation of water supply systems
SECTORS NOT SPECIFIED
Haiti
World Bank
China
Knowledge-sharing events
African countries
7
This list of triangular co-operation activities is indicative and was prepared based on
the examples found in the literature consulted (see bibliography).
TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION LITERATURE REVIEW © OECD 2013
BIBLIOGRAPHY – 39
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Providers of development co-operation
AECID (Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional para el Desarrollo) (2010), “La
Cooperación Triangular Española en América del Sur”, presentation at workshop The
European Union’s Triangular Co-operation in the Context of Aid Effectiveness, AECID,
Madrid, 8 March,
www.dev-practitioners.eu/fileadmin/Redaktion/GroupsFolders/Division_of_Labour/tr
iangular_co-operation/AECID_Cooperacion_Triangular_America_del_Sur.pdf
AECID (2010), “Triangular Co-operation in the Context of Aid Effectiveness – Experiences
and Views of EU Donors”, Concept note of Workshop organised by AECID, Madrid,
8-10 March,
http://ec.europa.eu/development/icenter/files/europa_only/featured_triangular_cooperation_concept_note_20100309.pdf
BTC (Belgian Technical Co-operation) (2010), “Un Exemple de Coopération Triangulaire
(ou Nord-Sud-Sud)", published on Blogco-operation.be, 23 September,
http://blogco-operation.be/2010/09/23/un-exemple-de-co-operation-triangulaireou-nord-sud-sud/
CIDEAL (Centro de Investigación y Cooperación para el Desarrollo) (2011), Reflexiones
Prácticas
Sobre
Cooperación
Triangular,
CIDEAL,
Madrid,
www.cideal.org/docs/COOP%20_TRIANGULAR_OnLine.pdf
GIZ (Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit) (2011), “Trilateral Co-operation”,
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