Introduction to the Portrait of Genghis Khan at National Palace Museum in Taipei 1
ŏBrief Analysis of Important Issuesŏ
Introduction to the Portrait of Genghis Khan at National
Palace Museum in Taipei
Baatar chung-hsiung Hai﹝Director of Mongolian Affairs Department, MTAC﹞
Abstract
The portrait of Genghis Khan currently housed in National
Palace Museum in Taipei is universally recognized as the most
accurate image of the late Mongol leader. The year 2006 celebrates
the 800th anniversary of the creation of Mongol Empire by Genghis
Khan. Thanks to Mongolia government’s active promotion, the
special occasion has now entered the center of spotlight in the
international community. The National Palace Museum recently
presented an exquisite replica of the half-length portrait of Genghis
Khan and his lady, produced with the latest technology, as a special
gift to the Mongolia government. The gesture of goodwill triggered a
heated discussion with regard to the identity of the original creator of
the ancient masterpiece. Historical evidence as well as painting skill
and style analysis all point to three possible candidates: Aniko, Liu
Guandao, and He Lihuosun. The answer remains a mystery due to
the absence of the artist’s signature on the painting and the fact that
Genghis Khan’s unparalleled status in the history of Mongolia has
made his portrait an almost taboo conversation subject for the
Mongolia people. However, so far only He Lihuosun is confirmed by
historical documents as an artist who did produce a portrait of
Genghis Khan.
Key Words: the Portrait of Genghis Khan, Aniko, Liu Guandao, He
Lihuosun
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Bimonthly Journal on Mongolian and Tibetan Current Situation Vol.15, No.5
Ⅰ. Introduction
In 2006, as a way of celebrating the 800th anniversary of Genghis
Khan’s Mongol Empire, Director Lin Mun-lee of National Palace Museum
Taipei ordered high-tech replicas of half-length portraits of Genghis Khan and
his lady and personally presented the replicas as gifts in a public ceremony
held by Mongolia government on June 9, 2006 at the National Guesthouse in
the Mongolian capital city of Ulan Bator, to be stored permanently at the
Genghis Khan Memorial Palace in downtown Ulan Bator.
Unlike the China Song Dynasty, the China Yuan Dynasty monarchs did
not set up an “Art Academy” to employ artists to draw portraits of monarchs.
Portrait paintings of emperors and empresses of Yuan Dynasty do not bear the
signatures of artists who created them. As a result, many participants of the
ceremony were curious as to who are the masters behind the portraits. This
paper aims to explore the mystery behind the portraits.
Ⅱ. Introduction to the Portrait of Genghis Khan
The book Paintings and Calligraphy in the National Palace Museum
provides the following basic information of the Half-Length Portrait of
Genghis Khan, one of the collections of National Palace Museum:
Original: silk scroll, album. Replicas: eight scrolls, Length: 59.4cm,
Width: 47cm, on paper, same size as original.1
1
Paintings and Calligraphy in the National Palace Museum, National Palace Museum Taipei, 1965, Book 4,
Vol.7, p.46
Introduction to the Portrait of Genghis Khan at National Palace Museum in Taipei 3
Unlike the China Song Dynasty, the China Yuan Dynasty monarchs did
not set up an “Art Academy” to employ artists to draw portraits of monarchs.
However, the portrait of Genghis Khan may be produced in the wake of the
Genghis Khan period (1206-1227), since portraits of Yuan Dynasty emperors
found in shrines could only emerge after the Yuan Dynasty Mongol people
settled down, built a capital, and acquired sufficient artistic skills to produce
realistic portrayal.
On March 3 of the fourth year of Zhongtong period (1263), the Emperor
ordered construction of the Imperial Ancestral Temple in Yanjing.2 In October
of the third year of Zhiyuan period (1266), construction of the temple was
completed. 3 On December 18 of the sixth year of Zhiyuan period (1269), the
Royal Advisor, at the request of the Emperor, started to make wooden
gold-plated spirit tablets, (also know as spirit seats or ancestor posts). 4 In
December of the seventeenth year of Zhiyuan period (1280), reconstruction of
the temple at Dadu was completed, and the spirit tablets of Yuan Taizu and
Yuan Ruizong were moved from the old temple to the new one, and a grand
sacrificial ceremony was conducted. Later, the old temple was destroyed. 5
From the history, it is clear that the temple at this point contained only the
“spirit tablets,” not portraits of the deceased emperors.
In the fourth year of Zhiyuan period (1267), Yuan Shizu expressed his
2
Yuan History, Vol.74, p.1.
3
Yuan History, Vol.6, p.8.
4
Yuan History, Vol.74, p.14.
5
Yuan History, Vol.11, p.19; Vol.74, p.5.
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Bimonthly Journal on Mongolian and Tibetan Current Situation Vol.15, No.5
desire to move the capital elsewhere, 6 and ten years later the new capital,
Dadu (present day Beijing), was built. In December of the ninth year of
Zhiyuan period (1272), the Great Temple of Sacred Longevity and Myriad
Peace was built. 7 In August of the fourteenth year of Zhiyuan period (1277),
the Imperial Ancestral Temple was built in Dadu at the order of the Emperor. 8
After moving to the new capital of Dadu, Yuan Shizu ordered new portraits of
Genghis Khan and his lady for worship. This statement is supported by the
following excerpts from Yuan History: “The old portraits of Yuan Taizu, Yuan
Taizong, and Yuan Ruizong were placed in the Hanlin Academy. And in
November of the fifteenth year of Zhiyuan period (1278), the Emperor
ordered He Lihuosun to produce a portrait of Yuan Taizu, then in February of
the sixteenth year of Zhiyuan period, He Lihuosun was given the task of
producing a portrait of the Grand Emperor, to be placed in the Hanlin
Academy along with the old portrait of Yuan Taizong to be worshipped by
academy members in spring and autumn rituals. 9 ” And also, “In the sixteenth
year of Zhiyuan period (1279), Liu Guandao was promoted to a position in
the Royal Garment Bureau because of his portrait of the Crown Prince
Zhenjin. 10 ”
The Portrait of Genghis Khan, therefore, was used as a sample reviewed
6
Yuan History, Vol.6, p.10.
7
Yuan History, Vol.74, p.20. Ge Wan-zhang, ‘Radiation and Return: Tibetan Buddhist Arts in Mongol Yuan
Dynasty,’ in Age of the Great Khan: Pluralism in Chinese Art and Culture under the Mongols, National Palace
Museum Taipei, 2001, p. 248.
8
Yuan History, Vol.74, p.3. Yu Hui, Solving the Mysteries of Painting History, Taipei, 2000, p.284.
9
Yuan History, Vol.75, p.20. Yu Hui , p.285.
10
Xia Wenyan (Yuan Dynasty figure), A Collection of Potraits, Vol.5, p.886.
Introduction to the Portrait of Genghis Khan at National Palace Museum in Taipei 5
by the Emperor for approval. Once approved by the Emperor, it would be
turned into a full-length portrait to be worshipped in rituals. In his book
Solving the Mysteries of Painting History, Yu Hui mentioned that since there
is no trace of incense smoke on the original portrait of Genghis Khan, the
portrait was not used in worship. The book Paintings and Sculptures of Yuan
Dynasty also described the portrait as a “master portrait,” which means the
portrait was approved by Yuan Shizu to be an acceptable and accurate portrait
of Genghis Khan. Drawing styles and techniques in this portrait would be
closely followed by other Yuan Dynasty artists in drawing portraits of Yuan
royalties. 11
According to the prologue in the Paintings and Sculptures of Yuan
Dynasty, there were “woven silk portraits” during the period. And also,
“Emperor Chengzong of Yuan Dynasty, on November 27 of the eleventh year
of Dade period, ordered Prime Minister Toktoghan and Tujian Temür to
produce woven silk portraits of himself and Empress Khanum Bulugan based
on the portraits in Great Temple of Sacred Longevity and Myriad Peace.” The
prologue also recorded that “portraits of the Grand Emperor, the Dowager
Empress, and Yuan Yingzong were presented by two officials to Yuan
Yingzong on December 11 of the third year of Zhizhi period, and the Emperor
requested woven silk versions of the portraits be made. 12 ” Therefore, the
portraits of emperors and empresses in Yuan Dynasty used in worships are
11
Yu Hui, p.285-286.
12
Paintings and Sculptures of Yuan Dynasty, Beijing, 1964, p.1-3. Wang Yaoting, ‘Portraits of Emperors and
Empresses of Mongol Yuan Dynasty,’ in The National Palace Museum Monthly of Chinese Art, Vol.22, No.10,
2005, p.65.
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probably woven silk portraits, kept in Shenyu Hall. According to Yuan History,
Shenyu Hall, previously known as “Hall of Portraits,” is where woven silk
and tapestry portraits of deceased Yuan Dynasty emperors and empresses
were kept. Details of worship are also found in Yuan History. 13 The portraits
of Yuan Shizu and Yuan Yuzong were kept in the east and west halls of the
Great Temple of Sacred Longevity and Myriad Peace. “Hall of Portraits” was
renamed Shenyu Hall during the period of Tianli under Yuan Wenzong’s rule
(1328-1329). 14
In the portrait, Genghis Khan wears a leather hat with white brim and
black linings. Fur hairs on the hat are realistically depicted. This hat is made
of soft mink fur. Genghis Khan is clad in white, in compliance with the
Mongolian tradition that “white clothes should go with a platinum-colored
hat.” Genghis Khan in the portrait wears his hair in traditional Mongolian
style, with the hair on the top of his head shaved, leaving a few scattered hairs
on his forehead and around his ears. Yuan Dynasty Mongols traditionally
wore their hair braided in circles. Genghis Khan wears only one circle in the
portrait, while Yuan Shizu, Yuan Renzong, and Yuan Chengzong wear three to
four circles in their respective portraits. This hairstyle, called “Po Jiao,” is
unique to Yuan Dynasty Mongols, and was followed by every Mongol in that
period from Genghis Khan the Emperor to civilians. 15
13
Yuan History, Vol.75, p.18.
14
Yuan History, Vol.75, p.19.
15
Wang Yaoting, p.59.
Introduction to the Portrait of Genghis Khan at National Palace Museum in Taipei 7
Ⅲ. A Brief Introduction of Artists Behind the Portraits of Genghis Khan
1. Aniko (1245-1306): In the fifth year of Zhiyuan period (1268), Drogön
Chögyal Phagpa returned to Dadu. A group of Nepalese and Tibetan artists
led by Aniko traveled along with him. It was the second year after Yuan
Shizu ordered the construction of Dadu. Spending nearly four decades in
the capital, Aniko “is the artist behind many paintings of Buddhist and
Taoist temples in the old and new capitals.” He later (probably in 1295)
participated in the production of portraits of “deceased emperors.” During
the period of Yuan Shizu, Aniko was made Director of Imperial Household
Agency to be responsible for producing portraits of emperors, empresses,
and Mandala Buddhist statues. His thangkas and portraits of emperors and
empresses were drawn by using Tibetan pigments. According to the spirit
stele of the Duke of Liang Kuo (in 1316), Aniko also “produced portraits of
Yuan Shizu and Shunsheng, and the woven silk portraits were placed in a
temple.” Anning Jing cited this text to support the claim that Aniko might
be the artist who drew the portraits of Yuan Shizu and his consort. It is
widely acknowledged that the portrait of Yuan Taizu is in fact a slightly
modified version of the portrait of Yuan Shizu, a fact which gave rise to the
theory that Aniko might be the creator of the portrait of Genghis Khan. 16
2. Liu Guandao, also know as Liu Zhongxian, was born in Zhongshan
16
Cheng Jufu, Collection of the Snow Hall, Vol.7, p.16. Anning Jing, “The Portraits of Khubilai Khan and Chabi
by Anige, A Nepali Artist at the Yuan Court,” Artibus Asiae, 54 (1994), p.71. Chen Yun-Ru, ‘Calligraphy and
Painting Styles and Collections of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty Royalties,’ in Age of the Great Khan: Pluralism
in Chinese Art and Culture under the Mongols, National Palace Museum Taipei, 2001, p. 267. Ge Wan-zhang,
p.248. Wang Yaoting, p.66.
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(present day Ding County in Heibei Province). In the sixteenth year of
Zhiyuan period (1279), he was promoted to a position in the Royal
Garment Bureau because of his portrait of Crown Prince Zhenjin. The
Portrait of Crown Prince Zhenjin has not survived; therefore it is difficult
to ascertain Liu’s style of painting. However, in his masterpiece Whiling
Away the Summer, Liu adopted the traditional realistic style in depicting
human faces. This suggests that the Yuan dynasty monarchs were able to
appreciate Liu’s traditional realistic style. One of Liu’s most important
masterpieces, a giant hanging scroll entitled Khubilai Khan Hunting (fine
brushwork, ink and colors on silk, Length: 182.9cm, Width: 104.1cm,
collection of National Palace Museum Taipei), was produced in February of
the seventeenth year of the period of Zhiyuan (1280). It is an exquisitely
realistic portrait of a group of people completed with vivid and natural
depictions of facial expressions. Appearing quite realistic, representation of
Kublai Khan in this painting corresponds quite closely to his imperial
portrait in the Museum collection. After moving to the new capital of Dadu,
Kublai Khan developed a liking for portraits, and Liu was given the task of
painting The Portrait of Crown Prince Zhenjin, for which he was promoted.
It would seem obvious that Liu had both the ability and the opportunity to
draw the portrait of Genghis Khan. 17
3. He Lihuosun, who was given a position in the Hanlin Academy in the fifth
year of Zhiyuan period (1268), and was later promoted to a higher position
17
Yu Hui, p.283-285. Chen Yun-Ru, p.268. Wang Yaoting, p.68.
Introduction to the Portrait of Genghis Khan at National Palace Museum in Taipei 9
(vice first rank) at the Academy. In the nineteenth year of Zhiyuan period
(1282), he was further promoted to the position of Minister (second rank).
A Mongol custom painting artist, he held the highest office of all
state-employed artists, but he was not mentioned in art history books
written by Han Chinese scholars, and as a result is relatively unknown
today. However, judging from his prominent status and the order of the
Emperor, as shown in the following excerpt from Yuan History: “The old
portraits of Yuan Taizu, Yuan Taizong, and Yuan Ruizong were placed in
the Hanlin Academy. And in November of the fifteenth year of Zhiyuan
period (1278), the Emperor ordered He Lihuosun to draw a portrait of Yuan
Taizu, then in February of the sixteenth year of Zhiyuan period, He
Lihuosun was given the task of producing a portrait of the Grand Emperor,
to be placed in the Hanlin Academy along with the old portrait of Yuan
Taizong to be worshipped by academy members in spring and autumn
rituals,” it is highly likely that He Lihuosun is the creator of Genghis
Khan’s portrait, though it is unlikely that he had seen Genghis Khan in
person. He might have drawn the portrait based on the image of Kublai
Khan, a grandson of Genghis Khan, with slight modifications, creating a
senile but hale and hearty Genghis Khan. 18
Ⅳ. Conclusions
While many disagree about who drew the portrait of Genghis Khan, it is
18
Yu Hui, p.272, 285.
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widely agreed that the portrait is probably based on the image of Yuan Shizu
Kublai Khan, with slight modifications to present a senile, composed, and
wise Genghis Khan, which was later approved by Yuan Shizu. Therefore, it is
likely that the artist who drew the portrait of Yuan Shizu is also the one who
drew the portrait of Genghis Khan. Any of the artists confirmed by history
records to be the creator of the portrait of Yuan Shizu is a likely candidate.
Most of the attempts to solve the mystery focus on discussion of drawing
techniques, for example the depiction of human face. In the portrait of
Genghis Khan, the eyes and the face were emphasized with colors instead of
lines, which are the traditional way of drawing eyes and faces in Chinese
paintings. This difference underlines the unique use of colors similar to the
technique of shading commonly found in Tibetan and Nepalese thangkas, and
symbolizes introduction of foreign artistic styles to Chinese paintings.
The Mongol Yuan Dynasty made possible a fusion of styles between
Nepal, Tibet, Mongolia, and the Central Plains. Liu Guandao’s Khubilai Khan
Hunting is an example of this cultural fusion. Aniko brought his native
southwestern culture to the Central Plains, while Liu Guandao embraced new
styles and mixed them with his Central Plains traditions. He Lihuosun
represented a fusion between Dadu art and foreign cultures.
It is therefore difficult to determine exactly who drew the portrait of
Genghis Khan by looking at drawing techniques alone. Yet according to Yuan
History, “And in November of the fifteenth year of Zhiyuan period (1278),
the Emperor ordered He Lihuosun to produce a portrait of Yuan Taizu,” He
Introduction to the Portrait of Genghis Khan at National Palace Museum in Taipei 11
Lihuosun would appear as a more likely candidate. But even then it is still
difficult to ascertain that he is the artist behind the masterpiece in National
Palace Museum Taipei. Aniko, Liu Guandao, and He Lihuosun had all drawn
portraits of Khubilai Khan and Genghis Khan. One of their portraits of
Genghis Khan was approved by Khubilai Khan, but lack of signature on the
portrait has made it difficult to determine exactly which one of the three drew
it. However, He Lihuosun is the only one confirmed by historical records to
have drawn a portrait of Genghis Khan.
﹝This paper was presented in the 535th MTAC commissioner meeting
and the 1088th administrative meeting on July 10, 2006. Revision was
completed on August 21, 2006﹞