1
The Four Horsemen of Terrorism – It’s not Waves, it’s
Strains
TomParker(BardGlobalizationandInternationalAffairsProgram,BardCollege,
NewYork,USA)
NickSitter(CentralEuropeanUniversityandBINorwegianBusinessSchool)
TomParker,wasformerlyPolicyDirectorforTerrorism,Counter‐Terrorismand
HumanRightsatAmnestyInternationalUSA,andAdviseronHumanRightsand
Counter‐TerrorismtotheUnitedNationsCounter‐TerrorismImplementationTask
Force(CTITF).
Heiscurrentlyworkingonabookexamininghumanrights‐
compliantcounter‐terrorismstrategies,entitledWhyRightisMight,forImperial
CollegePress.
NickSitterisProfessorofPublicPolicyandCentralEuropeanUniversity(Schoolof
PublicPolicy)andProfessorofPoliticalEconomyatBINorwegianBusinessSchool
(DepartmentofLaw).
TheauthorsgratefullyacknowledgethesupportoftheEUFP7large‐scaleintegrated
researchprojectGR:EENGlobalRe‐ordering:EvolutionthroughEuropean
Networks,EuropeanCommissionProjectNumber:266809
ThisisanAcceptedManuscriptversionofanarticlepublishedbyTaylor&Francis
inTerrorismandPoliticalViolence,availableonline:
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09546553.2015.1112277
2
The Four Horsemen of Terrorism – It’s not Waves, it’s
Strains
DavidRapoport’sconceptoffourwavesofterrorism,fromanarchistterrorism
in the 1880s, through nationalist and Marxist waves in the early and mid‐
TwentiethCentury,tothepresentreligiouswave,isoneofthemostinfluential
conceptsinterrorismstudies.However,thisarticlearguesthatthinkingabout
differenttypesofterrorismasstrainsratherthanwavesbetterreflectsboth
theempiricalrealityandtheideathatterroristslearnfromandemulateeach
other. Whereas the notion of waves suggests distinct iterations of terrorist
violencedrivenbysuccessivebroadhistoricaltrends,theconceptofstrains
andcontagionemphasizeshowterroristgroupsdrawonbothcontemporary
andhistoricallessonsinthedevelopmentoftheirtactics,strategies,andgoals.
The authors identify four distinct strains in total – socialist, nationalist,
religious,andexclusionist‐andcontendthatitispossibletotraceeachstrain
backtoa‘patientzero’activeinthe1850s.
AfterAlQaeda’sattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagononSeptember
11th,2001,DavidRapoportpublishedoneofthemostinfluentialarticleseverwritten
in the field of terrorism studies. 1 The article has since been republished and
referenced in numerous volumes. 2 To this day, it provides the basic conceptual
framework for many academic courses taught around the world on this subject.
Rapoport’spremisewascleanandsimple:muchasSamuelHuntingtonarguedthat
democratizationcameinwaves,3Rapoportidentifiedfourbroadlyconsecutivewaves
of terrorism. The first – which he dubbed the anarchist wave ‐ started with the
Russian populist group Narodnaya Volya (the People’s Will) in the 1880s and
continuedintotheearlydecadesofthetwentiethcentury.Itwasfollowedbyananti‐
colonialwavefromthe1920stothe1960s,aNewLeftwavefromthe1960stothe
endoftheTwentiethCentury,andareligiouswavebeginningin1979thatisstillwith
ustoday.4Rapoportusedthiswavetheorytopredictthatthereligiouswave,which
hadgivenbirthtoAlQaedaandtheso‐calledIslamicState,coulddissipateby2025
andthatanewwavemightthenemerge.5
3
InfairnesstoRapoport,henotedthattherewereothergroups,forexampletheKu
KluxKlanbetween1865and1876,whichemployedterroristviolenceandyetdidnot
fit neatly into his template. However, he essentially dismissed such examples as
statistical outliers that had little impact of the development of terrorism as a
phenomenonovertime.6Healsoobservedthatsomegroupswithineachwavehad
non‐dominant characteristics in common with groups in the other waves. For
example, the Provisional IRA of the 1970s and 1980s was both nationalist and
Marxist.ButthedeeperoneexploresRapoport’stheory,themoredifficultitbecomes
toescapethesuspicionthathetooktheanalogyofthewavetoofar.Hedescribeseach
wave as having an international character “driven by a predominant energy that
shapes the participating groups’ characteristics and mutual relationships.” 7 This
resultsin“acycleofactivityinagiventimeperiod…characterizedbyexpansionand
contraction phases.”
8
But is this really what happens? We find particularly
problematic Rapoport’s assertion that “when a wave’s energy cannot inspire new
organizations, the wave disappears”. 9 Indeed, there is very little evidence that the
activitiesassociatedwithanyofhisfourwaveshaveactuallydisappeared,andthere
isagreatdealofevidencetosuggestthateachtypeofterrorismhasdeeperhistorical
rootsthanhiswavetheorysuggests.
Itisourcontentionthatthestrategicandtacticalchoicesterroristorganizationsmake
play an important role in the evolution of terrorism. Even isolated outbreaks of
terroristviolencecaninfluencethechoicesmadebylaterterroristgroups.Tobesure,
like other political organizations, terrorists learn first and foremost from their
immediaterivalsandotherlikemindedgroups.10However,thereisalsoconsiderable
evidenceofconsistentanddynamicexchangeofideasbetweenterroristgroupsof
markedly different character that stretches back several decades further than
Rapoportsuggests,tothemiddleoftheNineteenthCentury.WhileRapoport’stheory
providesasimpleandconceptuallycleannarrativetohelpstudentsandresearchers
alike to organize their thoughts, there are simply too many anomalies. More
significantly,someoftheseoutlyingcaseshavebeenveryinfluentialinthesensethat
theyprovidedimportantlessonsorinspirationforlaterterroristgroups(including
4
themaingroupsineachofRapoport’swaves)andthusplayedanintegralroleinthe
evolutionofterrorismoverthepast150years.
Wethereforeproposeanalternativeframeworkforanalysis,basedontheideathat
terrorismcomesinfourdifferentstrainsandthatthereisanimportantelementof
“contagion”bothwithinandbetweentheseseparatestrains.Webelievethatitmay
evenbepossibletoidentifya‘patientzero’foreachstrain–anindividualwhoeither
through advocacy or example first promoted the innovative adoption of terrorist
methodstoadvanceaparticularpoliticalcause.Theconceptoffourstrainsfitsthe
historical record better, and more plausibly explains how terrorism spreads and
evolvesfromoneconflicttothenext.
Thefourstrainswehaveidentifiedalldatefromthesameperiod,andalthoughthey
havemostlydevelopedseparatelysince,theydooccasionallycombineandmutate.
Thesefourstrains–thesefourhorsemenofterrorism–arenationalism,socialism,
religiousextremismandsocialexclusion.UsingBoazGanor’sdefinitionofterrorism‐
“theintentionaluseoforthreattouseviolenceagainstciviliansoragainstcivilian
targets, in order to attain political aims” ‐ as our criteria, we have compared both
theoriesagainstthehistoricalrecordtodeterminewhichultimatelyoffersthegreater
theoreticalleverageoverrecordedevents.
TerroristGroupsasLearningOrganizations
Thereisarichsociologicalliteratureonhowandunderwhatcontextorganizations
learnfromtheirpeersandrivals,associatedwithscholarssuchasBarbaraLevittand
James G. March. 11 Non‐state organizations learn both from direct experience and
from the stories they develop to make sense of that experience, as well as from
experiences and stories generated by peers. Organizations that interact regularly
with directcompetitors learn from both their own and their rivals’ successes. The
fieldsofanthropology andcommunicationstudieshavegeneratedsimilartheories
5
about the contagiousness of ideas to explain the diffusion of innovative practices
across societies.12Analyzing how West European conservative parties had learned
fromthesuccessfulpost‐warinitiativesofSocialDemocratstorevitalizetheirown
electoral programs, party organizations and electoral strategy, Maurice Duverger
labeledthis“contagionfromtheleft”.13Afewdecadeslater,itwouldbethecentre‐
leftpartiesthat“modernized”throughaprocessof“contagionfromtheright”.14
TheGermanterrorismexpertPeterWaldmannwasoneofthefirsttoreferencethis
kindof“contagioneffect”forterroristgroups,arguingthattheapparentsuccessof
somegroupsattractedotherstoemulateaspectsoftheirapproach,andperhapsalso
theirideology.15Indeed,severalearlymodernterroristsactuallyexpressedthehope
thattheywouldsetanexampleforotherstoemulate.AstheRussianpopulistNikolai
MorozovobservedinTheTerroristStruggle:“Whenahandfulofpeopleappearsto
representthestruggleofawholenationandistriumphantovermillionsofenemies,
thentheideaofterroristicstrugglewillnotdieonceitisclarifiedforthepeopleand
provenitcanbepractical.”16Propagandabythedeed–theverynotionthatactsof
terrorismwouldbeabetterwaytospreadideasthanmerewrittenpropaganda–was
basedonthehopethatterrorismwouldproveacontagiousidea.17
The main causal mechanism in Rapoport’s work, as in Huntington’s, is historical
context. The first, anarchist, wave emerged with new technological developments
thatmadetravelandcommunicationeasier,andinturnmadeiteasierforideasand
doctrines to be transmitted across boundaries. In Rapoport’s words: “A wave by
definition is a historical event”, sparked or shaped by international wars or peace
agreements.
18
Huntington was more explicit about the causes for waves of
democratization: global economic growth, economic and military failure in
dictatorships,changesinthepoliciesofexternalactors(suchasthesuperpowers),
anda“snowballingeffect”whereearlyeventsprovidedmodelsandinspirationfor
latereventsinthesamewave.19Inbothcasesradicalmovementsandorganizations
learnfromtheircontemporaries,butthespreadofbothideologyandtacticsislimited
to a given time and space. A simple extension of this idea is that each wave of
6
terrorismischaracterizedbyacommonnarrativeabouttheenemy–authoritarian
monarchies, empires, capitalist democracies and secular states – and a common
internationallegalandpoliticalregime–theconcertofEurope,theageofempire,the
ColdWar,andthepost‐coldwar“globalization”era.Indeed,thewavemetaphorcan
evenbeextendedtocounter‐terrorismstrategies.20
Thecentralpointaboutcontagionororganizationallearningisthatitassignsmore
weighttotheactiverolethatterroristsandtheirorganizationsplayintheprocess
whereby ideas and practices “travel” across boundaries: much like Huntington’s
dictators, terrorist groups sometimes cooperate with each other, and much more
frequently learn from or imitate each other. The sociologists Paul DiMaggio and
WalterPowellexaminedaseriesofwaysorganizationscancometoresembleeach
other (the process of isomorphism), including responding to similar conditions,
learning from and imitating each other, and interacting with each other and
establishing common norms.
21
Although terrorist organizations are usually
autonomousandisolated(evenmoresothandictators),andthereforelesssubjectto
pressurefromsocietyandcompetitorsthanmanyotherorganizations,itisclearthat
learning and copying has been an important factor in shaping similarities across
organizationsbothintermsofstrategyandtactics.
Thereisagreatdealofqualitativeevidenceinthehistoricalrecordofthediffusionor
transferofideasbetweendifferentterroristandinsurgentactors,oftenacrosswide
temporal and geographic distances. For example, the Irish revolutionary Michael
Collins, who is often seen as one of the key architects of modern urban terrorism
although he personally eschewed acts of indiscriminative violence, 22 wrote an
appreciativelettertotheBoercommanderChristiaandeWetthankinghimforbeing
his “earliest inspiration”. 23 Collins also spoke of his admiration for the Finnish
nationalist Eugen Schauman who assassinated the Russian Governor General of
Finland, Nicholai Bobrikov, in 1904. 24 We also know from the Irish nationalist
O’DonovanRossa’sprivatecorrespondencethathewaswellawareoftheattemptby
NarodnayaVolyatoassassinateTsarAlexanderIIbybombingtheWinterPalacein
7
February 1880.
25
President McKinley’s assassin, Leon Czolgosz, slept with a
newspapercuttingabouttheassassinationofKingUmbertoofItalyunderhispillow,
and even purchased the same model of Iver Johnson .32 revolver used by the
anarchistGaetanoBrescifortheassassination.26TheMarxistWeatherUnderground
Organization, which operated in the United States from 1969 to 1973, publicly
declaredthedebtitowedtocomradeselsewhere:“Nowweareadaptingtheclassic
guerrillastrategyoftheVietCongandtheurbanguerrillastrategyoftheTupamaros
toourownsituationhereinthemosttechnicallyadvancedcountryintheworld.”27
TheGermanMarxistHorstMahlerchosethenameRoteArmeeFraktioninconscious
homage to the Japanese Red Army (Rengo Sekigun).
28
Dimitris Koufodinas,
OperationsChiefoftheGreekterrorgroupNovember17,taughthimselfSpanishin
hisprisoncellsohecouldtranslatetheprisonmemoirsoftwoTupamarosleaders,
MauricioRosencofandEleuterioFernándezHuidobro.29Cuttingdeeplyacrosstime,
Eldridge Cleaver, one of the leaders of the Black Panther Party in the late 1960s,
adoptedSergeiNechaev’sNineteenthCenturyCatechismoftheRevolutionaryashis
“revolutionarybible”.30
Terroristshaveemulatedbothgroupstheyadmireandtheirfiercestadversaries.The
IndiannationalistBarinGhose,jailedforhisroleina1909conspiracytoassassinate
amemberoftheBritishgovernmentadministrationinBengal,wrotethathis“cultof
violence”was“learntfromtheIrishSeinfeinners[sic]andRussiansecretsocieties.”31
HocineAïtAhmet,theheadoftheAlgerianMouvementpourleTriomphedesLibertés
Démocratiques (Movement for the Triumph of Democratic Liberties), analyzed the
Irishstruggleforindependence,aswellasthetriumphofcommunisminChinaand
the tactics of the Viet Minh in Indochina. 32 Yasser Arafat’s Intelligence chief Salah
Khalaf, better known to posterity by his nom de guerre Abu Iyad, noted in his
memoirs: “The guerrilla war in Algeria, launched five years before the creation of
Fatah,hadaprofoundinfluenceonus…[It]symbolizedthesuccesswedreamedof.”33
TheAlQaedaideologueMustafaSetmarianNasar‐perhapsbestknownbyhisalias
AbuMus’abal‐Suri‐employedthenomdeplume‘Castro’.34Althoughhemournedthe
creation of the State of Israel, the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood ideologue Sayyid
8
Qutb urged his fellow Islamists to learn from the success that the Jewish terrorist
groupsLEHIandIrgunZviLeumihadenjoyedinfluencingBritishpolicyinPalestine.35
ArafatcitedtherelationshipbetweentheHaganahandIrgunasamodelforthePLO
– Fatah structure. 36 The French Organization of the Secret Army (OAS) formed in
1961bydisgruntledmilitaryveteransoftheAlgerianconflictwasmodeledonthe
imageofitsmainadversary,theAlgerianNationalLiberationFront(FLN).37
Thiskindofpolicytransfercanalsotakeplacedirectly,intheshapeoftraining,even
betweenwhatmightseematfirstsighttobeill‐matchedgroups,suchastheJapanese
Red Army and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) who
cooperated in the Bekaa Valley in the early 1970s. 38 . Mia Bloom describes a
“demonstrationeffect”,wherebyterroristtacticsspreadfromoneconflicttoanother
because perceived success attracts imitation. Bloom shows how the adoption of
suicidebombingbythePalestinianterroristgroupHamascanbetracedbacktothe
December 1992 expulsion of 415 senior Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ)
activists from the Occupied Territories, to Marj al Zahour in Southern Lebanon. 39
DespiteHamasandPIJbothbeingSunniorganizations,theactivistsweretakeninby
theShiaLebaneseterroristgroupHezbollahandprovidedwithaidandoperational
training (including the use of explosives). Although many of those expelled from
Israeli‐controlled territory had been intellectuals and ideologues rather than
frontline fighters, on their return to the Occupied Territories in September 1993
many took a more active part in hostilities and several were linked to suicide
bombingsbytheIsraeliauthorities‐atacticthathadnotpreviouslybeenusedby
Palestiniangroups.40On19October1994Salehal‐SouwiboardedabusinTelAviv
carryingabombconcealedinabrownbagthathethendetonated,takingtwenty‐two
civilianlivesalongwithhisownandinjuringfiftyothers,makingittheworstbomb
attackinIsraelihistoryupuntilthatpoint.Thefollowingdayapublicannouncement
wasreadoutinmosquesacrosstheGazainwhichHamasboastedthattheattackhad
beencarriedoutusingknowledgeandtechniqueslearneddirectlyfromHezbollah.41
9
Inshort,weknowfrombothterroristsandanalyststhatterroristgroupsactivelyand
deliberatelylearnfromeachother.Notonlyideology,butalsostrategy(elaboration
ofwhatagroup’sgoalshouldbeandhowitisbestpursued)andtactics(howtoturn
strategyintopractice)areoftenshapedbyotherterroristsgroups’experience.While
direct learning, in the shape of training and support, might be limited to
contemporarygroups,itisclearthananumberofterroristshavefoundinspirationin
oldergroupsorevenadoptedmodelsfromrivaloropposingorganizations.Thenext
section proceeds to analyze the origins of modern terrorism, which go somewhat
furtherbackthanRapoport’sfirstwave,andargues,asLindsayClutterbuckpointed
outinhisinfluential2004critiqueofRapoport’sarticle,42thatterrorisminthelate
NineteenthCenturyhadasmuchtodowithnationalismaswithanarchism.
TheNineteenthCenturyOriginsofModernTerrorism
Terrorism has its origins in a series of technological developments that occurred
almost simultaneously in the mid‐Nineteenth Century. These have something in
commonwiththecommunicationsrevolutionattheendofthecenturythatRapoport
emphasized,butanumberofimportantdevelopmentsprecededthisbyabouthalfa
century. The first was a revolution in military technology that concentrated the
destructive power previously associated with mass military formations into the
hands of a few individuals. Gunpowder had been the primary explosive in use for
about1000yearswhenin1847anItalianchemistcalledAscanioSobrenocreated
nitroglycerine–aliquidcompoundthatiseighttimesmorepowerfulbyweightthan
gunpowder.Initsliquidformnitroglycerineprovedimmenselyunstableanddifficult
to transport, but, after his brother Emil was killed in an industrial accident while
working with nitroglycerine, Alfred Nobel began to experiment with methods of
stabilizingtheexplosiveandthisledtohisinventionofdynamite,whichhepatented
in1867.Otherkeydevelopmentsinweaponstechnologyweretheintroductionofthe
revolverbySamuelColtin1835,theOrsinibomb(ahand‐throwncontactgrenade)
designed and used by Felice Orsini for an assassination attempt on Emperor
10
NapoleonIIIin1858,therepeatingriflefirstmanufacturedbyChristopherSpencer
in1860,andtheso‐called“horologicaltorpedo”,atimedelaybombfirstdeployedby
the Confederate Secret Service in an attack on the Headquarters of Union General
UlyssesS.GrantinCityPoint,Virginia,whichkilledmorethanfiftypeopleinAugust
1864. 43 The sudden availability of powerful, affordable, portable and concealable
weapons‐whichcouldalsobeeasilyacquiredormanufacturedbyprivatecitizens‐
wouldprovetobesignificantforcemultiplierforstatesandnon‐stateactorsalike.
The second development was the development of new mass communication
technologies that allowed knowledge of ideas and events to be rapidly distributed
acrossthousandsofmiles,andenabledindividualstotraveleasilyacrossborders,and
evenacrossoceans,inlargernumbersthaneverbeforeopeningupaneraofmass
migration and commensurate dislocation. The first working telegraph was built
betweenWashingtonDCandBaltimorebySamuelMorse(whoalsodevelopedMorse
codetoaidthetransmissionofmessages)becomingoperationalin1844.Thelaying
ofthefirsttransatlantictelegraphcablewascompletedin185844andtheuseofthe
telegraphbytheprintmediareallytookoffinthe1860swhennewspaperofficeslike
the Scotsman and the London Times began to install telegraph lines in their
newsrooms so that they could receive news rapidly from national capitals and
overseascorrespondents.45Thesteampoweredrotaryprintingpressinventedinthe
UnitedStatesin1843allowedforthereproductionofmillionsofcopiesofpageoftext
in a single day. 46 On land, the world’s first commercial railway, the Stockton and
Darlington Railway in England, began operation in 1825, the first railway in
continentalEuropeopenedinBelgiumin1835,andRussiagotitsfirstrailwaylinein
1837,butthegreatexpansionofrailwaynetworksoccurredinthe1850sand1860s
astheindividualnationalrailwaynetworksbegantolinkupofferingpassengersthe
possibility of traveling across Europe by rail. On sea, the construction of the iron‐
hulledSSGreatWesternbyIsambardKingdomBrunelin1838inauguratedtheageof
thetrans‐Atlanticpassengersteamer,butittooktheintroductionofscrewpropeller,
iron hulls, and compound and triple expansion engines, which all combined to
increase the size, fuel efficiency and range of commercial vessels, to make trans‐
11
oceanicshippingeconomicallyviableonalargescaleby1870.GermanandItalian
radicals like Johan Most and Luigi Galleani emigrated to the USA; Irish‐Americans
basedinurbancentreslikeNewYork,ChicagoandBostonwereabletofundterrorist
activityontheBritishMainland.Accordingly,someoftheearliestmodernterrorists
– European anarchists and Irish nationalists – can be said to have posed a
transnationalthreatalmostfromtheirinception.
Thethirdandfinalrevolutiontookplaceintherealmofideas.PriortotheNineteenth
Centurypoliticalactivityhadbeentoallintentsandpurposestheexclusiveprovince
of social elites. New technologies brought access to educational opportunities that
hadnotpreviouslyexisted,agriculturallaborersandartisansflockedtourbancenters
attracted by new employment opportunities and creating a new social class – the
industrial proletariat. Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Mikhail Bakunin, Pierre‐Joseph
Proudhonandahostofothersdevelopedpoliticaltheoriesthatputthecommonman
at the center of societal progress and created a language of working class
empowerment.TheGermanrevolutionaryKarlHeinzenwasthefirsttoarticulatethe
use of violence, even mass murder, by individuals to effect political change in his
influential1853pamphlet,MordundFreiheit,coiningthetermfreiheits‐kämpferor
freedomfighterintheprocess.47TheEuropean‐widepopularunrestof1848andthe
example set by the short‐lived Paris Commune of 1871 held out hope to the
disenfranchisedthatpopulargovernmentbythemasseswasnotbeyondreachand
thatmeaningfulsocialchangewaspossible.ThemutinyoftheParisNationalGuard
inMarch1871andthedecisionbythemutineerstoholdanelection,whichledtothe
creationofasocialistgovernmentthatruledParisforthreemonthsimplementinga
radicalpoliticalagenda,wouldbecomeabeaconofpromiseforsocialrevolutionaries.
ThefactthattheParisCommuneendedinareactionarybloodbaththatclaimedmore
thantwenty‐fivethousandlivesastheFrenchgovernmentreassertedcontrolonly
strengthenedtheirresolve,drawingthebattlelinesevenmoreclearly.AstheSwiss
anarchist Paul Brousse observed in an article in the radical journal Bulletin de la
FédérationJurassienne:“PriortotheParisCommune,whoinFrancewasconversant
12
withtheprincipleofcommunalautonomy?Noone.”48Afterwardsitwasanideathat
resonatedwiththedispossessedandmarginalizedacrossthewesternworld.
The revolutionary ideals of the late Nineteenth Century were rooted as much in
nationalismasinrevolutionaryradicalism.HeinzendedicatedMordundFreiheitto
theHungariannationalistLibényiJánoswhoattemptedtoassassinatetheAustrian
Emperor Franz Joseph I in February 1853. A few years earlier, in 1848, Mikhail
BakuninhadpennedanAppealtotheSlavstoriseupagainsttheAustro‐Hungarian
empire. In the Balkans the “national sympathies” to which he appealed would
eventually give rise to one of the most active and enduring early terrorist
organizations,theInternalMacedonianRevolutionaryOrganization(IMRO),aswell
asoneofthemostconsequentialterroristattacksofalltime–theassassinationin
Sarajevo of the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand by the Bosnian Serb Gavrilo
PrincipinJune1914,whichprecipitatedtheoutbreakofWorldWarI.Principwas
explicit about his motivation, declaring at his trial: “I am a Yugoslav nationalist,
aimingfortheunificationofallYugoslavs,andIdonotcarewhatformofstate,butit
must be freed from Austria.” 49 The cause of Italian reunification was also the
motivatingforcebehindFeliceOrsini’sassassinationattemptonNapoleonIII,andthe
pivotal role played by Giuseppi Garibaldi and his 1,000 redshirts in the Italian
Risorgimento was hugely influential on other revolutionary movements, as it
demonstrated that a small group of determined men and women could have a
decisiveimpactontheaffairsofgreatpowers.TheleadingItaliananarchistErrico
Malatesta acknowledged the debt he and his followers owed to the heroes of the
Risorgimento,notingthattheFirstInternationaltaughtitsmembersnothingthathad
not already been learned from Orsini, Mazzini and Garibaldi. 50 This was certainly
Orsini’sintention,hepublishedtwovolumesofmemoirsandanumberofpolitical
pamphletsbasedonhiscareerasarevolutionaryduringhislifetime,includingone
withanappendixentitledHowtoConspire.51
InEurope,therevolutionsof1848‐49andtheParisCommuneraisedthehopesofa
rangeofradicalgroupsthatsocialchangemightbeachieved,butsomeindividuals
13
andgroupsconcludedfromtheseevents(togetherwiththefailedeffortsofRussian
populists to educate and mobilize the rural population in the 1870s) that more
dramaticaction–terrorism–wouldberequired.IntheUSAthetensionssurrounding
theCivilWarplayedasimilarrole.InEurope,radicalsthatwereonthelosingsidein
1848‐49and1871turnedtoterrorism;intheUSAitwastheopponentsofslavery
before the outbreak of the Civil War (John Brown), and many on the losing side
afterwards(theKuKluxKlan).InEuropethisgaverisetoanarchistandnationalist
terrorism in the second half of the Nineteenth Century; in the USA it gave rise to
religiousandexclusivistterrorism.
TheNineteenthCenturybroughttogetherthemeans,themotiveandtheopportunity
forsmallbandsofcommittedradicalstotakethefighttotheestablishedorderand
men of all political stripes were quick to realize the game‐changing tools that the
marchofsciencehadplacedinthehandsoftheirfollowers.Rapoportdateshisfirst
waveofterrorismasbeginninginthe1880sbutasearlyasthe1850sand1860swe
can see nationalists, populists (perhaps a more accurately inclusive label for the
disparate‘oldleft’groupsofRapoport’s“firstwave”thananarchism),exclusionists,
andreligiousextremistsbegintoexplorethepossibilitiesthatthesenewtoolshadto
offer.The‘patientszero’ofthisviralmetaphor,asbestwehavebeenabletoestablish,
aretheItaliannationalistFeliceOrsini,theGermanpopulistKarlHeinzen,theformer
Confederate general Nathan Bedford Forrest and the American abolitionist John
Brown.
NationalistTerrorism–fromFeliceOrsinitotheTamilTigers
Felice Orsini was an associate of the Italian statesman Giuseppe Mazzini and a
supporterofItalianunification,towhichNapoleonIIIwasperceivedasanobstacle.
Inatransnationalconspiracy,whichsawOrsinibuildandtestacontactbombofhis
own devising in England before traveling to Paris, Orsini and his Italian co‐
conspiratorsplannedtobombtheEmperor’scoachashedrovetotheoperaonthe
14
eveningof14January1858.Three‘Orsini’bombs,employingfulminateofmercury
asanexplosive,detonatedkillingandinjuringanumberofonlookersinthecrowd
butleavingNapoleonandhisentourageessentiallyunharmed.Injuredintheblasts,
Orsiniwasdetainedbeforehecouldmakegoodhisescapeandwasultimatelysentto
theguillotine.52
Intheend,Italy’spathtounificationwouldbedriveninlargepartbytheactionsof
regular and irregular forces, rather than clandestine groups, and the torch of
nationalist terrorism would be taken up by Irish nationalists based in the United
StateswholaunchedaviolentassaultonthemajorcitiesoftheBritishmainlandin
the1880s.Thecampaignwaseightyearsinthemaking.Intheautumnof1875Patrick
Ford, the editor of the Brooklyn‐based newspaper Irish World, and his brother
Augustine,bothpassionatesupportersofIrishindependence,hadfirstdevelopedthe
idea of dispatching what they termed “skirmishers” from the United States to
undermineBritishruleinIreland.53PatrickexplainedhisplaninthepagesofIrish
World:“TheIrishcauserequiresskirmishers.Itrequiresalittlebandofheroeswho
willinitiateandkeepupwithoutintermissionaguerillawarfare–menwhowillfly
overthelandandsealikeinvisiblebeings–nowstrikingtheenemyinIreland,now
inIndia,nowinEnglanditself,asoccasionmaypresent.”54Theuseofskirmishershad
attractedsignificantattentionduringtheAmericanCivilWarasaresultofaseriesof
influential articles written by General John Watts de Peyster under the title New
AmericanTactics.Usingtheirnewspaperasaplatform,theFordsjoinedwiththeIrish
nationalist leader Jeremiah O’Donovan Rossa to establish a “Skirmishing Fund” to
raise money for their plan, and it was the revenue from this fund (renamed the
National Fund in 1878) that would be used to fund operations of the Irish secret
society Clan Na Gael (Family of Gaels) operations, as well as additional attacks by
“skirmishers” working directly for Rossa. Between 1881 and 1887 the so‐called
“DynamiteCampaign”sawhigh‐profiletargetsinLondonlikeTowerBridge,Scotland
Yard,thePalaceofWestminsterandthenewUndergroundrailsystemcomeunder
attack ‐ one bomb that detonated on the Metropolitan line injured seventy‐two
15
people,mostlythirdclasspassengers.55TherewerefurtherbombingsinManchester,
LiverpoolandGlasgow.
Irish nationalist terrorist groups would come and go over the next 130 years. As
President of the Irish Republican Brotherhood, Adjutant‐General of the Irish
Volunteers and Director of Information of the shadow nationalist government
MichaelCollinsledanurbanguerrillacampaignthatplayedacrucialroleinsecuring
theindependenceofthesoutherntwenty‐sixcountiesofIrelandin1921.Thesuccess
ofCollinsandhistacticsinspirednationalliberationmovementsaroundtheworld.
As the leader of Jewish terrorist group LEHI, future Israeli Prime Minster Yitzhak
Shamiradopted‘Michael’ashisnomdeguerreinexplicithomagetoMichaelCollins.56
Further outbreaks of Irish nationalist violence – focused on securing a British
withdrawalfromtheremainingsixcountiesofNorthernIreland‐wouldoccurduring
theSecondWorldWar,thelate1950sandearly1960s,andforthreedecadesfrom
the1970stothe1990s,featuringsuchgroupsastheIrishRepublicanArmy(IRA),the
ProvisionalIRAandtheIrishNationalLiberationArmy.57Fringenationalistgroups
liketheRealIRAandtheContinuityArmyCouncilcontinuetorejecttheNorthern
Ireland Peace Process to this day, with the most recent fatal attack at the time of
writing,themurderofPrisonOfficerDavidBlack,occurringasrecentlyasNovember
2012.
Thenationaliststrainoftheterroristviruscanbetrackedspreadingacrosstheglobe
farbeyondIreland.Ashortlistofotherprominentnationalistterroristgroupswould
includetheIndianBarinGhoseandtheManiktalagroupfightingBritishruleinthe
first decades of the Twentieth Century, the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary
Organization(IMRO)activeinthesameperiod,ZionistextremistgroupslikeIrgun
and LEHI fighting the British Mandate or their Arab counterparts, the Black Hand
foundedbySheikhIzzal‐Dinal‐Qassam,theAlgerianFrontdeLibérationNationale
(FLN)activeagainstFrenchcolonialrulefrom1954to1962,theGreekCypriotgroup
Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston (EOKA – the National Organization of Cypriot
Struggle)whofoughttheBritishfrom1955to1959,theLiberationTigersofTamil
16
Eelam(LTTE)activeinSriLankafrom1976to2009,andfinallythePalestiniangroup
Fatehfoundedinthelate1950sandstillactivetoday.58Itisimportanttonotethat
manyofthesegroups,ifnotdirectlyresponsibleforsecuringindependencefortheir
people,havebecomeanimportant,ifnotcrucial,partoftheirnations’independence
narratives–inspiringfurtheremulation.Thechainofnationalistterrorismstretches
unbrokenfromthe1880stothepresentday.
SocialistTerrorism–fromKarlHeinzentoETA
While Karl Heinzen did not himself convert words into deeds, he helped inspire a
generation of populists, socialists and anarchists that would put his program into
action. His influence was such that two days after Leon Czolgosz assassinated US
PresidentWilliamMcKinleyinSeptember1901,JohanMostreprintedKarlHeinzen’s
essayDerMord,writtenalmostfiftyyearsearlier,toprovidepoliticalcontexttothe
incident–agesturethatearnedhimaconvictionintheNewYorkcourtsforwillfully
and wrongfully endangering the public peace. 59 Marx and Engels were also well
acquaintedwithHeinzen’swork–withEngelsinparticulargoingoutofhiswayto
disparageHeinzenintheBritishpress.60
It was another associate of Marx and Engels, the Russian anarchist philosopher
MikhailBakunin,whoworkingwitharadicalRussianstudentSergeiNechaev,helped
tolaythefoundationforoneofthefirstleftistterrorgroups,Nechaev’sNarodnaya
Rasprava (The People’s Retribution), briefly active in 1869. Narodnaya Rasprava
would partially inspire the creation of a far better organized clandestine populist
group, Narodnaya Volya in 1879. 61 It was Narodnaya Volya that succeeded in
assassinatingTsarAlexanderIIin1881.LeftistterrorismwouldcontinueinRussia
untilthetriumphoftheBolshevikRevolution,anditisworthrecallingthatLenin’s
elder brother, Aleksander, was executed in 1887 because of his association with
NarodnayaVolyaplottokillTsarAlexanderIII.Anarchistterrorismwouldbecomea
worldwidephenomenon.InSeptember1883aringofconspirators,ledbytheself‐
17
describedanarchist‐communistKameradReinsdorf,onlynarrowlyfailedtoblowup
KaiserWilhelmIandthe‘IronChancellor’OttovonBismarck.62AsRapoportnotes,
the1890swouldseetheassassinationoftheKingofItaly,thePrimeMinisterofSpain,
the President of France, and Empress Elizabeth of Austria. Anarchist groups
detonatedbombsacrossWesternEuropeandtheUnitedStates,withmajorattacks
taking place as far afield as Paris (1892 and 1894), Barcelona (1893 and 1896),
London (1894), Milwaukee (1917), New York (1920) and Milan (1921). As late as
1928,BhagatSinghoftheHindustanSocialistRepublicanAssociation(HSRA),who
washeavilyinfluencedbythethinkingofMikhailBakunin,63gunneddownAssistant
Superintendent John Saundersasa reprisalfor the violent suppression of a public
demonstrationinLahorebycolonialpolice.IndeliberateemulationoftheNineteenth
CenturyFrenchanarchistAugusteValliant,SinghfollowedtheattackonSaundersby
hurlingtwosmallbombsontotheflooroftheCentralLegislativeAssemblyinNew
Delhiwhilethechamberwasinsession.64
ToallintentsandpurposesRapoport’sthirdwaveof‘newleft’terrorismisreallyjust
the uninterrupted evolution of the ‘old left’ activity he groups together as his first
wave.InRussia,theSocialRevolutionaryPartypickedupthethreadfromNarodnaya
Volyaaftertherepressionofstudentrebellionsattheturnofthecentury,andagain
aftertheabortedrevolutionof1905‐06,65andmanyofthepractitionersofterrorism
ontheleftlenttheirskillstothenewregime’s“redterror”afterthe1917revolution.66
The Communist International (or Comintern) became at the same time the
instrument and the victim of Stalin’s terror outside Russia.67 The lessons Mao Tse
Tung derived from fighting both the invading Imperial Japanese Army and the
ChineseNationalistarmyofChiangKai‐shekinthelate1930sledtotheformulation
ofhisdoctrineofPeople’sWarthatwoulddeeplyinformtheactivitiesofgroupslike
theRedArmyFaction,ShiningPath,andtheRedBrigades,aswellasshapingthework
ofotherkeytheoristsofirregularwarfareandurbanguerrillacombatsuchasRégius
Debray, Ernesto ‘Che’ Guevara and Carlos Marighella. The concept of armed
propagandadevelopedbytheTupamaroswasreallyjustarestatementoftheideaof
propagandaofthedeedfirstarticulatedbyBakunin,andpopularizedbyPaulBrousse,
18
inthe1870s.Theheydayofnew‐leftterrorismmayhavebeeninthe1970sand1980s
butsomeofthesamegroupsstillremainactiveandtheirexamplecontinuestoexert
influence to this day. Michael Ryan, author of Decoding Al Qaeda’s Strategy, even
wrylynotes:“AlQaeda’sstrategicwritingsmaybeginandendwithIslamicreferences
andprayersbuttheircoreargumentshavelesstodowithIslamthanwiththetexts
of communist insurgents and idealogues.” 68 People’s War theory also heavily
influencednationalistgroupsliketheProvisionalIRA,theArmenianSecretArmyfor
theLiberationofArmenia(ASALA),thePopularFrontfortheLiberationofPalestine,
and the Basque separatist group Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA), which all shared a
Marxistsensibility.69
ReligiousTerrorism–fromJohnBrowntoAlQaeda
InMay1856theAmericanabolitionistJohnBrown,amilitantopponentofslaveryin
thesouthernUnitedStatesrodeintothepro‐slaveryKansassettlementPottawatomie
withhissmallgroupoffollowersandpulledfivemembersoftheproslaveryLawand
OrderPartyfromtheirbedsandbrutallyexecutedthem.Motivatedbyhisprofound
Christianfaith,Brown’savowedintentwasto“makeanexample,andsostriketerror”
inthehopesofstampedingproslaveryciviliansintoleavingtheKansasterritory.70
WhenBrownledhisraidonthefederalarmoryinHarpersFerryinOctober1859he
hoped–likesomanyofthemenandwomenofviolencethatwouldcomeafterhim‐
hissmallbandwouldinspireotherstoriseupbytheirexampleandtakebacktheir
freedomusingtheweaponsfromthearmory.Brownandhismenseizedthearmory
and took thirty‐five local inhabitants hostage. The hoped‐for uprising did not
transpire and a federal force – ironically enough led by the future Confederate
Commander‐in‐ChiefRobertE.Lee–capturedBrown,killedtenofhismen,including
twoofhissons,andfreedtheirhostages.Brownwasswiftlyputontrial,whichhe
usedasplatformtoproclaimhisviews,andthenexecuted.Asbefittedamanwhohad
admonished his followers “to take more care to end life well than to live long”, 71
Brown went to scaffold quite cheerfully, embracing martyrdom. Max Boot has
19
described Brown as “one of the more consequential terrorists in history” quoting
FrederickDouglass’epitaph:“IfJohnBrowndidnotendthewarthatendedslavery,
hedidatleastbeginthewarthatendedslavery.”72HenryDavidThoreausaidofhis
execution: “Some eighteen hundred years ago, Christ was crucified; This morning,
perchance,CaptainBrownwashung....HeisnotOldBrownanylonger;heisanangel
oflight.”73
Thereligiousstrainlaydormantformorethanhalfacenturybeforeemergingonce
more,butintheinterimreligiousbeliefcertainlyimpactedotherstrains.Forexample,
WalterLaqueurtracesmanyoftheimportantideasaboutjustifiabletyrannicidein
anarchistandearlynationalistterrorismtoChristianthought,eventhoughterrorists
likeHeinzenemphasizedthedistinctionbetweenthetwodoctrines.74Religionwas
animportantfactorinIrishnationalism‐withtheEasterUprisingin1916Padraig
Pearseandhisconfederatesexplicitlysetouttoestablishwhathetermed“atheology
ofinsurrection”andthechoiceofEasterMondayfortherisingwasalsodeliberatein
this regard, with its connotations of sacrifice and resurrection.75 The action of the
British authorities only served to amplify this effect. As the Provisional IRA
intelligenceofficerEamonCollinswouldwritemorethaneightyyearslater:“Inmy
mind,Pearseand[James]Connollywerealllinkedtogether.Theyweremartyrsfor
ourCatholicfaith,thetruereligion:religionandpoliticsfusedtogetherbytheblood
of the martyrs. I was prepared to be martyr, to die for this Catholic faith.” 76 The
AmericanMarxistterrorgrouptheWeatherUndergroundwouldalsolaternameone
ofitspublicationsOsawatomie,afteratowninKansasthatJohnBrownhadtriedto
defendagainstpro‐Slaveryraidersin1856.77
ThefirstmodernIslamistrevivalmovement,theSocietyoftheMuslimBrothersor
Muslim Brotherhood, would reactivate the strain and putting faith at the heart of
politics. Founded in Egypt in March 1928, the central virtues of the Muslim
Brotherhood’s philosophy were militancy (within the context of jihad) and
martyrdom. 78 The group’s semi‐autonomous military wing, known as the Secret
Apparatus (al‐jihaz), carried out terrorist attacks against Egyptian government
20
figures, British military targets in the Suez Canal Zone, and businesses considered
emblematicofunwelcomewesterninfluencesuchascinemasandnightclubs.79The
BrotherhoodevensentvolunteerstofightintheArab‐IsraeliWarof1948.Forthe
Society’s founder, a former school teacher called Hasan al‐Banna, martyrdom was
apogeeofpoliticalstruggle:“Thesuprememartyrdomisonlyconferredonthosewho
slayorareslaininthewayofGod.Asdeathisinevitableandcanhappenonlyonce,
partakinginjihadisprofitableinthisworldandthenext.”80TheSocietyofMuslim
Brothers was forcibly disbanded by the Egyptian Prime Minister Mahmoud an‐
NukrashiPashainearlyDecember1948.Whenan‐Nukrashiwasassassinatedbya
student member of the Brotherhood just three weeks later, Hasan al‐Banna was
gunneddownonastreetinCairobytheEgyptianSecretPoliceinretaliation.81
Hasanal‐Banna’splacewastakenbyaformerschoolinspectorandpublicintellectual,
Sayyid Qutb, who joined the Muslim Brotherhood in 1953. Qutb’s most successful
work,Milestones,mapsoutanuncompromisingprogramforadvancingtheIslamist
cause:“PreachingaloneisnotenoughtoestablishthedominionofAllahonearth…
ThosewhohaveusurpedtheauthorityofAllahandareoppressingAllah’screatures
arenotgoingtogiveuptheirpowermerelythroughpreaching.”82WhentheEgyptian
government became aware of Qutb’s role in helping to reestablish the Muslim
Brotherhoodonaclandestinebasis,hewasarrested,sentencedtodeathandexecuted
inAugust1966.HisbiographerJohnCalvertcomparesMilestonestoLenin’ssimilarly
influential What is to be Done? 83 Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, who led the political
movementHizb‐iIslamiagainsttheSovietoccupationofAfghanistaninthelate1970s
and1980s,andShaykhSalamatHashim,formerleaderoftheMoroIslamicLiberation
Front(MILF)inthePhilippines,publiclycreditedQutbastheirinspiration.84Osama
bin Laden attended public lectures given by Qutb’s brother, Muhammad, at King
Abdul‐AzizUniversityinJeddah,andhissuccessorasleaderofAlQaeda,AymanAl
Zawahiri,wasraisedontalesofQutb’spietyandvisionbyhisuncleMahfouzAzzam,
Qutb’spersonallawyerandtheexecutorofhiswill.85
21
TheMuslimBrotherhoodwouldbecometheinspirationforanumberofmorerecent
Islamistterroristorganizations.AymanAlZawahiripublishedastudyoftheMuslim
Brotherhood in 1991 entitled The Bitter Harvest, which, though critical, also
illustrates the conceptual debt Al Qaeda owes the Brotherhood. 86 The Muslim
Brotherhood’suniquecombinationofmilitancyandsocialserviceprovisionhasalso
been widely copied, including by terrorist groups such as Hezbollah and Hamas.
Service provision creates its own dynamic strengthening bonds between armed
groupsandtheirconstituents,butalsocreatesobligations.AstheDeputySecretary‐
GeneralofHezbollah,NaimQassem,explainedinhismemoirs:“Socialworkservesto
enrichsupporters’confidenceintheviabilityoftheParty’scausesandcourse,asit
cooperates, collaborates and joins forces to remain strong and tenacious in its
politicalandresistanceroles.”87
Rapoport dates the beginning of his fourth, religious, wave to the upheavals that
grippedtheMuslimworldin1979–apivotalyearcertainly,whichashenotessaw
theIslamicrevolutioninIran,theSovietinvasionofAfghanistanandthesiegeofthe
GrandMosqueinMeccabyradicalfollowersofMohammedAbdullahal‐Qahtani–but
itisclearthattheseedsoftheIslamicrevivalgobackmuch,muchfurther.Ofcourse
it should be stressed that religious terrorism is not an exclusively Islamic
phenomenon.RapoportnotestheviolenceoftheChristianIdentitymovementinthe
UnitedStatesinthe1990s,JewishterrorismagainsttheIsraeliseculargovernment,
and Sikh terrorism in the 1980s; to which one could also add the rising tide of
BuddhistviolencedirectedattheMuslimpopulationofBurmaandtheroletheJewish
faithplayedinthelegitimizingnarrativesofbothIrgunandLEHIinthe1930sand
1940s.88
SocialExclusionTerrorism–fromNathanForresttoAndersBehringBreivik
TheConfederateStatesofAmericahadbeenoneofthefirstgovernmentstograspthe
potentialthattheNineteenthCenturyrevolutioninmilitarycapabilitiesrepresented.
22
In 1863 Bernard Janin Sage published a pamphlet titled Organization of Private
Warfare promoting the use of irregular bands of “destructionists”, which he
conceived as operating under loose official direction on land much as privateers
operatedatsea,insuchawaythattheConfederacycould“dothemostharmwiththe
least expense to ourselves.”
89
The pamphlet influenced the creation of the
Confederate Bureau of Special and Secret Service, which was behind the attack on
Grant’s headquarters. Confederate ‘bush‐whackers’ like William Quantrill engaged
UnionisttroopsalongtheMissouri‐Kansasborderinhighlymobileirregularwarfare
and later morphed into criminal incarnations such as the James‐Younger Gang (of
JesseJamesfame).ThereisevidenceofcollusionbetweenveteransofbothQuantrill’s
raidersandtheJames‐Youngergang,andoneofthemostactiveearlyKuKluxKlan
‘dens’inAlamanceCounty,NorthCarolina.Althoughhewasnotafoundingmember
oftheKlan–thatdubioushonorfelltosixyoungConfederate veteransinPulaski,
Tennessee‐theConfederatecavalrygeneralNathanBedfordForrestwouldbethe
first leader of the Klan in its mature political and activist form. 90 The racism that
underpinned the institution of slavery, and thus inevitably the Confederate cause,
gaverisetotheKuKluxKlanaroundwhichoppositionandresistancetotheUnionist
reconstructionofthesouthcoalesced.Duringtheelevenyearsofreconstructionfrom
1865‐1876 the Klan killed an estimated 3,000 freed former slaves and brutally
intimidatedblackcommunitiesfromrealizinganysemblanceofequality.Thefailure
ofthefederalgovernmenttointervenetosecurethe1875electioninMississippiwith
predictable consequences for black voters led its Republican Governor, Adelbert
Ames,toproclaimindisgust:“Arevolutionhastakenplace(byforceofarms)anda
racearedisenfranchised–theyaretobereturnedtoaconditionofserfdom.”91The
Ku Klux Klan had snatched no small measure of victory from the jaws of defeat.
Although reconstruction was abandoned in 1876 the Klan’s racially motivated
violence would continue more than a century spawning beatings, lynchings,
bombings and assassinations. This violence attracted little attention outside the
southern United States until the 1960s, and as such it exerted little influence on
politicaldevelopmentsfurtherafield,buttheKlanmightneverthelessbereasonably
describedasthefirstmodernterroristorganization.
23
However,theKlanisfarfromtheonlyexclusionistterroristorganizationtoplyits
tradearoundtheworld.InRussiatheantisemiticundergroundmovementknownas
theBlackHundredsassassinatedtwoJewishmembersoftheRussianDumain1906
andlaunchedaseriesofpogromsagainstJewishcommunitiesintheUkraineinthe
yearsbeforetheoutbreakofWorldWarI.Inthe1920sGermanysawtheemergence
of the Nazi party’s Sturmabteilung (the SA, or Stormtoopers), a paramilitary
organization that used terrorism in support the political party (which included its
owninternalbodyresponsibleforterrorintheshapeoftheShutzstaffel‐theSS)and
merits its inclusion in books on terrorism. 92 Walter Laqueur includes the German
Freikorps,andHungarianandRomanianfascistsamongrightwingterroristgroups
thatattackedpoliticalleaders:theIronGuardkilledtwoRomanianprimeministers
inthe1930s.93FrenchsettlerviolencewasanimportantfactorintheAlgerianwarof
independence.On10August1956aformerFrenchintelligenceofficerAndréAchiary,
supportedbymembersoftheUnionFrançaiseNord‐Africaine,plantedalargebomb
in Rue de Thèbes, Algiers, which killed 73 local Muslim residents and helped
precipitatetheBattleofAlgiers.ThedisaffectedFrenchmilitarypersonneloftheOAS
evenattemptedamilitarycoup,andtriedtoassassinatePresidentCharlesdeGaulle
onseveraloccasions.94AsMichaelBurleighnotes,theOASwasactuallyresponsible
for more deaths than the entire Northern Ireland conflict. 95 The activities of the
Italian RedBrigades in the 1970swere met by a strongcounter‐reactionfromthe
ItalianextremerightandgroupslikeBlackOrder,RevolutionaryFascistNuclei,and
NewOrder:6peoplewerekilledwhenabombexplodedin1970ontheFrecciadel
SudexpresstrainconnectingMilanwithPalermo;8werekilledbyabombplantedin
aunionmeetingatthePiazzadellaLoggiainBresciaand12inatrainbombingin
Italicus near Bologna in 1974. 96 Neo‐fascist terrorism reached a climax in August
1980when84peoplewerekilledand200woundedinabombblastatBolognatrain
station. The right‐wing backlash in Italy was also echoed in Germany with the
bombing of the Munich Oktoberfest in September 1980 by the neo‐Nazi Gundolf
Köhler,inwhich13peoplewerekilled(includingKöhler)and211injured.Theright‐
wingbacklashinItalywasalsoechoedinGermanywiththebombingoftheMunich
24
OktoberfestinSeptember1980bytheneo‐NaziGundolfKöhler,inwhich13people
werekilled(includingKöhler)and211injured.97
In2011theSouthernPovertyLawCenterpublishedalistofmorethan100“plots,
conspiraciesandracistrampages”thathadoccurredintheUnitedStatessincethe
1995 Oklahoma City bombing committed by white supremacist Timothy McVeigh,
whichitselfclaimed168lives.98InDecember2008policeinvestigatingthemurderof
JamesG.CummingsinBelfast,Maine,discoveredthathehadbeenintheprocessof
assemblingahomemadedirtybomb.Cummings,awhitesupremacistandanardent
admirerofAdolfHitler,wasreportedly“veryupset”abouttheelectionofPresident
BarackObama.99AsimilarlydisturbingincidentoccurredinApril2003whenfederal
investigators stumbled across an arms cache assembled by 63‐year‐old white
supremacistWilliamKrar,whichincluded800gramsofsodiumcyanide–enoughto
kill 1000s of people. 100 As recently as June 2015 twenty‐one‐year‐old white
supremacistDylannRoofwalkedintoachurchinCharleston,SouthCarolina,andshot
dead nine African‐American worshippers telling one of his victims: “You rape our
womenandyou’retakingoverourcountry.Andyouhavetogo.”101
OthercontemporaryexamplesofthisstrainwouldincludetheBritishneo‐NaziDavid
Copeland,whodetonatedthreenailbombstargetingimmigrantandgaycommunities
in London over a thirteen‐day period in April 1999, claiming 3 lives and maiming
dozensmore.ThereisalsoofcoursetheNorwegianracistAndersBehringBreivik,
whoon22July2011detonateda950Kilogramnitratefertilizerbombconcealedina
whiteVolkswagenvanparkedoutsidegovernmentbuildingsinOslo,killing8people
andinjuring9seriously.HethentraveledtoaLabourPartyyouthcampontheisland
ofUtøyawhereheshotdead69campersandwounded33.102Breiviklaterstatedthat
oneofthereasonshehadspecificallychosentheislandasatargetwasthattheformer
Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland had been scheduled to speak
there,butshehadalreadyleftUtøyabythetimehearrived.Heclaimedtobeacting
onbehalfofafictitious“KnightsTemplar”organizationandpublishedamanifesto
setting out his anti‐socialist and xenophobic beliefs online before the attacks. This
25
was the worst violent incident in Norway since the Second World War and
commentatorsestimatedthat1in4Norwegiansknewsomeonepersonallyaffected
bytheattacks.Overtortacitracismisalsoanimportantaspectofdelegitimizingand
dehumanizingnarrativesinconflictsdrivenbyreligiousornationalistsentiments.
Conclusion–TheFourHorsemenRide
Rapoport’s Four Waves of Modern Terrorism is the field of terrorism studies’
equivalent of Francis Fukuyama’s essay on The End of History. It is thought‐
provokingandconceptuallyuseful.However,whileatfirstglanceitseemstofitthe
facts,therealityismessierandmoreprosaic.Therearenowavesofmodernterrorism
–therearesimplynumeroussituationsaroundtheworldwherethemeans,motive
andopportunitytoseekpoliticalchangethroughviolencehavegivenrisetoterrorist
actorsmotivatedbyoneormoreofthefourstrainsoutlinedabove.
Thetruthisthatwearelivinginanageofterrorism,andhavebeenforacenturyand
ahalf.Modernterrorismisaproductofthedramaticchangesinweaponstechnology
andmasscommunicationsintheNineteenthCenturyandthedevelopmentofradical
ideologies that inspired revolutionary groups to experiment with new forms of
political violence. The four strainsof modern terrorism all have their roots in this
confluenceofmeansandmotive.Technologicalandideationaldevelopmentsmade
modernterrorism,technologicalandideologicalchangedrovedevelopmentsinthe
fourstrainsduringtheTwentiethCentury,andtechnologicalandideologicalchange
islikelytoshapetheirfuturetrajectories.
Terroristgroupscomeinmanyshapesandsizes,andtheyevolveandmutate.Jessica
Sterncoinedthephrase‘theProteanenemy’–aftertheshape‐shiftingGreekseagod
featuredinHomer’sOdyssey‐todescribethechallengeposedbyterrorismbecause
oftheconstantlychangingnatureofthegroupsinvolvedandthechangingnatureof
threat itself.103 Terrorism is not, and will never be, a conceptually clean label. As
26
Rapoporthasnoted,terroristsarecomplexactorsthatmaysimultaneouslyinhabit
multiple identities 104 ‐ terrorist and drug trafficker, terrorist and freedom fighter,
terroristandrevolutionary,Marxistandnationalist–butattheircoreallthegroups
featured in this article all have one thing in common: they are prepared to
indiscriminatelyandviolentlytargetciviliansforpoliticalgain.
Thefourstrainsdifferfundamentallyinideology.Someoftheorganizationscitedin
thisarticleusedterrorismasoneofseveraltactics,butformany,terrorismbecame
theircentral,definingcharacteristic:astrategythatdefinedwhattheirgoalswereand
howtheseweretobeachieved.Thereisampleevidencethattheyhavelearnedfrom
eachother.Judgingbywhattheterroriststhemselvesclaim,contagion(orlearning)
seemstohavebeensomewhatstrongerwithineachstrainthanacrossstrains.Butit
mustalsobeacknowledgedthatinmanycasesideasjumpedacrossbothgenerations
andideologies.
All four strains have proven resilient, despite the ideological and technological
revolutionsoftheTwentiethandTwenty‐FirstCenturies.Today,insomerespects,
thesocialandpoliticalspaceinwhichtooperateasaterroristactorisshrinking.For
example, emerging technologies like facial recognition, social media, robotics,
predictivealgorithms,artificialintelligence,andgeneticmarkingwillmakeitharder
andharderforindividualsorsmallgroupstooperateoffthegrid.Inotherrespects,
withtheriseoffailedstatesandthe“feralcities”thatcounterinsurgencyexpertDavid
Kilcullen warns of in Out of the Mountains, their space to operate might be
increasing. 105 The question about the future threat of terrorism is not so much
whetherandwhenanewwavemightemerge,ashowchanginggeopolitics,ideology
andtechnologymightaffecteachofthefourstrainsandwhethertheymightmutate
intonewformsofpoliticalviolence.
27
1Thearticleappearedinthreeversions:DavidC.Rapoport,“TheFourthWave:September11andthe
HistoryofTerrorism,”CurrentHistory,100,no.650(2001)419‐424;“TheFourWavesofRebel
TerrorandSeptember11”,Anthropoetics8,no.1(2002);“TheFourWavesofModernTerrorism”,in
AudreyKurthCroninandJamesLudes(eds.),AttackingTerrorism:ElementsofaGrandStrategy
(WashingtonDC:GeorgetownUniversityPress;2004).46‐73.
2Seee.g.DavidC.Rapoport,“TheFourWavesofModernTerrorism”,inJohnHorganandKurt
Braddock(eds),TerrorismStudies:AReader(London:Routledge:2012).
3SamuelP.Huntington,TheThirdWave:DemocratizationintheLateTwentiethCentury,(Norman:
UniversityofOklahomaPress:1991);“Democracy’sThirdWave”JournalofDemocracy,2,no.2
(1991),12‐34.
4SeealsoRapoport’searlierworkalongsimilarlines:DavidC.Rapoport,“Introduction”,Journalof
StrategicStudies,10,no.4(1987),1‐10;and“SacredTerror:AContemporaryExamplefromIslam”,
inWalterReich(ed.),OriginsofTerrorism:Psychologies,Ideologies,Theologies,StateofMind
(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1990).
5Rapoport,“TheFourWavesofModernTerrorism”(seenote1above),47.
6LindsayClutterbuckwasoneofthefirsttorefutethisargumentbyoutliningthecriticalroleplayed
byIrishnationalistgroupslikeClanNaGaelandTheSkirmishersinthedevelopmentofterrorist
practiceinthenineteenthcentury.SeeLindsayClutterbuck,“TheProgenitorsofTerrorism:Russian
RevolutionariesorExtremeIrishRepublicans?”,JournalofTerrorismandPoliticalViolence,16:1
(2004),154‐181.
7Rapoport,““TheFourWavesofModernTerrorism”(seenote1above),47.
8Rapoport,“TheFourWavesofModernTerrorism”(seenote1above),47.
9Rapoport,“TheFourWavesofModernTerrorism”(seenote1above),48.
10DianeStone,“TransferandTranslationofPolicy”,PolicyStudies,33,no.6(November2012),483‐
499.
11BarbaraLevittandJames.G.March,“OrganizationalLearning”,AnnualReviewofSociology,14
(1988),319‐340;James.G.March,“ExplorationandExploitationinOrganizationalLearning,
OrganizationScience,2,no.1(1991),SpecialIssue:OrganizationalLearning:PapersinHonorof(and
by)JamesG.March,71‐87.
12SeeRobertWinthrop,DictionaryofConceptsinCulturalAnthropology(NewYork:Greenwood,
1991)andEverettRogers,DiffusionofInnovations(NewYork:FreePress,2003).
13MauriceDuverger,PoliticalParties:TheirOrganizationandActivityintheModernState(London:
Methuen,1954).
14RichardS.KatzandPeterMair(eds):HowPartiesOrganize:ChangeandAdaptationinParty
OrganizationsinWesternDemocracies,(London:Sage,1995).
15SeePeterWaldmann,“Social‐revolutionaryterrorisminLatinAmericaandEurope”,inToreBjørgo
(ed.),RootCausesofTerrorism:Myth,realityandwaysforward(London:Routledge,2005).Seealso
ManusMidlarsky,MarthaCrenshawandFumihikoYoshida,“WhyViolenceSpreads:TheContagionof
InternationalTerrorism”,InternationalStudiesQuarterly,24,no.2(June1980),262‐298.
16NikolaiMorozov,TheTerroristStruggle(1880),republishedinWalterLaqueur(ed.),Voicesof
Terror:Manifestos,WritingsandManualsofAlQaeda,Hamas,andotherTerroristsfromaroundthe
worldandThroughouttheAges(NapervilleIll.:ReedPress,2004),81
17MarieFleming,“Propagandabythedeed:Terrorismandanarchisttheoryinlatenineteenth‐
centuryEurope”,StudiesinConflict&Terrorism,4,no.1‐4(1980),1‐23
18DavidC.Rapoport,“TheFourWavesofModernTerrorism”(seenote1above),52
19Huntington,“Democracy’sThirdWave”(seenote3above),13.
20NickSitterandTomParker,“FightingFirewithWater:NGOandCounter‐TerrorismPolicyTools”,
GlobalPolicy,5,no.2(2014)159‐168.
21PaulJ.DiMaggio&WalterW.Powell,"Theironcagerevisited"institutionalisomorphismand
collectiverationalityinorganizationalfields",AmericanSociologicalReview,48(1983),147‐60.
28
22PeterHart,TheI.R.A.atWar1916‐1923(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2003);Lindsay
Clutterbuck“TheProgenitorsofTerrorism”(seenote6above);CharlesTownshend,“TheIrish
RepublicanArmyandtheDevelopmentofGuerillaWarfare,1916‐1921”,TheEnglishHistorical
Review,94,no.371(1979),318‐345;CharlesTownshend,TheRepublic:TheFightforIrish
Independence,(AllenLane,2013).
23TimPatCoogan,MichaelCollins:ABiography,(London:ArrowBooks,1991)13.
24T.RyleDwyer,TheSquadandtheIntelligenceOperationsofMichaelCollins(Dublin:Mercier,2005),
65
25K.R.M.Short,TheDynamiteWar:Irish‐AmericanBombersinVictorianBritain(Dublin:Gilland
Macmillan,1979),47
26ScottMiller,ThePresidentandtheAssassin:McKinley,Terror,andEmpireattheDawnofthe
AmericanCentury(NewYork:RandomHouse,2011),6.
27BernardineDohrn,DeclarationofaStateofWar,TheBerkeleyTribe,31July1970at
http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/pacificaviet/scheertranscript.html(accessed26July2015)
28OttoBillig,“TheLawyerTerroristandHisComrades”,PoliticalPsychology,6,no.1(March1985),
32.
29GeorgeKassimeris,InsideGreekTerrorism(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress;2013),33
30PaulAvrich,AnarchistPortraits(PrincetonNJ:PrincetonUniversityPress;1988),13
31PeterHeehs,“TerrorisminIndiaduringtheFreedomStruggle”,TheHistorian,55,no.3(Spring
1993),469–482,474
32ChristopherCradockandM.L.R.Smith,“NoFixedValues:AReinterpretationoftheInfluenceofthe
TheoryofGuerreRévolutionnaireandtheBattleofAlgiers1956‐1957”,JournalofColdWarStudies,
9,no.4(Fall2007),68‐105,80‐81
33AbuIyad,PalestiniensansPatrie:EntretiensavecÉricRouleau,(Paris:Fayolle1978),64.
34JarretBrachmanandWilliamMcCants,“StealingAlQaeda'sPlaybook”,StudiesinConflictand
Terrorism,29,no.4(June2006),309‐321.
35JohnCalvert,SayyidQutbandtheOriginsofRadicalIslamism(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversity
Press;2010),122.
36TonyWalkerandAndewGowers:Arafat:TheBiography(London:VirginBooks,2003),33‐34.
37MarthaCrenshaw,“TheEffectivenessofTerrorismintheAlgerianWar”,inMarthaCrenshaw(ed.)
TerrorisminContext(UniversityPark,PA:PennsylvaniaStateUniversityPress,1995),474
38AmiPedahzur,TheIsraeliSecretServicesandtheStruggleAgainstTerrorism(NewYork,NY:
ColumbiaStudiesinTerrorismandIrregularWarfare,2009),38
39MiaBloom,DyingtoKill:TheAllureofSuicideTerror(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2005),
122.
40Ibid,123.
41JeffreyWilliamLewis,TheBusinessofMartyrdom:AHistoryofSuicideBombing(Annapolis,MD:
NavalInstitutePress,2012),158.
42LindsayClutterbuck,“TheProgenitorsofTerrorism”(seenote6above).
43JohnGrady,TheConfederateTorpedo,Opinionator,TheNewYorkTimes,15August2014
44Thefirstcableonlyfunctionedforthreeweeksandwasnotsuccessfullyreplaceduntil1866
45AndrewMarr,MyTrade:AShortHistoryofBritishJournalism(London:PanBooks,2005),15
46PhilipMeggs,AHistoryofGraphicDesign(NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons,1998),147.
47KarlHeinzen,MurderandFreedom(NewYork:1853)reproducedinDanielBessnerandMichael
Stauch,“KarlHeinzenandtheIntellectualOriginsofModernTerror”,TerrorismandPoliticalViolence,
22,no.2(2010),143–176.
48PaulBrousse,"Lapropagandeparlefait",BulletindelaFédérationJurassienne,August1877.
49Frenchtranslationofthetrialtranscript,AlbertMousset,UnDrameHistorique:L’Attentatde
Sarajevo:documentsinéditsettexteintégraledessténogrammesduprocés(Paris:Payoy,1930),115.
50 Nunzio Pernicone, “Luigi Galleani and Italian Anarchist Terrorism in the United States”, Studi
Emigrazione,30,no.111(September1993),469‐489,470
51MarcoPinfari,“ExploringtheTerroristNatureofPoliticalAssassinations:AReinterpretationofthe
OrsiniAttentat”,TerrorismandPoliticalViolence,21,no.4(2009),580‐594,585.
52DavidGeorge,“DistinguishingClassicalTyrannicidefromModernTerrorism”,The
29
ReviewofPolitics50,no.3(Summer1988),391–396;MarcoPinfari,“ExploringtheTerroristNature
ofPoliticalAssassinations”.
53NiallWhelehan,TheDynamiters:IrishNationalismandPoliticalViolenceintheWiderWorld1867‐
1900(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2012),77;Clutterbuck“TheProgenitorsof
Terrorism”(seenote6above),162‐163.
54Short,TheDynamiteWar(seenote25above),38.
55Ibid,162and229.
56YitzhakShamir,SummingUp:AnAutobiography(London:Widenfeld&Nicholson,1994),8..
57RichardEnglish,IrishFreedom:TheHistoryofNationalisminIreland(London:Macmillan2006).
58BruceHoffmann,AnonymousSoldiers:TheStruggleforIsrael1917–1947(NewYork:AlfredA.
Knopf,2015);DavidFrench,FightingEOKA:TheBritishCounter‐InsurgencyCampaignonCyprus,
1955‐1959(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2015);YezidSayigh,ArmedStruggleandtheSearchfor
State:ThePalestinianNationalMovement,1949‐1993(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1997).
59DanielBessnerandMichaelStauch,“KarlHeinzenandtheIntellectualOriginsofModernTerror”,
152
60Ibid,150‐151.
61DeborahHardy,LandandFreedom:TheOriginsofRussianTerrorsim,1976‐1979,(NewYork:
GreenwoodPress,1987),chapter5.
62RichardBachJensen,TheBattleAgainstAnarchistTerrorism:AnInternationalHistory,1878‐1934,
(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2014),26.
63FromMaytoSeptember1928BhagatSinghpublishedaseriesofarticleshehadwrittenon
anarchistthoughtinKirti,thejournaloftheKirtiKisanParty
64KuldipNayar,TheMartyr:BhagatSinghExperimentsinRevolution(NewDelhi:Har‐Anand
Publications,2000),70‐73.
65PhilipPomper,“RussianRevolutionaryTerrorism”inMarthaCrenshaw(ed.),TerrorisminContext,
(Universitypark,PA:PennsylvaniaStateUniversity,1995),89‐99.
66AnnaGeifman,RevolutionaryTerrorisminRussia,1894‐1917(PrincetonNJ:PrincetonUniversity
Press,1993),chapter8andtheepilogue.
67KevinMcDermott,“StalinistTerrorintheComintern:NewPerspectives”,JournalofContemporary
History,30,no.1(1995),111‐130;WilliamJ.Chase,EnemieswithintheGates?TheCominternandthe
StalinistRepression,1934–1939(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,2001).
68MichaelRyan,DecodingAlQaeda’sStrategy:TheDeepBattleAgainstAmerica(NewYork:Columbia
UniversityPress,2013),4‐5.
69ETA’srevolutionarysocialiststrandcametodominatetheorganization,butitsfounderslookedto
bothMarxist(CubaandVietnam)andnationalist(Ireland,Cyprus,thePalestinianMandate)
examplesforinspiration.TeresaWhitfield,EndgameforETA:ElusivePeaceintheBasqueCountry
(London:Hurst&Co,2014),40‐42.
70ReportedbyGeorge.A.Crawford,inalettertoEliThayer,4.August1879,publishedasan
appendixinG.W.Brown,ReminiscencesofOldJohnBrown:ThrillingIncidentsofBorderLifein
Kansas(Rockford,IL:AbrahamE.Smith,1880).
71MaxBoot,InvisibleArmies:AnEpicHistoryofGuerrillaWarfarefromAncientTimestothePresent
(NewYorkLiveright,2013),214
72Ibid,217
73KenChowder,“TheFatherofAmericanTerrorism”,AmericanHeritage,51,no.1(February/March
2000),68‐79.
74WalterLaqueur,Terrorism(London:WidenfeldandNicholson,1977),33‐38.
75JeffreyWilliamLewis,TheBusinessofMartyrdom,125
76MiaBloomandJohnHorgan,“MissingTheirMark:TheIRA’sProxyBombCampaign”,inMichaelA.
InnesandWilliamBanks(eds.),MakingSenseofProxyWars:States,Surrogates&theUseofForce
(Dulles,VA:PotomacBooks,2012),39
77Chowder,“TheFatherofAmericanTerrorism”(seenote73above).
78RichardMitchell,TheSocietyoftheMuslimBrothers(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1969),206‐
207.
30
79Ibid,58‐62
80Hasanal‐Banna,FiveTractsofHasanal‐Banna(1906‐1949):ASelectionfromtheMajmu'atRasa'il
al‐Imamal‐Shahid,(Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliformiaPress,1978).
81RichardMitchell,TheSocietyoftheMuslimBrothers,67and70‐71
82SayyidQutb,Milestones(Daral‐lim;2007),47‐48;JohnCalvert,SayyidQutbandtheOriginsof
RadicalIslamism(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress;2010),225
83JohnCalvert,SayyidQutbandtheOriginsofRadicalIslamism(seenote82above),225.
84Ibid,3and265.
85N.C.AsthanaandAnjaliNirmal,UrbanTerrorism:MythsAndRealities(Jaipur:PointerPublishers,
2009),117
86Calvert,SayyidQutbandtheOriginsofRadicalIslamism(seenote83above),223.
87NaimQassem,Hizbullah:TheStoryfromWithin(London:Saqi,2007),165.
88Rapoport,“SacredTerror”(seenote4above),103‐104;AmiPedahzurandAriePerliger,Jewish
TerrorisminIsrael(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2009).
89WilliamA.Tidwell,April’65:ConfederateCovertActionintheAmericanCivilWar(Kent,Ohio:Kent
StateUniversityPress;1995),206‐212.
90SeeAllenTrelease,WhiteTerror:TheKuKluxKlanConspiracyandSouthernReconstruction(Baton
Rouge:LouisianaStateUniversityPress,1971),3‐27.
91DavidC.Rapoport,“Beforethebombstherewerethemobs:Americanexperienceswithterror”,in
JeanRosenfeld(ed.),Terrorism,IdentityandLegitimacy:TheFourWavestheoryandpoliticalviolence
(London:Routledge,2011),151.
92JamesM.LutzandBrendaJ.Lutz,GlobalTerrorism(London:Routledge,2004),171‐174.
93LaqueurTerrorism(seenote74above),95‐96.
94MartinEvans,Algeria:France’sUndeclaredWar(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress),2012,chapter9.
95MichaelBurleigh,SmallWars,FarawayPlaces:TheGenesisoftheModernWorld:1945‐65(London:
Macmillan,2013),329.
96DonatellaDellaPorta,InstitutionalResponsestoTerrorism:TheItalianCase,inAlexP.Schmidand
RonaldD.Crelinsten(eds)WesternResponsestoTerrorism(London:FrankCass,1993).Seealso
AnnaCentoBull,ItalianNeofascism:TheStrategyofTensionandthePoliticsofNonreconciliation
(Oxford:BerghahnBooks,2011).
97ClaireSterling,TheTerrorNetwork:TheSecretWarofInternationalTerrorism(NewYork,NY:Holt,
RinehartandWinston;1981),1
98HeidiBeirichetal,TerrorFromtheRight(Montgomery,AL:SouthernPovertyLawCenter,2012)
99WalterGriffin,“‘Dirtybomb’partsfoundinslainman’shome”,BangorDailyNews,10February
2009,http://bangordailynews.com/2009/02/10/politics/report‐dirty‐bomb‐parts‐found‐in‐slain‐
mans‐home/accessed26July2015
100GeorgeMichael,LoneWolfTerrorandtheRiseofLeaderlessResistance(Nashville,TN:Vanderbilt
UniversityPress,2012),39‐41,111.
101DougStanglinandMelanieEversley,SuspectinCharlestonchurchrampagereturnstoSouth
Carolina,USAToday,19June2015.
102NOU2012:14,Rapportfra22.juli‐kommisjonen(Oslo:Departementenesservicesenter,2012).
103JessicaStern,“TheProteanEnemy”,ForeignAffairs,82,no.4(July/August2003),27‐40.
104Rapoport,“Beforethebombstherewerethemobs”(seenote91above).
105DavidKilcullen,OutoftheMountains:TheComingAgeoftheUrbanGuerrilla(Oxford:Oxford
UniversityPress,2013).