Forests for all
life in Lagantum
Forests for all
A question
of rights and
equity
Fuel depot
Table of contents
4 Community Forestry, key facts
Avalanche barrier
Small groups – great changes 5
Air conditioner
A threatened treasure 8
6 Green life REDD alert 12
Carbon store
Larder
10 The forest came back to Lagantum
14 The water of life
22 Whose forest?
32 Partners
2
Forests for All
Front page: Primary forest is still disappearing at an alarming
rate, mainly in the Tropics as here in Brazil. Photo: Roberto Faidutti
Layout: Mette Schou, Gipsy Graphics
Published by Brandbjerg Folk High School, Danish Forestry Extension
and CARE Danmark with support from Danida
Upstream, downstream 16
Equal rights, equitable economy 26
Landslide defence
Recommendations 30
Acknowledgements:
This report has been prepared by Susanne Sayers but several people have been involved. First and foremost
Flemming Sehested from the Danish Forestry Extension and Jesper Saxgren from the Brandbjerg Folk High
School. Both have offered invaluable advice and knowledge. And this report would not have been possible
without the joint efforts and valuable input, feedback and suggestions from Maria Ploug Petersen,
Søren Engberg, Line Gamrath Rasmussen, Chiranjibi Adhikari, Prasad Chhetry, Thabit Masoud, Raja Jarrah,
Rolf Hernø from CARE as well as Jens Friis Lund (LIFE), Tom Blomley (Acacia Natural Resource Consultants)
and Popular Gentle (Charles Sturt University).'Forests for all' incorporates facts and results from a large
number of scientific studies. A full list of literature can be found at www.care.dk/forestreport
Water filter
Pharmacy
timber supply
Photo: Jim Ball
3
Forests for All
Forests for all
Forests for all
Community Forestry, Key facts
foreword
Community forestry refers to the management of forest lands
and natural resources by local people, for commercial and
non-commercial purposes. It includes the use of the forest
resources by local people as well as the community management of the forests. The individual may use the forest but
the community decides on which conditions.
Community forestry has existed for
millennia. However, as a development
strategy it took off in the late 1970's as a
response to deforestation and a fuelwood
crisis that had a negative impact on the
livelihoods of the poor and very poor.
Source: Nurse and Malla 2005
Several studies have shown that community forestry, when used to its
full capacity, is superior to other methods of natural resource management. Money and benefits are reinvested into the local communities,
for instance improving schools, health or creating new enterprises
and new jobs. At the same time community based management has
a positive impact on the environment, including less deforestation,
better water supplies, better biodiversity and improved protection from
landslides. In other words, community forestry can improve production,
improve livelihoods and improve the environment at the same time.
Source: Community-based forest enterprises in tropical forest countries, Instituto del bien Común, Peru, 2007
It is unknown exactly how much forest and forest
management has been transferred to forest user groups.
However, in Nepal alone during the last three decades,
1.2 million hectares of forest have been transferred to
community management, and community forestry has
gained popularity in a growing number of countries.
Source: Community Forest Management, background paper for the UNFF9, 2011
4
Forests for All
Small communities
– great change
We have a global challenge: We need to increase the amount of food, water
and energy available in a dramatic way within the next few decades. At the
same time we need to preserve and restore our natural resources which
have been severely depleted.
Goal 3:
That challenge needs global decisions, but the decisions could be futile and even damaging if they do
not put priority to what this really comes down to: This is about people. We should not accept proposals
that are not founded in that simple fact.
Our obligation is to strive to make life better for all, not for a chosen few or even a chosen many.
Fortunately, this can be done. One key to achieving both an increase in productivity and a better environment is empowering local communities and letting them manage the natural resources. Community
forestry has worked in a number of countries for several decades now, and the results prove that small
communities can make great change happen.
Actually, each and every one of the UN Millennium Development Goals can be advanced by community
forestry, because well-functioning community forestry makes the necessary resources available to all,
including those that need them the most: the poorest.
Goal 1:
Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger.
Forests contribute as much as 50 per cent of all income, cash and non-cash, to the rural poor and very
poor. Non-cash income includes collecting fodder for livestock, fuelwood, gathering food, medicine
and fibre for cloth and thatch. Community forestry secures access and ensures availability of the forest
products to those dependent on them.
Goal 2:
Achieve universal primary education.
Sales of forest products generate income that can be used for school fees, school uniforms or bus fares.
Community forestry ensures availability of forest products, organises sales, and forest user groups could
decide to use the income on building schools.
Goal 4 and 5:
• It should protect and improve the forests as natural habitats for many species. Biodiversity is vital for
a number of reasons.
• It should ensure that the benefits from protecting the forests will be shared equitably. Not only should
benefits be shared vertically from the top and downwards – for instance from government level to
local communities – but horizontally within a community as well, so that not just the already privileged
benefit and the poorest are left out.
• It should ensure the full and effective participation of relevant stakeholders, in particular indigenous
peoples and local communities.
• It should ensure that all decisions are based on free, prior and informed consent from relevant stakeholders.
Goal 6:
This report shows how this can be achieved through community forestry and the dangers to be avoided
in the process. It gives examples of how communities can become involved and make forest management a success. The report will take you to the plains and hillsides of Nepal where community forestry
has brought back the forests in large areas. Local communities have been empowered and overcome
old stigmas based on gender and social status, and new jobs have been created.
Promote gender equality and empower women
Girls and boys are more likely to attend school when forest incomes help women to find cash for fees
and uniforms. Women participate in managing natural resources, which can give them status and an
access to power on equal terms with the men. And when wood for fuel, food and fodder is close by,
women and girls have more time to spend on other activities such as education.
Reduce child mortality and improve maternal health
Mothers and children get improved acces to good quality foods, to forest medicines and the money to
buy food and pay for medical treatments as a result of using the forest. Sales of forest products contribute directly and indirectly to the meeting of these goals.
Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases
Resistance to disease is linked to overall health and nutritional status which improves access to forest
products and income from sales. Acces to medicinal plants can help combat a variety of diseases.
Goal 7:
Ensure environmental stability
Forest user groups invest in and enrich their forests for the benefit of all. The overall quality of the forests
are improved with for instance richer biodiversity, greater resilience, cleaner water and less deforestation.
Community forestry protects the resources and encourages natural regeneration. When livelihoods are
improved in rural areas, it is less likely that the poorest move to cities, which could indirectly help achieve
the target of improving lives in the urban slums.
The report discusses who has the right to the benefits of the forest, and how those benefits can be
shared by all, not just the elite. The report will also point out that the current buzz about a green economy
needs to be replaced with the demand for an equitable green economy.
The report is kept in fairly simple terms, and it is aimed mainly at journalists and decision makers with
a basic knowledge of forests and natural resource management. Those eager to get into more specific
details will find a link to the relevant literature at the back.
Source: Community Forest Management, background paper for the UNFF9, 2011, and B.K. Pokharel '
From degradation to restoration: An assessment of the enabling conditions for community forestry in Nepal', 2006
The first part of the report is dedicated to explaining why forests are important, what drives deforestation
and gives you an example of how getting a forest back has improved the livelihood in a small Nepalese
community.
And so this report stresses how people can manage forests and other natural resources to the benefit
of themselves and eventually the whole planet.
After this follows three chapters, showcasing what can be achieved and how to achieve it. Each chapter
will be initiated with a short summary and finished with a short conclusion.
Any sustainable solution should achieve the following:
• It should stop deforestation and aim to increase the amount of forests around the World.
At the end you will find the recommendations from the organisations behind the report, and we will, of
course, be happy to elaborate our views and points.
5
Forests for All
Forests for all
Forests for all
Green life
green life
Green life
It is no coincidence that in most cultures our oldest myths have trees at their centre. Trees have become symbolic with life itself, and life on Earth would be very different if forests did not cover large areas of our planet.
Recently the concern for the forests of the world has been driven by the fear of climate change. Forests
are carbon stores, and they are vital when it comes to regulating the climate. But forest are so much
more than that.
Protection
Fuel
More
than
2 billion poor people
Used sustainably wood is a renewable, carbon neutral source of fuel and heating. Especially in developing countries wood is still the absolutely most important source of energy. In many places it is practically
the only source.
Timber
in developing countries
The forest provides local communities with building materials and frequently a living from selling the
timber or running a sawmill.
Fodder
Food
Forests provide the local inhabitants with fruits and nuts and vegetables, edible sprouts and herbs. But
a healthy forest is also home to animals that can be hunted and used for food and furs. Bees and other
pollinators increase the yield from crops close to the forest.
Forests are home to a huge number of plants that serve as a local pharmacy, curing diseases and
easing pain. More than 35,000 plant species are being used around the world for medicinal purposes.
As an example of importance, medicinal plants are used by more than 4,000 ethnic communities
accounting for about 70 per cent of rural health care.
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Forests for All
Mangrove forests are disappearing
quickly but there is a growing awareness
of their importance, and several countries
are now hosting programmes to bring
them back, such as here in Tanzania.
Fauzia Said Sleiman is one of the many
volunteers that plant and take care of the
mangroves. Photo: Evelyn Hockstein
Forests soils can store and transmit large quantities of water. At the same time the roots serve as a
biological filter that can purify the water, absorbing impurities. And the protection forests offer against
mud and landslides also helps keep the water free from sediments.
depend on
primary
Household items
source of energy
Medicine
Clean water
Carbon sink
wood as their
Forests provide fodder for livestock. It can be the undergrowth, young twigs and branches or fruits and
nuts. Livestock is often a considerable proportion of the total income of small-scale farmer households,
and a primary source of protein. In some areas up to 90 per cent of the fodder supply may come from
trees and undergrowth.
Landslides, avalanches and floods are a threat to many communities, especially in the developing world.
Forests are efficient barriers and offer valuable protection. This can mean the difference between life
and death for the inhabitants, and forests can save farming fields and livestock from destruction.
Trees store carbon, and the vast, but decreasing, tropical forests of South America and Central Africa
help regulate the climate. The exact amount of carbon that trees store is being debated, but some studies estimate that tropical forests absorb about 18 per cent of all carbon dioxide added by fossil fuels.
Leaves and grasses can be weaved into baskets, wood can be shaped to serve as basins, tools, bowls
and plates, plant fibres can be made into strong ropes or even used for cloth etc.
Recreation
Forests are beneficial for mental health, and ecotourism is gaining more and more interest. Areas of
natural beauty, such as forests, could provide local communities with an income.
Culture
Apart from the practical and economic importance forests have several immaterial values, such as
being the centre of cultures all over the World. They have historical, cultural and frequently religious
significance. Traces of the past are preserved better in the forest than in farmland.
7
Forests for All
Forests for all
Forests for all
Drivers of deforestation
Drivers of deforestation
A threatened treasure
Deforestation and forest degradation have severe consequences, locally and
globally. Locally it could mean lack of shelter, firewood, fodder, sufficient
drinking water, food and protection from mudslides, landslides and floods.
Deforestation almost always means increased poverty for the already poor
and most vulnerable.
But the consequences could reach much further. Take away the Worlds' largest tropical forest, the Amazon, and you would probably take away half the rain that falls on Brazil, some scientists estimate. That
could change weather patterns perhaps as far away as Europe. The Amazon, once labelled 'the lungs of
the world', now probably consumes more oxygen than it produces, as farmers and loggers, both legal
and illegal, clear away the forest, releasing carbon into the atmosphere as the trees fall to rampant blazes.
As huge amounts of the forest disappears the rest become less resilient. In a tropical rainforest like
the Amazon a forest fire would usually be a rare and limited occurrence. Except for the fringes, the
forest would be too moist to feed a big fire. But now the forest is fragmented, large parts have been
cleared, and much of the forest is becoming drier and so more likely to catch fire. The heavy smoke
from the giant forest fires means less
rainfall and higher ground temperatures which makes the forest even drier
which again increases the risk of fires,
forest the size of an American destroying more trees and so forth in
a vicious circle. Carbon emissions from
forest destruction could contribute significantly to global warming, and the
fragmentation of the forests harm biodiversity severely, damaging their ability
to act like gene pools.
Every two seconds
a
football stadium
disappears
due to illegal logging
Source: FAO
So what drives deforestation? There is
no single answer and so no single solution but these are some of the factors:
• Logging and trade. Logging, frequently illegal, is responsible for an unprecedented mass destruction
of forests. The World Bank estimates that illegal logging in some countries accounts for as much
as 90 per cent of all logging and generates approximately US$10–15 billion annually in criminal
proceeds. The illegal timber industry is usually linked to corruption and highly organized criminal networks. The trade is international with much of the demand for the wood coming from the industrialized
countries and the BRIC countries.
8
Forests for All
• Mining and other exploitation. Sometimes forests cover areas
that are coveted for their minerals, metals, oil or gas depots.
• Infrastructure. New settlements, logging sites, farmlands require roads. Large amounts of forests are cleared to make
way for the infrastructure, and the improved access makes
logging easier and more profitable.
• Farming. Farmers clear large areas to make way for cattle
farming, soy, palm oil and other agricultural products, often
in international demand. The steep increase in food prices
increases the immediate profit.
North America:
There is a slight increase in the
forest area, both planted and
primary. The region accounts
for about 25 per cent of the
World's primary forest.
• Urbanization. It may sound illogical but the increasing urbanization has become a major driver of deforestation, studies
have shown. The population in cities tend to eat more, and
they eat more processed food than rural populations, which
increases the demand for agricultural products. Forest is
cleared to meet the demand, and at the same time city
populations do not directly feel the consequences.
• Climate change. As the weather patterns change, forests
are affected. Too much precipitation, too little, rising temperatures, gales – all this could increase the vulnerability
of the forests.
• Shrimp farms. The rapidly expanding shrimp aquaculture
industry threatens the remaining mangrove forests and the
communities they support. In the process the local residents are being displaced and impoverished, and as the
valuable mangrove barrier against floods disappears, the
coastal towns and farmlands become more vulnerable to
floods and tsunamis.
• Tourism. While the increased demand for ecotourism could
be a driver of forest conservation, tourism is a threat in
many coastal communities. Mangrove forests are removed
to make way for sandy beaches, golf courses, cruise ports,
marinas, hotels and other tourist facilities.
The state of the forests
Since 1990 the World has lost an
alarming 13,500,000 hectares of
forest every year – or the equivalent
of a nation the size of Greece annually,
mainly in South America and Africa.
However, the speed of the decline
is slowing, and in some continents
there is an increase in the amount of
area covered by forest. Some of the
regained territory is not an adequate
replacement of the primary forest
felled as monocultural plantations
are frequently inferior to a natural old
growth forest as resilient habitats. But
still there are multiple good examples
to learn from.
My Watershed, Honduras
Poor rural communities in El Salvador,
Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua
reduce their vulnerability to waterrelated shocks and improve their
quality of life by improving watershed
management. Quantity of water for
productive use is increased in project
watersheds; and communities' abilities
to manage, conserve and rehabilitate
natural resources such as forests in
watersheds are enhanced.
South & Latin America:
South America is home to more
than half of all the primary forest
in the World, but it is still declining, and the overall forest area is
decreasing, though at a slower
speed than in previous decades.
Europe:
Europe is the continent with
the biggest forest area, mainly
because of the vast forests of
Russia, which make up more
than 80 per cent of all European
forest. The area is growing in
spite of a minor decrease in the
Russian forest area.
Climate resilience, Nepal
Climate change and deforestation
are causing natural disasters in
Nepal. At the same time nearly half
the population live below the poverty
line, and gender inequality is a big
issue. CARE is working with local
organisations to manage natural
resources in a way that is resilient
to climate change and sustainable
socially and economically as well as
environmentally.
Asia/Pacific:
The amount of forest has
increased significantly, mainly
thanks to reforestation projects
in several countries. There is still
a loss of primary forest, though.
Africa:
There is still a net forest loss, but
the speed is slowing. More forest is now being planted, especially in the North and the West,
and more forest is protected.
Sustainable forestry, Ghana
More than 70 per cent of the population depend on the country's natural
resources for their daily supplies of
food, water, energy and medicine.
CARE is working with local organisations on empowering the population
in their role in developing sustainable
agriculture and forestry and to secure
the rights – in law and in practice – of
poor population groups to land and
natural resources
Reforestation, Tanzania
Short-sighted economic interests
have caused massive deforestation
in Tanzania. The forest dependent
population is frequently poor and
marginalised. CARE projects in
Tanzania aim at improving the livelihoods of the poorest while protecting the forests. One way is making
companies pay small scale farmers
for taking care of the environment.
Mangrove reforestation, Vietnam
Mangroves are hardy coast guards, protecting villages, live stock, farmland and
people against floods and tidal waves.
A belt of mangroves just 200 meters
wide can dissipate 75 per cent of the
energy in a wave. In Vietnam Care
works with the local population to bring
back the mangroves. It can pay off.
For every dollar spent on planting
mangroves, the local community saves
130 dollars in constructing concrete dikes.
9
Forests for All
Forests for all
Topali
Lamsal
happy that the forest
life
inisLagantum
has returned to her village, Lagantum.
It makes life easier, and it has given
the village a source of income.
Photo: Søren Rud
Forests for all
life in Lagantum
“I used to be afraid all the time. Now I'm not afraid anymore.”
Topali Lamsal has taken a break from her chores to talk about how life in Lagantum has changed.
Lagantum is a small village in the Middle Hills of Nepal, and to the passing visitor it will seem unremarkable, looking like so many other villages. The houses are simple and surrounded by the mosaic of
terraced rice paddies, fields, fluttering butterflies, giant sprouts of bamboo and verdant trees. Green in a
multitude of shades and hues dominate the landscape.
The lushness, however, is a recent thing. Back in the 80's Nepal's Middle Hills were almost stripped
bare. And this is the time that Topali Lamsal remembers with dread.
“We had landslides. There were no trees left to brake the slides, and so we had no protection. People
would die in a landslide, or we would lose our fields and crops. When it rained, I was afraid,” she explains.
A better life in Lagantum
A forest can mean a world of difference. Life in Lagantum, Nepal,
changed for the better in a number
of ways when the whole village pulled
together to bring back the wilderness. The new forest means protection, easier access to food, fodder
and fuelwood, and as the water has
become cleaner it is now a source of
income. The forest user group decide
how to distribute the new wealth.
Barbed wire
The Nepalese government was well aware that forest deprivation was a severe problem. It tried to solve
it by fencing off the forests to prevent people from felling the trees. Barbed wire was used, and armed
guards were authorised to kill trespassers if necessary.
The government had little success. People in the densely populated Middle Hills of Nepal depend on
wood. 90 per cent of all fuel is still firewood, wood for timber as well as fodder for livestock. It was
impossible to keep people out, even when their lives were threatened by going into the forest.
In 1993 the government handed over the right to manage the forests to forest user groups in community forestry. Projects supported by NGOs and donor countries helped the villagers. Managing the forest
in a fair and democratic way was a challenge. Several studies based on experience from other parts
of Nepal had shown, that though all benefited from community forestry, the already well-to-do usually
benefitted more than the poor, even when they put in the same amount of work.
In Lagantum a democratic council was established, and everyone has a right to participate, regardless of
caste or gender. The council decides what to plant, how to distribute income from community forestry,
how much wood each villager can take etc. It is voluntary to participate in the management of the forest. However, you only receive the rights to collect firewood and other benefits if you do your share of
managing the forest, and that means that everyone participates or make certain to send a replacement
if they cannot make it themselves.
But managing the forest in a cooperation has given both the women and the Dalits their say.
Many benefits
The result is very visible, the forest is thriving and healthy, and looking over the valley down to the local
river it is almost impossible to imagine that just a few years back the hillsides were barren.
“Life is easier now,” Topali Lamsal explains.
“Before we sometimes had to walk very far to get the wood we needed. Now it is all around us. Farm-
10
Forests for All
ing is better because the soil is not swept away during heavy rainfalls. The wildlife has come back, so
the men can hunt. Unfortunately, the monkeys are back as well, and they can be a pest,” she adds
with feeling.
Bringing the forest back has had unexpected benefits as well as the most obvious. One of them is the
local river. The water is now purer, because the trees work as a root zone system cleaning the water,
and the forest slows the flow, so there is less sedimentation. In fact the water is so pure that the village
make money from bottling it and selling it to those who pass by.
And then there is the more invisible side effects. Caste and gender still remain sensitive subjects in Nepal, especially in rural districts, even if discrimination is against the law. The Dalit people traditionally have
no rights and are considered too lowly to even address. Women live a hard life, and through all castes
they are commonly considered worth less
than men. They are paid less, even when
they work harder, and they are not put
through education as frequently as men.
Forests in Nepal have been battlegrounds in more
ways than one. One of the reasons why many
But managing the forest in a cooperaonce forested areas of Nepal became barren
tion have given both the women and the
actually shows how you can make matters worse
Dalit untouchables their say. They are
even with the best of intentions.
beginning to speak up, something that
would have been unheard of a few years
In 1957 the Nepalese state nationalized the forago. And their opinions are slowly being
ests. Most of the forested areas under private
taken seriously. Apart from the obvious
control or the control of communities would now
advantages of less discrimination studies
be under government control. As a result many
have shown that empowering the poor,
owners and users converted the forests into farmespecially the women, benefits much
land to avoid the nationalization and to keep their
more people than just those directly at
access to the land.
the receiving line. It increases the overall
wealth of a community.
The government tried different ways to keep
people out, including armed guards. But it became
Collecting the money from all the activiclear that this approach didn't work. In 1982 the
ties and trade from visitors and customCommunity Forestry Legislation and Decentraliers from the outside is the job of Topali
sation Act increased local forestry rights. Nepal
Lamsals brother-in-law, Tilak Bahadur
became a democracy in 1990, and in 1993 the
Lamsal. He used to be the strong man
elected government handed over forest manageof the village, the one employed to keep
ment rights to forest user groups. Today, Nepal
people out.
has more 12,000 forest user groups, managing
more than a million hectares of forest. Many of the
“And it is a good thing that we don't need
user groups have been supported by NGOs and
a strong man any longer, because I am
international donors.
not that strong now. But the forest is,” he
laughs.
Forestry in Nepal
11
Forests for All
Forests for all
Forests for all
redd alert
REDD alert
REDD alert
It is obvious that deforestation is a major challenge and just as obvious
that something can be done about it.
What is perhaps less obvious is the fact that there is no magic bullet. The drivers behind deforestation
and forest degradation are multiple, complex and intertwined which means that the solutions have to be
the same. Yet most solutions tend to focus on one end point, but a solution that fixes one problem only
could lead to new and unforeseen problems that may be worse in the long run.
At the same time it is not enough to solve a problem locally. The drivers behind local deforestation may
be found much further afield, for instance in the demand for rare tropical wood in other countries or the
growing consumption of refined agricultural products from urban populations. Some solutions need to
be international, some national, some regional and some local. And some of them need to address more
or even all levels at the same time. It all depends on the situation.
The main framework in which we now address deforestation is REDD, an abbreviation for Reducing
Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation. It is an
effort to create a financial value for the carbon stored in forests,
offering incentives for developing countries to reduce emissions from forested lands and invest in low-carbon paths to
sustainable development.
But biodiversity, soil quality, water courses etc suffer. A plantation is not as resilient as a natural forest with its multitude of
12
Forests for All
• It is vital that social safeguards are implemented in REDD+. The safeguard systems should
adequately address:
- Protecting against violations of human rights or other negative consequences for poor and
marginalized groups.
- Sharing REDD+ benefits equitably with, and also within, indigenous and local communities.
REDD+ tries to amend some of this by including the role of conservation, sustainable management of
forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks. Now biodiversity must be taken into consideration as
well, and old forests should not just be cleared to make way for plantations.
That is a good thing. Biodiversity is as important as climate. But though REDD+ is a step forward it is still
focused mainly on the forests themselves, not on the people that are depending on them.
Indigenous peoples and forest dependent communities have been vital in managing the forests, and
experience from multiple forest initiatives shows that they are
critical to success, yet they rarely have documents that can
prove their title to the land, and frequently they have been
excluded from receiving a fair share of the benefits.
As many as
Today REDD has been replaced by REDD+ to acknowledge
that it is necessary to focus not only on carbon but on environmental sustainability as well. Trees are not just trees. If you just
look at the carbon balance it’s fine to cut down primary forest
and replace it with a plantation. Though some trees are better
at acting as carbon sinks than others the climate does not care
too much about whether it is one kind of forest or the other.
Points to consider:
new trees, old trees, dead trees and undergrowth, neither does it offer the same protection of the surrounding environment or the same opportunity for other species to dwell and thrive. As a habitat it is
vastly inferior to a natural forest.
1.6 billion
people, most of them very poor,
Without social safeguards REDD+ could lead to companies,
authorities or large landowners cashing in on the scheme while
those depending on the forest could get evicted or impoverished as they no longer have free access to forest products.
This has already happened in many places, and the poorest and
especially women suffer in the process.
for their daily
Another real danger is the insufficient value applied to the forests as carbon stores. It is not competitive compared to the
yield from for instance clearing the natural forest and replacing
it with a palm oil plantation. For forests to be worth more stand-
depend on forests
survival
Commercial plantations are usually inferior to natural growth forests
when it comes to biodiversity and resilience. Photo: FAO
• The safeguards should be built on what was already agreed at COP16 in Cancun:
-Ensure full and effective participation of indigenous peoples and local communities in developing and implementing REDD+ and, through recognition of the UN Declaration on the Rights of
Indigenous Peoples, accept the principle of free, prior, and informed consent.
- Consider gender within REDD+ programmes, with regards to safeguards, benefit sharing,
participation and capacity building.
-Provide information on safeguards including institutional reforms, consultation processes and
social impacts.
-Address the drivers of deforestation, both in national REDD+ strategies and internationally, with
all parties acting to reduce pressure on forests.
ing than converted to industrial food crops, the carbon stored has to be worth more than the price of the
crops. For the moment the carbon value is not even close, and the speculation that has led to an increase
in food prices has only made matters worse.
REDD+ has the potential to become an engine driving positive change but it needs the right fuel and it
needs to be steered in the right direction.
REDD+ when done well can support livelihoods, maintain vital ecosystem services and preserve global
biodiversity. Done badly it can exacerbate inequality and contribute to the violation of the rights of the forest
dependent people. Such risks are accentuated in countries and regions with weak forest governance.
13
Forests for All
Forests for all
All people live in a watershed. They may not be close to a large body of
water but even in the driest desert areas there is water in the ground and so
they too are part of a watershed.
Watersheds are vital when you are dealing with nature and the management of natural resources,
especially forests. The 'common water course' as scientist John Wesley Powell named it, feeds the forest. But in return the forest feeds the water course and tames it. Forest play a direct role in recharging
groundwater, absorbing impurities,
controlling erosion and reducing the
A watershed is "that area of land,
risk of extreme floods. To a large exa bounded hydrologic system,
tent the water course and the forest
are one.
within which all living things are
“
inextricably linked by their common water
course and where, as humans settled, simple
logic demanded that they become part of a
community.”
Forests for All
• Recharge groundwater depots
providing high quality water to the
rest of the watershed.
A healthy watershed
basically does three things:
1
2
the World's largest watersheds
2
Amazon 6,915,000 km
By volume of water,
the largest watersheds are:
Amazon 219,000 m3/s
Congo 3,680,000 km2 Orinoco 98,000 m3/s
Captures water: Rain naturally enters the
Río de la Plata 4,144,000 km2
Stores water: After rain enters the soil,
Nile 3,349,000 km2 Congo 41,800 m3/s
earth through soil, roots, and animal tunnels.
it fills the spaces between rocks and soil
particles and becomes groundwater.
3
Examples of watersheds,
Releases water: Springs, wetlands, and
floodplains slowly release groundwater
into lakes and streams.
Ob 2,990,000 km2 Yangtze 31,900 m3/s
Mississippi 2,980,000 km2 Río de la Plata 22,000 m3/s
Healthy Valley Lands,
including Wetlands:
Healthy waterways:
A watershed can be very small or
it can span nations. But even in the
vastest systems small actions in one
place can have huge reverberations
in other places. Those living upJohn Wesley Powell, scientist geographer
stream have an impact of the lives
of those situated downstream. That
seems logical enough. All rivers flow downwards, bringing whatever happened upstream with them. If you
remove a lot of trees upstream, the risk of floods and erosions increase all the way along the water course.
• Have a diverse habitat including pools,
riffles and glides; meandering, deep and
narrow channels; large woody debris
(trees); boulders.
But those at the low lying end affect those further upstream as well. Does the town downstream demand
firewood or are the residents of the city at the mouth of the river eager to buy precious tropical timber?
Then they are part of the explanation why the population upstream chops down trees and thereby
degrading the efficiency of the water course to act as a buffer.
• Have cool water, free of sediment
and pollutants.
Sometimes there are hundreds of kilometres between the events, which means that knowledge of how
they are interlinked is not a given thing. And so all humans along the water course are part of a community, defined by a water course, but far from all are aware of it.
14
• Have a diversity of plant species
to provide good ground cover and
help water infiltration.
Groundwater
The water of life
• Capture precipitation (and snow
melt) and store it for safe, slow
release to streams.
Streams and rivers
Healthy Uplands:
Precipitation
Watershed management
• Have higher late season stream flows
uplands and riparian areas are healthy.
• Have reduced flood flows with less energy.
• Are home to diverse populations
of fish and wildlife.
Healthy riparian or bank
side areas:
• Have a diversity of river bank vegetation which:
1. Provides stream bank stability
2. Increases bank storage of water and
water table levels
3. Dissipates energy and slows the speed
of flood flows
4. Filters sediment and potential pollutants
from runoff water
5. Protects streams from temperature
extremes
• Have a constant supply of older trees to
contribute large woody debris (branches
and falling trees) to dissipate flood energy
and create aquatic habitat.
• Have a high water table as a result of
associated healthy upland and river
conditions.
• Have vegetative cover that:
1. Filters sediment and reduces nonpoint source pollution.
2. Slows the speed of flood flows
and seasonal waters reducing soil
erosion.
3. Deposits soil which can improve
land production
4. Slowly releases water for recharging
groundwater depots and increased
stream base flow.
• Supply food sources to the adjacent
waterways.
Photo: Søren Rud
Forests for all
UPstream, downstream
Nature and nature dynamics do not respect man-made borders. To some extent
the same is true for social dynamics. What
happens in one place affects another
place, and so resource management has
to have a much broader scope than just
planting a forest or restoring natural vegetation.
Upstream, downstream
To prevent deforestation it is
necessary to eradicate the underlying
mechanisms. One way of addressing
the complexity is to work at watershed
level and empower communities.
This has been done in the innovative
JIWAN Project in Nepal where landless and land owners, Dalits and
so-called higher castes, and people
from upstream and downstream
are encouraged to work together
in finding solutions to the serious
degradation of the watershed.
16
Forests for All
In the Middle Hills of Nepal community
forestry has brought back a green
cover during the last decades. It has
benefits for those living further down
the stream as well. Photo: Søren Rud
Forest degradation and deforestation is,
as has already been explained, a multifacetted issue. A lot of projects have failed
because they have only addressed one or
a couple of the facets.
New methods, new knowledge, new
confidence, new trades – the Nepalese
open village schools are ultimately
about getting the tools for shaping a
better life for all and preserving the
natural resources at the same time.
In other cases projects have been a success locally or benefited one group of
people, but as the underlying and deeper
mechanisms were not addressed, what
was a solution for one place or one group
of people simply transferred the problem
to somewhere or someone else.
A school for life
Generally speaking, the solutions should
be as complex as the problems. And no
solutions are sustainable if they are not
rooted in the societies in which they have
to work. Dumping ready-made plans in
a community simply does not work. The
approach should be one of empowerment. The communities should make
their own sustainable choices about their
lives and environment. What they may
need in order to do so is knowledge and
a framework that facilitates the necessary
actions.
Once the plains were covered in trees. Rivers meandered through the jungle which was abundant with
wildlife.
Watershed literacy is one of the ways of
taking a broader view and addressing deforestation at several levels. The communities upstream usually have no idea how
much they influence those living further
down the stream.
But the pressure is rising. Traditional methods are not enough in the face of a growing population and
an increased need for food. At the same time the Terai is affected by droughts, floods and other natural
disasters, and the frequency of these events is growing alarmingly. Most years now floods wash away
whole villages, killing people and livestock, ruining fields and leaving thousands homeless and with
nothing to live on.
Now only a fraction of the original jungle remains. Tourists will pay for a safari in the hope of spotting
one of Nepal's few remaining tigers or the rare one-horned rhino in this beautiful but threatened nature
lover's paradise. Outside the national parks most of the jungle has been cleared, and the lowlands on
the Nepal-India border that were once almost uninhabited are now home to more than half of all the
Nepalese population.
Rice paddies, wheat fields, little vegetable gardens, cattle, chickens and women in their bright saris
dominate the landscape. This is the 'breadbasket of Nepal', the most productive agricultural area in all
of Nepal and the one which feeds all those in areas where there is not enough farmlands to meet the
demand from the local population.
17
Forests for All
Forests for all
Forests for all
UPstream, downstream
Climate change and deforestation
Part of the explanation is climate change. The seasonal patterns have become less predictable, the
storms more vicious, the droughts more severe. The unpredictability is the main concern. When there is
no pattern, it is difficult to adapt, because what do you have to adapt to? And so the life-giving monsoon
is now dreaded as well as anticipated because no-one knows how it will behave.
However, local changes and mechanisms are to blame as well. The Terai lies at the foot of the World's
highest mountain range, the Himalayas. The rivers from the hills and mountains are fed by the rain and
the snow, and by the time they reach the Terai before they ultimately end up in the holy river Ganges,
they have grown to roaring monsters of terrifyingly destructive water masses in the wet season. In the
dry season the river bed looks like a desert with just dust, pebbles and boulders.
The once forest-covered Middle Hills behind the Terai would take away some of that capacity for destruction. The water would be slowed on its way downhill, the speed would be less dramatic. Forested
brinks would delay the water, roots and banks would gather some of the sediment. The slower pace
allowed the flow of water to continue throughout most of the year, although in the dry season it would
still be only the ghost of its size in the wet season.
But in the second half of the 20th century the tree cover has been felled many places. The local population needs farmland, firewood and timber, among other things. The small communities have little or no
knowledge of how this affects people living further down the stream,
At the current consumption rates
far away in the Terai.
“
the world will need an additional
45 per cent energy, 30 per cent
more water and 50 per cent more food
by the year 2030.”
Source: UN
And in the Terai itself traditional
farming methods are not sufficient
to meet the growing demand for
food. Inevitably the resources will be
exhausted, leaving the already poor
even poorer. Neither does industrial farming provide a satisfactory answer to the challenge. For instance
pesticides and artificial fertiliser are too expensive for the poor, and at the same time they take a heavy
toll on the environment.
Open village schools
Nepal has been one of the pioneers when it comes to community forestry. The need for getting local
people involved was recognised early as was the challenge of sharing the benefits from managing the
forests. And thanks to the organisation of forests user groups, the Middle Hills are now being reforested.
There is reason to applaud these changes which often have other benefits reaching further than the
immediate and visible return of trees and wildlife. However, the open village schools in the JIWAN
Project along the river Jaladh in Southern Nepal demonstrate that much more can be achieved. Small
scale farmers can be the very key to both restoring natural resources and increasing productivity.
What is needed is a holistic approach that includes all aspects of life and empowers the participants
to become agents of change.
18
Forests for All
UPstream, downstream
884 million
people worldwide
do not have access
to safe drinking water,
and 2.6 billion people
lack access
to basic sanitation services,
such as toilets or latrines
Source: UN
The Jaladh river has an unstable and very vulnerable ecosystem endangering the livelihoods of all in
the watershed. In 2005 the first 'Lok Patshala', or people's schools as they are named in Nepali, were
established in villages along the water course.
The idea is originally Danish. More than a 150 years ago a similar voluntary school system for small
scale farmers changed Denmark profoundly and laid the foundations of the modern welfare state. The
farmers were offered knowledge at a time when the elite basically thought it a waste of time and effort to
educate them. The farmers grasped the chance. They rejoiced in learning, they found a place to discuss
ideas, and in the process they discovered new ways to prosper. They founded cooperatives and ultimately became a power to be reckoned with and the backbone of the economy for more than a century.
Part of the secret was simply that the small farmers learned how to cooperate to bring about change
and that they had the knowledge to make it happen.
Women and Dalits
That lesson is still relevant today, and so the open village schools have been established in a number of
villages in Nepal, offering lessons to all regardless of their gender, caste, religion or income. The schools
deal with a wide variety of subjects such as ecology, new techniques for farming and production, health,
how to create an organisation, how to appeal to authorities etc.
A large number of people in Nepal, especially the poorest, are not literate, but that does not matter in the
open village schools. The teachers use other ways of sharing their knowledge and facilitating debates.
The main objective is to increase the productivity and sustainability of land use and bringing farmers
together for the management of natural resources at a larger scale such as the watershed. Small scale
farmers should be enabled to enhance the natural resources so they can still provide a growing population with life's necessities, be they food or firework, fodder or fibre.
The schools raise an awareness of the interrelationship along the whole watershed. People upstream
are made aware of how they affect those downstream and how they can help them. People downstream
learn how their demand for firewood is part of the reason for the destructive deforestation upstream. By
cooperating they have a much better chance of finding solutions that will benefit all in the watershed,
and it is easier for them to negotiate with for instance authorities.
People that have not been working and discussing together before are brought together. The women
make up half of all the school attendants and half of the specially trained educators. Some of the women
have never really left home before or spoken in public. The Dalit people, the so-called 'untouchables'
who fall outside the traditional caste system, are invited to share their views and ideas as well on equal
terms with everyone else. They discover a new dignity and a new identity in the process. Other people
discover that women and Dalits cannot just be dismissed as worthless.
It is no quick fix. Getting people together does not, after all, in itself bring back the forests or manage
the watershed in a more sustainable way. But it provides new opportunities for doing so and increasing
wealth and quality of life for all in the process.
Nepal at a glance
Total population (millions): 29.85
Life expectancy at birth: 67
Urban population: 18%
Agricultural population, including forestry and fisheries (1000s): 27,746
Number of people undernourished (millions): 4.5
Proportion of undernourished in total population: 16%
Nepal has 27.3 per cent forest cover (3.9 million hectares), although at least one-quarter of
the forest area is heavily degraded. Nepal has a modest area of plantation forest (133 000
ha). Almost 15 per cent of the country's land area is in national parks, wildlife reserves or
conservation areas.
Domestic fuelwood is a major source of domestic energy. Nepal's important non-wood forest
products include medicinal and aromatic plants, lotka paper, pine resin, fodder, grasses for
thatching, matting and rope making, lemongrass and essential oils.
Source: FAO
Q&A
The JIWAN Project
What does JIWAN mean?
• JIWAN stands for Jaladh Integrated Watershed and Natural Ressource Co-Management Programme
but it also means Life in Nepali. The programme integrates public education with sustainable management of natural resources in the open village schools.
• The programme targets 62,500 residents of the Churia Mountains of which 53 per cent are women
and 14 per cent are Dalits. The programme helps an additional 17,000 people in the surrounding areas.
What is the purpose of the open village schools?
The objectives of the open village schools operating in the Jaladh River watershed in Nepal are:
• Increased understanding of how nature works – at various levels from garden to watersheds – and
increased capacity to take individual and collective action on the basis of that.
• Increased understanding of the fact that in the Jaladh watershed one key factor for improving life is
a better management of the watershed with the involvement and cooperation of both upstream and
downstream actors
• Increased relevant options for people in terms of methods and techniques for improved sustainable
methods in land use, health and other areas - all at various levels
• Increased relevant options, actions and capacities for people in terms of cooperation at various levels
• Increased empowerment in terms of an attitude of self-confidence, creativity and power of expression,
an increased capacity to meet challenges, to change things and to learn – alone and in cooperation
with others
• Have facilitated upstream and downstream dialogue and helped develop a common feeling of interdependence and belonging among the people of the Jaladh watershed
• Have facilitated organised cooperation on natural resource management within the Jaladh watershed
• Increased richness of rural life
Who is behind JIWAN?
• Three Danish NGOs – CARE Danmark, Danish Forestry Extension (DFE) and the Danish Folk High
Schools Association
19
Forests for All
Forests for all
Forests for all
UPstream, downstream
UPstream, downstream
In the Jiwan Project women participate on
equal terms with the men and speak up.
Many of them have found green jobs to
provide for their families through Jiwan.
Photo: Flemming Pless
“
>>
Our community got electricity so now we
don’t have dark homes any more – we are
in the light. We sold trees that were fallen by
the wind and collected the money to purchase wires
and took wood for electricity poles.”
Mrs. Masrangi, member of Siddhasanti Community Forest User Group
A Dalit power woman
In traditional Nepalese society she was a nobody. Resma Devi Das belongs to the Dalit people, the socalled untouchables. 260 million people in Southern Asia fall outside the cast system, most of them live
in India and the Nepalese lowlands.
Being an ‘outcast’ is being so low that you are even outside the traditional caste system, and Dalits
are being discriminated against on a large scale. They live on the outskirts of the villages in the most
exposed spots, they are not allowed near those from a higher caste, they cannot use communal facilities, they have the hardest jobs and the lowest pay, and they rarely go to school. Women especially are
vulnerable. Rape is common, prostitution sometimes the only way of providing for a family.
This was the situation that Resma Devi Das was accustomed to. She and her husband could not own
land, they were forced to work as cheap labour to pay for food and pay their rent. They were constantly
scared of losing the house to the people they owed money. Her father-in-law died when the family could
not pay for a doctor when he fell ill.
Today Resma Devi Das can pay medical bills, she earns a living, and she has the respect of her community. She no longer owes money, her house is her own, and she pays for her children to attend school.
Life changed for Resma Devi Das when she began to participate in one of the open village schools in
the JIWAN Project. Resma Devi Das took advantage of the skills taught at the schools, among them how
to make environmentally friendly bricks. Today she is a brick maker of high esteem and was recently
applauded as a true power woman at the yearly 'Celebrating Womanhood Awards' in Nepal.
Shobha Biswakarma, Dalit: General member of Balajhar community forest
user group and the open village school.
“Before I only had a very small plot of land and was almost landless. But I got 12 katha of land from the
community forest user group and I have now planted food crops like lentils, herbal products, fruit, and
vegetables. This has improved my livelihood very much”.
20
Forests for All
“I collect dry leafs and dead trees from the forest for fuel wood and furniture. I collect this with a permit.
Before when I used to collect forest products I was scared of the smugglers. Now I get permission from
the president and I am not scared any more. The forest is very green and very beautiful and I can go
there without being scared”.
“I feel like the community forestry will increase my access to resources like fuel wood and tress in the
future. It is important to conserve the forest to secure the future and the coming generations. I have
learned this from the forest user group”.
“As a member of the community forest user group I have a feeling of unity in the community. Being
a Dalit used to be associated with many problems and I was discriminated. Now I do not experience
discrimination any more. My voice is being heard.”
Conclusion:
Empowering local communities by offering education in a practical manner relevant to their daily lives
and quality of life can enhance the capacity of forest user groups to become agents of change, increasing both the quality of the natural resources and productivity. This combination is necessary as
the global population grows and the demand for food has to be met without jeopardising the ecological
balance further. Solutions to the challenge need to take the dynamics of both nature and social and
cultural structures into account.
Landslides threaten lives and livelihoods. Forests
offer protection, making landslides less frequent
and braking their speed and progress if they occur.
Photo: Søren Rud
21
Forests for All
Forests for all
Whose forest
Forests are cleared, like here in Ghana,
for timber and farmland. Very often those
dependent on the forests don't share the
benefits, but the consequences threaten
their livelihoods. Photo: Tine Harden
Whose forest?
Indigenous peoples and the poorest
are those depending the most on
the forest, yet they are frequently
prevented from sharing the benefits
on equal terms. Community forestry
can ensure that the money and other
benefits are not kept in the hands of
authorities, companies or privileged
individuals, but support and empower
the local communities.
Back in the 1990s the government in Uganda decided to save the mountain gorillas. Their habitats, the
dense forests, were shut off, and only special guides would be allowed to take tourists through the moist
dripping trees to get a glimpse of the World's largest primates.
The decision was generally applauded internationally. What was forgotten was the fate of the Batwa
people, an indigenous Pygmy ethnic group. For thousands of years they had shared the forest with the
gorillas, never hunting them. They had suffered loggers and farmers penetrating deeper into the forest,
but maintained their traditional lifestyle. They did not have a say in their fate, as they were forcibly moved
from their home, their culture and places of worship. Nor was the money that rich tourists paid to see
the mountain gorillas channelled to compensate the Batwa for their loss or improve the livelihoods of
the now outcast Batwas.
All over the World there are examples of similar stories. The most vulnerable groups – the poor and the
indigenous peoples - are usually those that depend the most on the forests and other natural resources
for their livelihoods. Frequently they preserve the forests, knowing that they are dependent on them. Yet
they are neglected or even persecuted when for instance authorities, companies or cooperations decide
to take over the forest and monopolise the resources.
Forests for All
This is not a theoretical discussion. Several studies from different community forestry projects have
demonstrated that one of the dangers of just turning over the management of the forest to a local community is that of 'elite capture'.
This phrase is used to illustrate the fact that without a framework that ensures a democratic and
transparent process the strongest group of people could take over the management and monopolise
the benefits with little or no regard for the poorest or weakest. However, community forestry can overcome this and be made into a tool that empowers the weakest and gives them their say and share, as
mentioned in the Jiwan project earlier.
“
Acknowledging rights can halt
deforestation. For instance
deforestation rates are low to
non-existent in most of the recognized
indigenous territories in Brazilian Amazon.”
There is a link from this to REDD. Not that REDD in itself is to blame for inequalities, the social and
cultural structures exist outside REDD. But REDD could enhance the mechanisms as some groups may
see an advantage in laying claim to the money offered in the carbon trade without respecting the rights
of the most vulnerable groups.
Participation of the poor
Nepal has one of the longest traditions of
community forest management, and according to studies in some cases the poor
have received less benefits than the rest
of the community even when they have
put in the same amount of work and effort. It is important to prevent this and be
aware of the following:
Community managed forestry models can help prevent this, and several studies have shown how community forestry improves the livelihoods for all while it improves the environment. However, there are
issues that need to be addressed to ensure that the benefits are not only shared vertically, from the top
and down, but horizontally within the community.
• The poorest are very often very dependent on meeting most of their needs from the forest. Yet, when
a community takes over an area to bring back the trees or to preserve a forest, they may decide that
the forest should be left alone for a period to give it time to recover. If the poorest are not compensated for their loss, they could suffer severely.
Benefits for all – but how?
The principle behind community forestry is simple: Manage the forest together and enjoy the benefits
together.
• A community forest user group will frequently apply special conditions for gathering wood, fodder
and other forest products. It could be a fee or it could be a certain amount of work. But the poorest,
who have been used to getting what they need for free, may not have the money. They may not have
as much time to spare either, being paid poorly for their services and having to work longer hours to
provide for themselves and their families.
After that it becomes rather more complicated.
Who exactly should manage the forest together? Who has the right? Those with an address in the
forest? Or everyone depending on the forest for their livelihoods? Should all receive equal benefits, or
should they be distributed on the basis of the amount of effort and time that each member of the community puts into the work? Who should make the decisions?
Other aspects of the access to the forest include how to ensure the rights of pastoralist populations that
do not live nearby the forest but use it in their seasonal migrations with their herds. How should they
be represented when decisions are made? And is it fair that the benefits of the forest should be given
only to those that happen to live close by? Isn't a forest a valuable national asset that should benefit all?
22
It doesn't stop there, but once you get started what seemed straightforward enough may be nothing
of the kind.
Source: Conservation Biology, February 2006
• Some community forest groups have decided that all households should be allowed to take what
they need for their own consumption from the forest. But even this means that the already relatively
well-to-do get a larger share: they may have livestock that needs fodder or larger lands that demand
more leaf litter, for instance. Studies have shown that both in absolute and relative terms the poorest
end up with the lowest share of the benefits from the forest.
Gender and social status play an important role when groups are left out or simply not given any attention. A field study from Nepal has shown that especially low caste and Dalit people had a tendency to
be absent from the executive committees in the forest user groups, when equitable sharing of decisions
23
Forests for All
Forests for all
Community forest user groups in Tanzania have very
good results when it comes to preserving the forest.
Photo: Evelyn Hockstein
Whose forest
In 2008 a study by South Asia Network
for Development and Environmental Economics, SANDEE,
Forests of global importance
a 27 per cent
In Tanzania local communities have taken part in the forest management
since the early 1990's. Today more than 4 million hectares of forest are
under community based forest management or joint forest management,
where communities work together with forest owners, usually central or
local government bodies.
showed that women had
and benefits was not part of the structure. They felt inferior, and their surroundings very often shared
that view and didn't include lower caste members in the decisions.
The same was the case with women. In many societies women are considered worth less than men and
less knowledgable, and so they are not encouraged to participate in public decisions.
It doesn't have to be like that. More and more forest user groups demonstrate how social and economical structures and habits can be changed to make community forestry a driver of change, both socially
and environmentally. But it is necessary to
focus on both, not just the natural resources.
The blacksmiths belong within the
illiterate, lower caste.
They don’t know the benefit and what
the forest provides to us. They lack such
knowledge.
The people from the lower caste don’t
know how and what to speak in a crowd.
They don’t know the meaning of the
forest. ...They don’t know how to use
it, how to conserve it. ...They cannot
contribute anything.
From needs to rights
Vital to successful forest management is the
question of rights. Traditional approaches in
helping the poorest have focused on needs.
But seeing people only as needy makes it
easy to forget that people have resources
and wishes of their own, and that they are
able to make their own decisions if they are
given the necessary knowledge and tools
to put it to use – if they are empowered, in
other words.
Member of the executive committee, forest user group, Nepal,
explaining why low caste blacksmiths were not allowed influence
on decisions. SANDEE, 2008
The focus on needs should be replaced by
a focus on rights. This approach recognises
the underlying causes of poverty and marginalisation, and it aims at eradicating them
rather than just trying to alleviate the material
situation of the poorest. The poor are not seen as passive receivers but as people of resources that can
assert rights and participate in decision making.
People have a right to life, to a safe and healthy environment, to their culture and religion, freedom
from hunger and all forms of discrimination. And they have rights to information, access to justice and
participation in decision making.
Without social safeguards that ensure their rights, the poorest and most vulnerable will continue to be
discriminated against, especially in countries where there is no strong tradition of governance.
24
Forests for All
Forests for all
Whose forest
representation in the executive committees
in a sample of the forest user groups of Nepal's.
Yet when it came to key positions in the committee,
Looking at the condition of the forests this has been a success. The forests are thriving, especially where
they are managed by local communities.
women only counted for 5 per cent
As for the Dalit, the disadvantaged ’outcasts’, they had a less than 10 per
cent representation in the committees and made it to key positions in only 4
per cent of the cases. The advantaged group, on the other hand, had a 64 per
cent share of representation but 72 per cent of the key positions.
Community forestry has proven that it can play a vital and very positive role in protecting existing forests
and bringing back forests to areas that have been stripped bare of trees. Several studies have shown
that community forestry groups have high rates of success, higher than many government schemes.
However, if the poorest groups are left disadvantaged, they may have no choice but to partake in illegal
activities that will degrade the forests once more.
This problem needs to be addressed and built into the framework at all levels, from local structures to
global ones. The Jiwan Project mentioned in the previous chapter demonstrated how empowerment at
watershed level can improve living conditions for all as well as ensure competent management of the
natural resources.
We need to make certain that the rights of people are woven into decision making at all levels.
Conclusion:
It is essential that the rights of all are recognised and respected in natural resource management. If the
poorest and most vulnerable are not sufficiently included in the decision making, and if they are not
benefitting fairly, the whole process could be threatened. The disadvantaged may have no other choice
but to take part in illegal activities to ensure their livelihoods. Rights and social safeguards must be made
part of all sustainable solutions, and they must be so at all levels, local, regional, national and global.
The results are less clear when it comes to determining whether people have benefitted. Some have,
some haven't. And Tanzania illustrates that it can be complicated working out who should pay and who
should benefit.
Country facts, Tanzania
In 2000, forest cover was estimated at 38.8 million hectares, which comprises 43 per cent
of the total land area. This represents the highest forest cover per capita in the southern and
eastern regions of Africa. Twenty-nine per cent of the forest resource is protected, much of
which, being located on steep slopes, is retained to control soil and water erosion.
Forestry contributes around 10 per cent of exports and 3 per cent of paid employment. Tanzania has 135,000 ha of forest plantations contributing around half of total forest sector revenue.
The rural population relies significantly on forests and its products such as fuelwood, honey and
construction materials. The productive forest is managed mainly for fuel and timber production.
Fuelwood covers around 90 per cent of the people's energy demands.
The deforestation rate was at 91,000 ha per year as of 2000 and is mainly caused by competition for land resources for agriculture, livestock development, wood energy, industries and
mining. Agricultural expansion and free-range pastoralism have been the major causes of
vegetation loss in most parts of the country.
Total population (millions): 45
Life expectancy at birth: 56
Urban population: 26%
Agricultural population, including forestry and fisheries (1000s): 33,006
Number of people undernourished (millions): 13.7
Proportion of undernourished in total population: 34%
Source: FAO
Some of the community based user groups do a lot of work managing some of the most valuable forests
in Tanzania. They are home to a large number of species, and they deliver a range of crucial environmental services. They conserve and replenish important water sources, and they play an important role
in regulating the global climate acting as carbon sinks, just as they preserve vital biodiversity.
All these eco services, however, mainly benefit people living far away from the forest. Those bearing the
cost and effort of managing it have far less to gain. These forests are protected and restricted because
of their importance, and so the community based user groups only harvest a very limited profit from
managing this wealth. As the wildlife such as elephants and buffalos come back because of improved
forest conditions, so do the local communities lose more crops.
For the community forest groups to stay efficient and motivated it is necessary to figure out how to pay
the people actually doing all the work for the services rendered when their direct gain is very limited.
The benefits should be shared down through the system.
At the same time it is important to share the benefits within the community. In Tanzania as in other places
elite capture can be a problem. The poor are not always included, and they risk losing their forestbased incomes if the local elite takes measures to protect and conserve the forest without including all.
Evidence collected so far indicates that without deliberate and conscious efforts to avoid elite capture,
poorer members of the community may receive minimal benefits from forest management.
When this is brought up, a frequent comment is 'we are all poor'. But the example from Tanzania shows
that even in a poor community poverty is highly differentiated and relative. For community based forest
management to become the positive driver of change it has the potential to become, it is necessary
to acknowledge that benefits should be shared equitably both vertically and horizontally, and that the
poorest and least powerful should be included in decision making on equal terms.
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Forests for All
Forests for all
a green economy for all
This family of Dalits in the Nepalese
lowlands left their homes to search for a
better life in the city after a flood washed
away their hut. Photo: Søren Rud
Equal rights, equitable economy
The current buzz of a green economy
needs to be replaced by a focus
on an equitable green economy
– a green economy that is sustainable
in all senses of the word: environmentally, economically and socially.
The approach used in community
forestry, based on the rights of both
individual and groups, can ensure the
necessary equitability.
The local farmers no longer have access to the important farmland and the water resources that they are
dependent on. Instead large agricultural areas have been set aside for production of crops used in biodiesel
and ethanol in several African countries. The local farmers suffer, while others cash in on the production.
able energy sources and resource and energy efficiency will enable us to cut back dramatically on CO2
emissions and limit our consumption of raw materials. For this to be possible new technology and smart
solutions will be needed, creating new green jobs worldwide.
The need for renewable fuels will grow as the World tries to curb carbon emissions and manage
resources in a more responsible way. Green growth is being promoted as a way out of the current
economic crisis in most of the Western countries as well as an environmental revolution.
Some don't buy the simplicity. They see Green Economy as a nicer term for Green Capitalism with all
the mechanisms intact that allow some to profit on others and expand the already huge gap between
this World's richest and poorest.
One group of NGOs from Asia, Africa, South America and Europe recently put it this way in a joint appeal:
And yet the example shows once again that when you focus only on the natural resources and forget
people, you miss the target. In this case there has been local protests and disputes, and climate friendly
solutions could lead to increased conflicts, when local communities are not being included in the decisions and the benefits, according to the Danish Institute for International Studies.
Green growth and green economy is the buzz these days, and there is no doubt that the World needs
to find a way to combine improved production with a decrease in the use of resources. Green economy
promises to be an answer, but it is not a sustainable answer. True sustainability can only be achieved
when solutions combine environmental sustainability with social and economic sustainability. And in this
case two out of three isn't enough.
There are lessons from community forestry that can be applied to achieve this, but first a bit more about
some of the dangers of debating green economy without considering how to make it benefit all, socially,
economically and environmentally.
Green capitalism?
Green Economy is, at least partway, an attempt to bridge the crucial need to
take care of the climate and the environment with the fact that a message of
cut-backs and changes in lifestyle is not exactly popular in large parts of the
World.
Green Economy promises continued growth at no cost to nature. The brief version is that nobody has to cut back, or at least only marginally so. Instead we
have to shift our economy away from being dependent on fossil fuels. Renew-
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Forests for All
“The current economic models pursued in the name of efficiency and economic growth, but in fact
driven by profit and greed, have resulted in unprecedented levels of poverty, exploitation of natural,
resources, inequality and food insecurity, which disproportionately affect women,” and accused the rich
countries of wanting to transform all ecosystem services to commodities and market products.
How much is a bee worth?
One of the concerns is the idea to put a price tag on nature and ecosystem services.
There are good reasons for doing so. In a world where the general consensus is to measure everything
in money it makes sense to raise awareness of the hitherto literally priceless values and services that
nature provides us with. By estimating a price we can see what we have to lose, and so we may pay
more attention to the value of biodiversity for instance.
More than 1.3 billion of the
world’s population have
no access to electricity.
2.7 billion people have no
access to clean cooking fuel.
Source: World Energy Outlook
Back in 1997 the first such attempt was made. The Economics of Ecosystems
and Biodiversity study suggested that the total annual value of the World's
ecosystems was a staggering 33 trillion USD. That was about double the size
of the global GDP at the time.
But some fear that ultimately nature will simply become another coin in a green
economy, and that by putting a price on nature and ecosystem services you
could eventually end up with poor people having to pay for access to services
and natural resources that have been free for millennia. Water for instance. Or
fuelwood. Just as has been discussed on previous pages, when companies,
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Forests for All
Forests for all
Forests for all
a green economy for all
a green economy for all
12 per cent
Cutting answers
surface
When local communities are empowered they can become valuable partners to the government. In Ghana forest user groups now work with the
government to promote sustainable logging and increase the forest area.
of the Earth’s land
authorities or strong groups or individuals monopolise resources
with no concern for the rights of others.
is covered by protected areas
Source: UN
If that is the case, the strategies could be counter-productive as
poor people may begin exploiting natural resources illegally, simply to survive. They would have nothing
to lose and everything to gain.
A different Green Economy
Care has – as part of the Danish 92 Group, which counts all major Danish NGOs working with sustainability and sustainable development – recently published a report written by expert authors from
developing countries on what green economy must include for it to lead to equitable and sustainable
development. The points of consideration are very similar to those applied to community forestry.
insecurity, energy shortage and a general collapse of resources
and the climate will not be addressed.
The advantages of moving to an equitable green economy –
efficiency of production, resource security, reducing dependence on imports, job generation, resilience
of economies and people in the face of climate change, conflict avoidance or resolution – need to be
acknowledged and reflected in the political will of governments, the drivers for private enterprise and the
mandates of key actors and stakeholders.
Examples from community forestry shows that this can be done. Local people can become drivers
of change in terms of both economic, social and environmental sustainability. Their rights have to be
respected, and they have to be able to make their own choices about the resources they manage.
The key message is that a true and equitable green economy has to be rooted in the rights of all There is no doubt that it will be a key social challenge to change some of the fundamental structures of
people, also those in rural communities, to a clean environment,
the world today and share the wealth of our natural resources equitably.
secure livelihoods, and decent living conditions. Self-sufficiency should
But we have no other choice.
be advanced at the national and local levels, and universal access to
food, clean energy and water should be increased.
“Jobs are green when they help
Self-sufficiency is important, especially for the billions who live in remote areas who are not able to benefit from for instance centralised,
smart energy solutions. Neither will they have easy access to – or the
money to buy – imported foodstuff, whether the goods are manufactured and shipped in an environmentally sustainable way or not.
If Green Economy only regards sustainability as environmental sustainability, the underlying mechanisms leading to deforestation, food
reduce negative environmental impact
ultimately leading to environmentally,
economically, and socially sustainable
enterprises and economies. More
precisely green jobs are decent jobs
that: Reduce consumption of energy
and raw materials; limit greenhouse
gas emissions; minimise waste and
pollution; and protect and restore
ecosystems.”
The International Labour Organisation (ILO)
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Forests for All
Conclusion:
A Green Economy will only succeed if it is equitable and ensures the
rights of all, not just some. The discussions on sustainable development
around Rio+20 on this issue are not ambitious enough, and the Green
Economy is too focused on environmental sustainability and overlooks
the fact that a solution can only be truly sustainable if it is also socially
and economically sustainable. Basic injustice and inequalities have
to be addressed. All decisions at Rio+20 and beyond should be
measured by their ability to contribute to an equitable green economy.
Ama Ntowaa looked over her ruined fields. The cocoa plants that she had planted with such care, were
gone. So was the rice and the cola nuts. Most of her trees were cut down.
Without her knowledge the local chief had made a deal with illegal loggers, and the elderly widow and
mother of six was left with nothing. No compensation, no part of the income.
No way, she thought. And when the loggers came with the bulldozers to remove the trees they had
felled, she lay down in front of them to prevent them. She knew she had the right, and she knew what
they were doing was illegal. In the end she succeeded. The loggers never got the timber, and they didn't
come back.
Ama Ntowaa is one of the growing number of people in Ghana that are aware of the importance
of the forests and the rights of the people. The national NGO Forest Watch Ghana, which has been
formed by a large number of NGOs, including Care, has gained support, and part of its purpose has
been to inform people like Ama Ntowaa of
their rights. As a result several communities
have stopped illegal timber companies from
fleeing with logs.
Total population (millions): 24.3
Life expectancy at birth: 57
An increasing amount of forest is turned
Urban population: 51%
over to local communities to manage in a
Agricultural population, including forestry and
sustainable way, and gradually sustainable
fisheries (1000s): 13,093
logging is replacing the illegal and highly
Number of people undernourished (millions): 1.2
damaging clearing of primary forest, thanks
to different projects initiated by Forest
The natural forests of Ghana occupy nearly 40 per
Watch Ghana.
cent of its land area and occur in two ecological
zones: the tropical high forest which covers oneForest Watch Ghana started out as a
third of the country and provides the major source
watchdog but now it is recognised by the
of logs for the wood products industry; and the
government and is consulted on forest
savannah zone which covers the remaining twoissues. It soon became clear that one of
thirds of the country's total land area and plays an
the major challenges was the fact that there
important part in the supply of building poles and
was hardly any legal framework regulating
fuelwood and charcoal.
Ghana at a glance
Source: FAO
Ama Ntowaa put her own life at stake to stop illegal loggers. More and
more people in Ghana are aware of their rights. Photo: Christina E. Gadiel
the forest sector and securing the rights of local communities. The laws that should control timber
companies had never been implemented, for instance. Forest Watch Ghana makes suggestions on
how to improve the forest management in a way that is sustainable both environmentally, socially and
economically.
There are still illegal loggers in Ghana. But chances are better now of stopping them.
29
Forests for All
Forests for all
recommendations
Recommendations
Sustainable development is impossible without healthy forests. Forests are a matter of life, both at a
local and at a global scale and they are vital in the fight against poverty and inequality. Experiences to
date both in Asia and Africa, as this report have shown, suggest that inclusive and just community based
forest management models both protect the livelihoods of forest dependent communities and have a
greater poverty reduction potential.
Sustainable and equitable forest management can positively contribute to better conditions for both
humans and nature. There are a number of countries where the community based approach to protecting forests and fighting poverty can and should be integrated in national and local policy frameworks. In
doing so, a number of recommendations at global, national and local level should be taken into account:
At the International level
• With 1.6 billion people, the majority living in poverty, depending on the World’s forests, political solutions to protect the forests are urgent in creating a sustainable and fair development. These solutions
must include global policy frameworks and financing instruments that effectively slow, halt and reverse
deforestation and forest degradation and promote sustainable use and forest management.
• Political commitment to end global policies, subsidies and corruption that drive deforestation is crucial.
The transition must be steered and funded towards a green zero-deforestation economy that meets
the needs, as well as respects the rights, of poor people and local communities.
• The Rio+20 process must include Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), that will promote community based forest management with a view to achieving zero net deforestation and halting the decline
of biodiversity by 2020. In achieving these goals reforestation is especially important in head water
and catchment areas and in the restoration of degraded forests.
Primary forest and wildlife reserve in Congo. According to
the UN nearly 17,000 species of plants and animals are
currently at risk of extinction, and the number is increasing
daily. Photo: Tullia Baldassarri Hoger von Hogersthal
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Forests for All
At the National Level
• Conflicting claims on scarce natural resources can easily create conflicts. Climate change will exacerbate this situation. Conflicts must be prevented from arising in the first place by addressing the root
causes of potential conflicts in which climate change may contribute. This includes addressing land
and water scarcity, and ensuring equitable and sustainable access and rights to and good governance
of land and water resources.
• Representative and transparent government institutions are key as they control and regulate access
to natural resources, and prioritise development efforts. Support to this area is not new, but much
remains to be done and a concerted effort in this field is an important element in minimizing the threat
of climate change. Issues that require particular attention include:
• addressing the constraints that block de facto devolution of natural resource control
• enhancing and clarifying the role of local government institutions in natural resource governance
replicating and scaling up “best-fit” practices drawn from the multitude of existing models for jointand community-based natural resource management
• Vulnerable populations, especially people who are poor and dependent on natural resources, should
be supported in adapting to climate variability and climate change and thereby build resilient livelihoods and adaptive capacity.
• Address discrimination and empower women to participate in and benefit equitably from community
based natural resource management – this will have a multiplier effect on families and increases the
overall wealth of a community.
• Deforestation is a global challenge, and halting the deforestation globally by 2020 will have positive
consequences worldwide. Yet depending on how it is done it could fail the most vulnerable populations and even make their lives worse – or impossible. Specific recommendations to avoid this are
found in the sections below.
At the Local Level
• Policy makers, NGO’s and managers at all levels should be aware of and address the underlying condition of marginalisation of certain groups, and of power imbalances in terms of knowledge, wishes
and needs in local natural resource dependent communities. Community based natural resource
management initiatives should devise flexible implementation strategies that incorporate this diversity
and challenging power imbalances to ensure equitable distribution of benefits.
• Policy instruments should provide incentives to effectively address drivers of deforestation, rather than
focus support on carbon measurement for the purpose of carbon transactions. This will oblige funding
for both policies and measures to invest in management reforms as the basis for performance-based
payments for reduced emissions, rather than narrow carbon accounting.
• Seasonal forest users, such as pastoralists and distant forest users, have to be included in planning
processes of eg. land use plans at district level. Where they have been included, such as in some
parts of Tanzania, the results are often positive and they have demonstrated ownership and responsibility to assist in forest protection while using the forest for grazing.
• Gender imbalances in the use, planning and management of forests are especially important. Community forest user groups have to address obstacles that prevent women from attending in planning,
meetings and decision making, such as women’s workloads.
• Ensure the rights of marginalized groups through
• the introduction of quotas in management committees,
• the sensitization of all stakeholders to issues of diversity and discrimination
• the empowerment of marginalized groups through information and education on rights to ensure
active participation in decision-making.
• avoidance of policies and interventions without free, prior and informed consent and adequate
compensation, especially ones that significantly reduce their benefits from resource utilization.
• encourage frequent, direct democratic elections of management positions in natural resource user
groups (e.g. community forest user groups) through secret ballots.
• Ensure that key management functions and decisions are shared and known among and monitored
by all members to avoid elite capture. This emphasizes the need to continually engage the wider community – or forest users in key stages of planning and implementation and to avoid making short-cuts
by working exclusively with the management committee.
• Forest harvesting plans tend to focus primarily on high value products such as timber or charcoal.
However, the poor tend to be more interested in essential non-timber forest products, incl. fodder
for animals and medicine. Ensuring that opportunities exist for harvesting these products, through
appropriate zonation, or their inclusion in utilisation plans, is an easy way to increase the participation
of the poor.
• In certain situations, the forest resources might be so degraded that a complete cutting and grazing
stop is required. In these situations it becomes even more pressing to ensure alternative income opportunities or compensate the poor and forest dependent people. Approaches can include targeted
training in income generating activities. Ignoring these real needs may only lead to increased poverty,
conflict and unregulated forest use.
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Forests for All
Deforestation and forest
degradation
caused by human activities,
contribute around
17 per cent
of global greenhouse gas emissions
Source: UNEP
DANISH FORESTRY EXTENSION
CARE has worked with development projects for more than 65
years to create long lasting solutions together with poor and vulnerable people. CARE helps people claim their rights and families to
produce more food and increase their income while managing their
natural resources and preserving the environment for future generations. CARE is one of the world’s largest humanitarian organisations
and operates in 84 of the world’s poorest countries benefiting more
than 122 million people each year.
www.care.dk
As part of the Danish Folk High School movement Brandbjerg Folk
High School represents and continues a long tradition within nonformal life-long learning. Established long back in the late 1800’s
the Danish Folk Schools historically have had a great influence on
the life of rural people in Denmark. These schools were established
as non-formal centres for learning for farmers and others alike to
strengthen the transformation of a feudal society into a democratic
one. Having such a glorious past, these schools are still an important
part of the Danish society and have also inspired other countries
around the world for similar institutions.
www.brandbjerg.dk
The Danish Forest Owners Associations has since its foundation in
1904 successfully practiced extension work among Danish forest
owners. Based on the experience of its now 100-year-old parent
organization, Danish Forestry Extension was established as an international advisory / development service in 1992. An organization
focusing on responsible management of natural resources in the
widest sense holding relevant working experience from more than
25 countries around the globe.
www.df-extension.dk