Severe crowding in New Zealand
since 1921:
“A challenge to health and decency”
1
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Citation
Statistics New Zealand (2012). Severe crowding in New Zealand since 1921: “A challenge
to health and decency”. Wellington: Statistics New Zealand.
ISBN 978-0-478-37760 (online)
Published in May 2012 by
Statistics New Zealand
Tatauranga Aotearoa
Wellington, New Zealand
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Email: [email protected]
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Contents
Purpose and summary of findings ................................................................................... 5
Purpose............................................................................................................................ 5
Summary of findings ........................................................................................................ 5
Methodology for calculating crowding ............................................................................. 5
How rates of crowding have changed since the 1920s ................................................... 7
Reasons for decline in crowding ................................................................................... 13
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 18
Methodology for calculating crowding indexes and comparing occupancy rates ... 19
Methodology for calculating people per room measure ................................................ 19
Comparing average number of people per household (occupancy rates) with earlier
censuses ........................................................................................................................ 19
Glossary ............................................................................................................................ 21
References and further reading ...................................................................................... 23
References..................................................................................................................... 23
Further reading .............................................................................................................. 23
3
List of tables and figures
Tables
1 Example of how the 1921 crowding measure works .................................................... 6
2 People living in crowded households, 1921 Census .................................................... 9
3 How crowding indexes were calculated for this paper ............................................... 19
4 Occupancy rates for New Zealand ............................................................................. 20
Figures
1 Rooms question in 1921 ............................................................................................... 7
2 Rooms question in 2006 ............................................................................................... 7
3 Hawera & Normanby Star, 10 November 1921............................................................ 8
4 Percent of New Zealand households that were severely crowded, more than 1.5
people per room ............................................................................................................. 10
5 Number of New Zealand households that were severely crowded, 1921 to 2006
Censuses ....................................................................................................................... 10
6 Urban / rural distribution of Māori population, 1926 to 2006 Censuses..................... 12
7 Percentage of severely crowded New Zealand households (PPR measure) defined
as Māori, selected census years 1926 to 1971 ............................................................. 12
8 Building consents issued for residential dwellings, for New Zealand, 1922–2011 .... 13
9 Total number of state houses, 1938–2009 ................................................................. 14
10 Number of rooms per dwelling, 1921, 1976, and 2006 Censuses ........................... 15
11 Average floor area of consented new dwellings, 1974–2011 .................................. 15
12 Gross domestic product per capita, 1921–2008 ...................................................... 16
13 Occupancy rate and total fertility rate, all females and Mäori females, 1867–2006 17
4
Purpose and summary of findings
Purpose
Severe crowding in New Zealand since 1921: A challenge to health and decency
explores the history of crowding in New Zealand homes. This paper gives an overview of
changes in crowding patterns since the 1920s and discusses some of the reasons that
crowding has declined over time. Although the proportion of people living in crowded
homes declined by the beginning of the 21st century, crowding remains a health and
social policy issue. A number of researchers have been concerned about the high rates
of infectious disease in New Zealand, particularly among Māori and Pacific peoples.
There is strong research evidence linking crowding and infectious disease (Baker et al,
2000).
A crowded dwelling is considered inadequate for the number of people that usually live
there. Definitions of crowding have changed over time, but for consistency, this paper has
used the 1921 crowding definition. A report on crowding, based on the 1921 Census,
classified a dwelling as crowded if “the number of its inhabitants and the manner of their
disposal about that building is such as to challenge health and decency” (Census and
Population Office, 1924). In 1921, this meant a dwelling was crowded if there were more
than 1.5 people per room.
Summary of findings
Key findings from our analysis are:
• Crowded houses were identified as an important health issue in New Zealand in the
1920s.
• The 1921 Census identified 9 percent of dwellings as crowded. These were
dwellings with more than 1.5 people per room (now considered severe crowding).
• Crowding affected almost 1 in 7 people in the New Zealand population (excluding
Māori) in 1921.
• Crowding fell steadily over the 20th century, but remained high in the baby boom
years.
• Rates of severe crowding were much higher among Māori.
• Crowding decreased as houses became larger and family size fell.
• According to the 1921 people per room measure, less than 1 percent of households
were severely crowded in 2006.
Methodology for calculating crowding
In the early 20th century, crowding statistics were calculated using the people per room
(PPR) measure. This measure is calculated by dividing the number of people who live in
a dwelling (occupants) by the number of rooms. If the number of occupants was more
than 1.5 people per room the dwelling was considered crowded. For example, if there
were four people in a dwelling but only two rooms, the dwelling was defined as crowded.
Table 1 illustrates how this measure is used to calculate how crowded a house is.
5
Severe crowding in New Zealand since 1921:“A challenge to health and decency”
Table 1
1 Example of how the 1921 crowding measure works
Example of how the 1921 crowding measure works
Occupants
Rooms
People per room
Crowding status
4
2
2.0
Crowded
3
2
1.5
Not crowded
2
3
0.7
Not crowded
5
3
1.7
Crowded
In New Zealand and overseas, definitions of crowding changed after the 1960s. The
current American Crowding Index (people per room) defines a crowded house as having
more than one person per room. Therefore, houses that were deemed crowded in 1921
are now considered severely crowded. In 2006, only 0.8 percent of households, or 1.9
percent of people, lived in houses where there were more than 1.5 people per room.
To calculate the rates of severe crowding in private dwellings over the 20th century, the
PPR measure can be used to analyse published census information about the number of
rooms and number of occupants. The methodology for calculating the PPR measure is
explained in more detail in table 3 in the ‘Methodology for calculating crowding indexes
and comparing occupancy rates’ section.
Calculations based on published census information may vary in quality, depending on
the level of detail in data published about the number of rooms and occupants. There
have also been conceptual changes in how Statistics New Zealand collects data about
households and their occupants. These may reduce the consistency of the crowding data
presented in this paper.
The consistency of the data used to calculate the people per room measure in this paper
has been affected by the following factors:
• Details about number of rooms and occupants vary considerably between
censuses. In some census years, the published tables only include eight or more
rooms and occupants, in other years data was published about up to 15 or 20
rooms and occupants. This resulted in greater accuracy of the overall crowding
results.
• Who is counted as an occupant of a house has changed over time. In earlier years,
people visiting a home on census night were counted as occupants of that house.
Since the 1980s, only usual residents have been counted. In 2006, 0.9 percent of
private dwellings were severely crowded if all occupants on census night were
counted and 0.8 percent of households were severely crowded if just usual
residents were counted.
• As the dwellings we live in changed, particularly with the development of the open
plan house (where walls are knocked out to make rooms more spacious), counting
rooms became more difficult. In the 1980s, census staff became aware that the
quality of rooms data had deteriorated because it was difficult to count rooms in
open-plan houses. Because of concerns with the quality of data about rooms
collected in 1981, the 1986 Census did not include a rooms question. No crowding
index can be calculated for that year.
• The 1991 Census included a question about how many rooms were in a dwelling
but there were no instructions about how to count rooms. The definition of rooms in
a dwelling excludes bathrooms and laundries. Levels of crowding are determined
by how many people there are per room. It is likely that people counted bathrooms
and laundries when they answered the question in the 1991 Census. As a result,
6
Severe crowding in New Zealand since 1921:“A challenge to health and decency”
rooms were over-counted: 54 percent of dwellings were recorded as having four or
more other rooms (as well as bedrooms) in 1991 compared with just 28 percent in
1996.
Figure 1
1 Rooms question in 1921
Rooms question in 1991
Figure 2
2 Rooms question in 2006
Rooms question in 2006
How rates of crowding have changed since the 1920s
Crowding in 1921
Concerns about crowding in New Zealand homes emerged after the Great Spanish
Influenza pandemic of 1918–19. During this epidemic, almost 8,600 people in New
Zealand died in less than two months; the death rate was particularly high among Māori
at 42.3 per thousand people. Māori death rates were seven times those of Europeans
(Ministry for Culture and Heritage, 2009).
Medical examinations of soldiers recruited to fight in World War I raised concern about
the physical health of New Zealand men. Authorities identified inadequate housing as a
contributor to the spread of disease and poor health of many New Zealanders. The
Ashburton Guardian noted in 1919 that “overcrowded housing” helped to spread
influenza.
Overcrowding was a recurrent theme in the media in the 1920s. In 1920, for example, the
Grey River Argus published articles about the number of Wellington families living in one
room “at rack-rent charges.”
7
Severe crowding in New Zealand since 1921:“A challenge to health and decency”
Figure 3
3 Hawera & Normanby Star, 10 November 1921
Hawera & Normanby Star, Volume XLI, 10 November 1921, Page 3
Special report on crowding produced after 1921 Census
The Census and Statistical Office (1924) included a special report on household crowding
in the 1921 Census volume. This report showed that many New Zealanders were living in
crowded houses. Authorities were concerned that crowded houses could endanger the
health of the population. The New Zealand Census and Statistics Office (1924) noted that
crowded houses were a problem in similar countries. Their report on crowding in 1921
quoted from the British Board of Trade Journal, which attributed the shortage of dwellings
to “wage earning single women from all walks of life now occupy [ing] independent
apartments instead of residing with their parents as before the war . . .”
In 1921, the Census and Statistics Office calculated that almost 9 percent of private
dwellings were crowded and 15 percent of the New Zealand population lived in these
dwellings. These percentages did not include households defined as solely occupied by
Māori. Households where Māori and Europeans lived together were included in general
statistics.
Whether Māori were included in census statistics or counted as part of the Māori Census
depended on “his mode of living; if in the European manner, then he is classed as a
European; if otherwise, then as a Māori” (Census and Statistical Office, 1925).
8
Severe crowding in New Zealand since 1921:“A challenge to health and decency”
There was considerable regional variation in household crowding. In 1921, Wellington
had the worst crowding for an urban area, but crowding was more severe outside main
urban centres.
Table 2
2 People living in crowded households, 1921 Census
People living in crowded houses
1921 Census
Urban area
Overcrowded
dwellings
People living
in
overcrowded
dwellings
Total
dwellings
where rooms
specified
Total people
living in
dwellings
where rooms
specified
Percent of
dwellings
overcrowded
Percent of
people living
in crowded
houses
Auckland
2,321
16,899
32,130
141,135
7.2
12.0
Wellington
1,920
12,828
21,991
94,199
8.7
13.6
Christchurch
1,348
10,316
23,304
95,876
5.8
10.8
933
7,179
15,888
66,139
5.9
10.9
Remainder
of Dominion
16,533
117,676
165,470
711,300
10.0
16.5
Total (rooms
specified)
23,055
164,898
258,783
1,108,649
8.9
14.9
Dunedin
Source: Census and Statistical Office
Crowding since 1921
Figures 4 and 5 show the change in the proportion and number of severely crowded
households (more than 1.5 people per room). Data is shown from 1921 to 2006.
However, before the 1980s crowding rates were based on figures that included people
who were present in the household on census night. This is likely to slightly raise the
number of people that lived in crowded houses.
9
Severe crowding in New Zealand since 1921:“A challenge to health and decency”
Figure 4
4 Percent of New Zealand households that were severely crowded, more than 1.5 people per room
Percent of New Zealand households that were severely crowded
(More than 1.5 people per room)
1921 to 2006 Censuses
10
Percent
8
6
4
2
0
(1)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
1921 1926 1931 1936 1941 1945 1951 1956 1961 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006
Census year
1. No census held.
2. Figures for 1945 do not include servicemen who were overseas.
3. The census questionnaire did not ask about the number of rooms in 1986.
4. Figures for 1991 were omitted because of data quality issues.
Source: Statistics New Zealand
Figure 5
5 Number of New Zealand households that were severely crowded, 1921 to 2006 Censuses
Number of New Zealand households that were severely crowded
(More than 1.5 people per room)
1921–2006 Censuses
30 (000)
25
20
15
10
5
0
(1)
(3)
(2)
(4)
1921 1926 1931 1936 1941(1)1945 1951 1956 1961 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006
Census year
1. No census was held .
2. Figures for 1945 do not include servicemen who were overseas . Before the 1980s, figures included visitors on census night.
3. The census questionnaire did not ask about number of rooms in 1986. Figures for 1991 were omitted because of data quality
issues.
4. Before the 1980s, figures included visitors on census night.
Source: Statistics New Zealand
Figure 5 shows the number of severely crowded households in New Zealand, based on
census data from 1921 to 2006. There was a steady decline in crowding over the 20th
century. There was a slight rise in the proportion of crowded households in the early
1950s. In the 1950s, there was a shortage of housing because fewer dwellings were built
during the Depression years and there was a lack of building materials during World War
II (Derby, 2010). The number of households that were severely crowded in 1945 may
have been slightly lower, due to 43,415 servicemen still being overseas when the 1945
Census was held (Census and Statistics Department, 1947).
Rates of severe crowding much higher for Māori
It is also possible to calculate how crowded Māori dwellings were using the people per
room (PPR) measure. Results from the Māori Census, which were counted separately,
10
Severe crowding in New Zealand since 1921:“A challenge to health and decency”
can be used to estimate how crowded Māori dwellings were between the 1920s and
1970s.
Definition of Māori changes over time
Because of significant changes to the definition of Māori ethnicity, data about crowding
among the Māori population is only presented here to the beginning of the 1970s.
Before the 1970s, the definition of who was Māori was based on a concept of race and
degrees of blood. The Māori Census counted people who were defined as Māori of “full
blood, Māori – European half castes” and “all Māori-Europeans who are nearer to Māori
in blood than to European” (Department of Statistics, 1925).
The 1971 Census asked about people’s “descent origin” and by 1976 the term had
changed to “ethnic origin”. In 1974, the Maori Affairs Act 1953 was amended and the
definition of Māori was changed to include descendants of Māori who were less than half
Māori by blood. From the 1980s, the definition changed to one largely based on
identification rather than blood, although a Māori ancestry question was retained.
Population growth puts pressure on housing
For much of the 20th century, housing for Māori was considered very inadequate.
Occupancy rates (people per dwelling/household) were higher than among the European
population. In 1945, for example, the occupancy rate was 5.7 people per dwelling
compared with the total population figure of 3.7 people per dwelling.
Strong population growth among the Māori population in the mid-20th century put further
pressure on housing (see figure 3). Housing was especially inadequate in rural areas,
where most Māori lived before the 1950s. A period of rapid urbanisation occurred after
the 1950s, which helped to relieve pressure on housing in rural areas. In 1926, 84.4
percent of Māori lived in rural areas, but by 1966, this had fallen to 38.4 percent. By 2006,
rates of urbanisation were very similar for Māori and the total New Zealand population.
11
Severe crowding in New Zealand since 1921:“A challenge to health and decency”
Figure 6
6 Urban / rural distribution of Māori population, 1926 to 2006 Censuses
Urban / rural distribution of Māori(1) population
1926 – 2006 Censuses
600
(000)
urban
500
rural
400
300
200
100
0
1926
1936
1945
1956
1966
(1)
1976
1986
1996
2006
Year
1. The definition of Māori has changed over time, from degrees of blood (pre-1975) to total ethnicity concept. Before 1981, this
referred to the census night population – New Zealand residents and overseas visitors counted in New Zealand at each census.
Source: Statistics New Zealand
Rates of severe crowding were much higher for Māori (according to the people per room
measure) but declined sharply throughout the 20th century.
Figure 7
7 Percentage of severely crowded New Zealand households (PPR measure) defined as Māori, selected census years 1926 to 1971
Percentage of severely crowded New Zealand households
(PPR measure) defined as Māori(1)
Selected census years 1926–1971
60
Percent
50
40
30
20
10
0
(2)
1926
1936
1945
(3)
1951
1961
1971
Census year
1. The definition of Māori changed during this period and figures are not directly comparable with later definitions. Before
the 1970s, definitions depended on concepts based on degrees of blood. The 1971 Census asked about ‘descent origin’.
2. The 1926 figures do not include whares or huts.
3. Figures for 1945 exclude the 1,300 servicemen overseas when the census results were counted.
Source: Statistics New Zealand
12
Severe crowding in New Zealand since 1921:“A challenge to health and decency”
Reasons for decline in crowding
The number of crowded houses has declined since 1921. This is due to a number of
factors:
• more dwellings were built (after the shortage during the Depression and war years)
• more state housing was provided
• dwellings increased in size
• living standards rose
• families and households became smaller.
Number of houses increases
During the Depression years, housing construction declined. A shortage of materials
during the war years further constrained supply. After the war, housing construction
increased, but New Zealand still faced a housing shortage. In 1935, The Evening Post
headlined the shortage and noted that the prices of both timber and land were driving up
the cost of housing.
Subsequent governments attempted to address housing shortages by providing more
state housing and encouraging the private sector to provide more affordable housing. In
1953, the government called a national housing conference. A target of 206,000 houses
in 10 years was set at this conference. By the mid-1960s, over 200,000 house units had
been built (Department of Statistics, 1967). The government encouraged home
ownership by offering potential buyers cheap loans (known as state advances).
Figure 8
8 Building consents issued for residential dwellings, for New Zealand, 1922–2011
Building consents issued for residential dwellings(1)(2)
For New Zealand
1922–2011
50
(000)
40
30
20
10
0
22
26
30
34
38
42
46
50
54
58
62
66
70
74
78
82
86
90
94
98
02
06
10
Year
1. Before 1946, building consents were mainly for cities, boroughs, and town districts. The scope was gradually extended
through this period. From 1946, figures are for all New Zealand.
2. Before 1950, numbers were for private dwellings, after 1950 the numbers referred to flats or houses.
Source: Statistics New Zealand
Providing state housing helps improve living conditions
Providing state housing helped to improve housing conditions. The housing shortage in
the 1930s had led to pressure on affordable housing. The Labour Government elected in
1935 made providing state housing a national priority. It aimed to provide affordable
housing for low- to middle-income families (Schrader, 2011). Initially, state housing was
not provided for Māori, but in 1948, the government began providing state houses for
Māori in urban areas.
13
Severe crowding in New Zealand since 1921:“A challenge to health and decency”
By the end of the 1930s, there were large waiting lists for state houses and these
continued to grow (10,000 in February 1939 and 50,000 by 1950). Demand quickly
outgrew supply but by 1950, the government had built 30,000 homes (Schrader, 2011).
Figure 9
9 Total number of state houses, 1938–2009
Total number of state houses
80
1938–2009
(000)
60
40
20
0
1938
43
48
53
58
63
68
73
78
83
88
93
98
03
08
Year
Source: Schrader,Te Ara: Encyclopaedia of New Zealand
The increase in the number of state houses contributed to a decrease in crowding. This is
despite rapid population growth over the 20th century.
Dwellings become larger over time
As figure 4 shows, the percentage of severely crowded households has decreased
sharply since the beginning of the 20th century. Part of this decrease is due to dwellings
becoming larger. In 1921, on average, there were just over four rooms per dwelling; by
2006, this had risen to approximately six. New dwellings are also likely to be larger.
Building consents data shows that the average floor area per dwelling increased from
139m2 in 1991 to 191m2 in 2006.
14
Severe crowding in New Zealand since 1921:“A challenge to health and decency”
Figure 10
10 Number of rooms per dwelling, 1921, 1976, and 2006 Censuses
Number of rooms per dwelling
1921, 1976, and 2006 Censuses
40
Percent
1921
1976
30
2006
20
10
0
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
Six
Seven
Eight +
Rooms
Source: Statistics New Zealand
Figure 11
11 Average floor area of consented new dwellings, 1974–2011
Average floor area of consented new dwellings(1)
200
1974–2011
Floor area (sq m)
150
100
50
0
1974 76
78
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
98 2000 02
04
06
08
10
Year
1. Includes houses, flats, and apartments. Each dwelling unit in a housing project is counted separately.
Source: Infoshare, Statistics New Zealand
Living standards rise
New Zealand became more prosperous after the difficult years of the Depression. Gross
domestic product (GDP) per capita has generally risen over the last 37 years (see figure
12). Economic historians (Easton, 2010) argue that income inequality fell in the 1950s
and 1960s, although it rose again from the 1980s.
Household incomes also rose as greater numbers of women entered the workforce.
Increases in incomes made suitable housing more affordable. Census data shows that
housing quality improved as indoor toilets, bathrooms, and electricity became standard
features of New Zealand homes during the 1950s and 1960s.
15
Severe crowding in New Zealand since 1921:“A challenge to health and decency”
Figure 12
12 Gross domestic product per capita, 1921–2008
Gross domestic product per capita
1921–2008
8
GDP per capita $(000)
6
4
2
0
1921 1926 1931 1936 1941 1946 1951 1956 1961 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006
Year
Source: Easton, Te Ara: Encyclopedia of New Zealand and Statistics New Zealand
Households decrease in size
Households have also changed considerably over the 20th century. Average household
size has decreased from 4.9 people per dwelling in 1901 to 2.7 people per household in
2006. Part of the recent decrease (since the 1970s) in household size was due to women
having fewer babies (declining fertility rate) and ageing of the population. The fertility rate
peaked during the baby boom in the 1960s.
The composition of households has also changed: people are living longer and are more
likely to have years without children in the home and more people are choosing not to
have children. Couples are also delaying having a family, having fewer children, and
there are higher rates of separation and divorce. Consequently, the proportion of couple
only and one person households has risen.
16
Severe crowding in New Zealand since 1921:“A challenge to health and decency”
Figure 13
13 Occupancy rate and total fertility rate, all females and Mäori females, 1867–2006
Occupancy rate and total fertility rate(1)
All females and Māori females
1867–2006
6
Rate
5
4
3
Occupancy rate
2
Fertility rate
1
0
1867
Māori fertility rate
1874
1881
1891
1901
1911
1921
1936
1951
1961
1971
1981
1996
2006
Year
1.The average number of live births that a woman would have during her life if she experienced the age-specific
fertility rates of a given period (usually a year). It excludes the effect of mortality.
Source: Demographic Trends, Statistics New Zealand
Among Māori, fertility rates and the average number of people per household also
declined over the 20th century. However, both of these remained higher than the rates for
the total New Zealand population. Fertility for Māori women peaked in the early 1960s, at
just over 6 children per female (based on the ethnicity of the child). By the early 1980s,
Māori fertility was only slightly higher than for the total female population.
17
Conclusion
This paper has traced the decline in household crowding over the 20th century and
analysed some of the reasons why the proportion of people living in crowded
accommodation has decreased.
A number of factors have converged to reduce crowding. Firstly, there has been a
change in housing stock. From the late 1940s, there was an increase in house building.
Government promoted home ownership and home-building, as well as providing more
state housing as part of a strategy to reduce the housing shortage. In recent years the
average floor area of new dwellings has increased and there are more four and five
bedroom properties.
Secondly, there has been a rise in incomes since the 1920s and 1930s. People have
been able to afford better housing, particularly since the state welfare system reduced the
extremes of poverty.
Thirdly, the structure of the population has changed. From the 1970s, reduced fertility has
contributed to a decline in crowding. There has been a growth in one- and two-person
households and a decline in family-with-children households.
However, many houses in New Zealand are still crowded. While there has been an
increase in house size in recent years, larger houses tend to be newer and more
expensive. Large families and households still struggle to find accommodation that meets
their needs. There has also been pressure on housing in some areas. Crowding rates
have remained consistently high in places such as South Auckland. While the number of
Māori living in crowded houses has decreased, more Māori than European people live in
crowded houses.
The health concerns that brought crowding to the attention of authorities in the 1920s
remain of concern. Crowded living conditions contribute to the spread of disease and
poor health within the New Zealand population. Rates of some infectious diseases, which
tend to be strongly associated with crowding, are higher in New Zealand than in
comparative countries. This paper is part of a series of reports on crowding in New
Zealand. We hope that the data presented in this series of papers will help to inform
policymakers about the conditions of families living in crowded houses today.
18
Methodology for calculating crowding indexes and
comparing occupancy rates
Methodology for calculating people per room measure
The following table was used to calculate the people per room measures used in this
paper. To be severely crowded, a dwelling has to have more than 1.5 people per room.
Because the people per room calculation is based on aggregate data rather than
individual household data, the calculations are not exact – particularly for years when the
rooms and bedrooms data collected in the census was less detailed.
The data from 1996 onwards was calculated using the same format as previous census
years (even though the availability of electronic data means that we could calculate the
exact number of people per room). This was done to make data after 1996 compatible
with pre-1996 data.
The table below shows different crowding index numbers, based on different
combinations of number of rooms and number of people. For example, 1 room, one usual
residents/1room means that there is 1.0 person per room (not crowded). Two people per
room/1 room means that there are 2.0 people per room (severely crowded). The shaded
numbers in the table were not used to calculate the crowding index.
Table 3
3 How crowding indexes were calculated for this paper
How crowding indexes were calculated for this paper
Number of
rooms
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15 or more
Not elsewhere
included
Total
Number of usual residents
1
2
3
4
12
114
981
1,494
4,515
7,749
6,885
5,922
4,014
2,424
1,182
651
318
267
327
2,400
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
6
21
195
312
873
1,428
1,119
876
585
366
219
117
48
54
66
351
0
9
93
132
429
672
510
360
258
171
93
75
27
24
48
213
0
3
45
69
207
354
297
225
147
105
57
45
24
24
24
105
0
0
21
27
90
132
126
87
69
39
39
24
9
3
15
57
0
0
6
15
33
96
78
45
36
27
9
9
6
6
9
33
0
0
0
12
27
36
27
21
24
15
9
3
3
0
3
27
0
0
0
3
12
21
24
15
12
12
3
6
3
0
3
15
328,314 494,043 240,291 221,667 102,714 39,258 14,766
6,642
3,111
1,731
738
402
213
135
231
1,833
7,572
17,667
38,547
64,953
42,663
27,291
14,394
6,960
3,033
1,707
795
762
1,074
10,815
36
270
2,007
3,588
10,986
21,021
20,634
17,079
10,824
5,727
2,598
1,332
597
543
744
4,731
6
6
33
480
621
1,944
3,102
2,538
2,007
1,383
849
489
294
135
90
156
642
5,781
1,914
14,499
6,720
35,739 20,844
53,172 47,967
71,706 84,387
69,477 132,030
29,322 84,177
13,155 49,659
5,508 23,211
2,769 10,881
1,131
4,617
657
2,595
297
1,182
570
1,314
891
1,740
23,640 20,814
75
798
4,578
9,894
26,268
54,249
46,146
34,161
18,861
9,030
3,801
2,031
921
873
1,137
8,838
5
15 or
more
0
0
0
0
15
18
30
21
15
9
6
9
3
0
9
18
8,064
24,297
72,570
134,976
240,036
355,338
234,567
150,921
79,344
39,384
17,280
9,561
4,365
4,536
6,243
72,693
150 1,454,175
Note: All cells have been randomly rounded to base 3.
Source: Statistics New Zealand
Comparing average number of people per household
(occupancy rates) with earlier censuses
The concept of usual residents in a household is relatively recent. In earlier censuses, the
number of occupants could include people who were visiting on census night.
For example, the instructions in the 1945 Census asked people to: “state total number of
occupants in this dwelling on Census night. (Include persons arriving or returning next
day and not included elsewhere in the census).” (Department of Statistics, 1945).
19
Total
Severe crowding in New Zealand since1921: “A challenge to health and decency”
Table 4
4 Occupancy rates for New Zealand
Occupancy rates for New Zealand
1867–2006
Year
Occupancy rate
1867
4.05
1871
4.48
1874
4.88
1878
5.02
1881
5.12
1886
5.17
1891
5.06
1896
4.98
1901
4.86
1906
4.81
1911
4.68
1916
4.25
1921
4.28
1926
4.17
1931
…
3.91
1936
1941
1945
...
3.68
1951
3.61
1956
3.58
1961
3.56
1966
3.52
1971
3.38
1976
3.22
1981
3.00
1986
2.89
1991
2.78
1996
2.76
2001
2.67
2006
2.71
Note:
1986–2001 occupancy rate based on private
occupied dw ellings.
1926–1981 occupancy rate based on permanent
private occupied dw ellings.
1867–1921 occupancy rate based on private
occupied dw ellings.
1867 –1936 excludes dw ellings occupied only by
Mäori people.
Sym bol:
… not applicable as no census w as taken in 1931
All cells in this table have been rounded to base 3.
Source: Statistics New Zealand, Census of
Population and Dw ellings
20
Glossary
Dwelling (1921)
The distinct residence of a private family, whether the family live in a house, rooms in a
house, or rooms or quarters in a non-residential building.
Dwelling (2006)
A dwelling is any building or structure, or part thereof, that people live in (or intend to live
in). It can be of a permanent or temporary nature and includes structures such as houses,
motels, hotels, prisons, motor homes, huts, and tents.
There can be more than one dwelling within a building, for example, each separate
apartment or unit within an apartment building is considered a dwelling.
Household
A household, as defined in the Census of Population and Dwellings, is either one person
who usually lives alone, or two or more people who usually live together and share
facilities (eg cooking or bathroom facilities, a living area) in a private dwelling. It may
include other people in addition to a family, or two or more families living together.
People per room (PPR) measure
Also known as the American crowding index, this measures how crowded a house is,
based on people per room. If there is more than 1 person per room, households are
defined as crowded. If there are more than 1.5 people per room the household/dwelling is
defined as severely crowded.
Rooms
The census asks people to count the number of rooms in their dwellings. Bedrooms,
kitchens, dining rooms, lounges, family rooms, studies, and conservatories that people
can sit in are included in the count. Open-plan areas are counted as if they are separate
rooms. Bathrooms and laundries are excluded from the count of rooms.
In recent years, how the number of rooms is measured has been reasonably consistent,
although the quality of the data varied. For example, in 1991 the rooms question did not
explain what should be counted as a room, resulting in a much higher count of rooms.
This is possibly because people included bathrooms and laundries in the total number of
rooms in their dwelling.
The concept of rooms has changed slightly since the 1921 Census. The main changes
are summarised below.
1921: number of rooms excludes shops, offices, store, bathroom, pantry, scullery, washhouse; but includes kitchen. In the case of a tenement, people were asked to give
number of rooms in tenement only. In case of a building only partly used as a dwelling,
people were asked to state the number of rooms so used.
Prior to 1940s: pantries, laundries, and washrooms were not counted as rooms.
1945 Census: people where asked not to ”count scullery, pantry or laundry, bathroom,
sleeping porch not wholly enclosed, or kitchenette not used occasionally for meals . . . a
detached building adjoining a dwelling and occupied as bedroom should be counted as a
room of the dwelling.” (Department of Statistics, 1945)
1981 Census: asked for number of bathrooms and laundries, however, it did not record
whether these were counted in the number of rooms. We have not included 1981 census
figures on crowding in our analysis as they were suspiciously low.
21
Severe crowding in New Zealand since 1921:“A challenge to health and decency”
Occupancy rate (now referred to as average household size)
The average number of people per household.
Total fertility rate
The average number of times a woman would give birth during her life if she experienced
the age-specific fertility rates of a given period (usually a year).
22
References and further reading
References
Baker, M, McNicholas A, Garrett N, Jones N, Stewart J, Koberstein V, & Lennon D (2000).
Household crowding a major risk factor for epidemic meningococcal disease in Auckland
children. Journal of Pediatric Infectious Diseases 19(10):983–90. Available from
www.journals.lww.com.
Census and Statistics Office (1924). Results of a Census of the Dominion of New Zealand
taken for the night of the 17th April, 1921, Part XV. Dwellings. Wellington: Department of
Statistics.
Census and Statistics Office (1925). Results of a Census of the Dominion of New Zealand
taken for the night of the 17th April, 1921, General Report, Wellington.
Census and Statistics Department (1947). Population Census, 1945, vol.1 Increase and
Location of Population, Wellington.
Department of Statistics (1967) New Zealand Official Yearbook 1967. Yearbooks from 1893
to 1979 are available on the Statistics NZ website.
Derby, M (2010). Suburbs – The state builds suburbs. Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New
Zealand. Available from www.teara.govt.nz.
Easton, B (2010). Income and wealth distribution. Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New
Zealand. Available from www.teara.govt.nz.
Housing Shortage (1935). Evening Post, Volume CXX, Issue 105, 30 October 1935.
Ministry of Culture and Heritage (2009). Uneven rates of death – 1918 influenza pandemic.
New Zealand History Online. Available from www.nzhistory.net.nz.
Press Association (1919). Public Health, Overcrowding Evils. Ashburton Guardian, Volume
XXXIX (Issue 9503) 17 January 1919, p3.
Schrader, B (2011). Housing and government – State loans and state houses. Te Ara – the
Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Available from www.teara.govt.nz.
The Housing Problem in Wellington (1920). Grey River Argus, 28 May 1920.
Further reading
Baker, M, Goodyear, R, & Howden-Chapman, P (2003). Household crowding and health. In
Statistics New Zealand, What is the extent of crowding in New Zealand? An analysis of
crowding in New Zealand households 1986 – 2001. Wellington: Statistics New Zealand.
Baker, M, Zhang, J, Howden-Chapman, P, Blakely, T, Saville-Smith, K, & Crane, J (2006).
Housing, Crowding and Health Study: Characteristics of cohort members and their
hospitalizations, February 2003 to June 2005, Interim Report 26 July 2006. Wellington: He
Kainga Oranga/Housing and Health Research Programme. Available from
www.healthyhousing.org.nz.
Canadian Tuberculosis Committee (2007). Housing conditions that serve as risk factors for
tuberculosis infection and disease. Canada Communicable Disease Report 33 (9).
23
Severe crowding in New Zealand since 1921:“A challenge to health and decency”
Census of Population and Dwellings forms are available on the Statistics New Zealand
website.
Department of Statistics (1925) Results of a Census of the Dominion of New Zealand taken
for the night of the 17th April, 1921, General Report. Wellington: Department of Statistics.
Department of Statistics (1986). Trends and patterns in New Zealand fertility, 1912–1983.
Wellington: Department of Statistics.
Easton, B (2011). Economic history. Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Available
from www.teara.govt.nz.
Morrison, P (1994). Housing occupancy and the changing size of households and dwellings
in New Zealand 1951–1991. New Zealand Population Review, 20(1&2):32–64.
Statistics New Zealand (2008). Demographic trends: 2009. Wellington: Statistics New
Zealand.
University of Otago (2009). Infectious disease classification with a particular focus on closecontact infectious diseases. Workshop 22 April 2009, Wellington.
Our free, online tool, Infoshare allows you to access a wide range of time-series data.
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