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Introduction to English Language & Linguistics
NB: The keywords in this handout cannot replace the lecture and the independent study of
Why do you need this lecture?
you will learn to
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Korte, Barbara/Klaus Peter Müller/Josef Schmied (2004). Einführung in die Anglistik.
Stuttgart: Metzler.
Kortmann, Bern (2005). English Linguistics: Essentials. Berlin: Cornelsen.
according to their listeners/readers
as a medium-specific form of communication
in its socio-cultural contexts
Becker, Annette/Markus Bieswanger (32010). Introduction to English Linguistics. Tübingen:
A. Francke.
see and solve (English) language problems generally
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References/Recommended Reading:
think about “familiar” terms systematically (e.g. grammar)
integrate new technical terms into the system (e.g. morpheme)
learn about (the variation of) English (usage)
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these materials combined with (tutorial) handouts and the group discussions, since this
introduction can give you a sound basis for all further studies! (cf. 1.1.1 or 1.1.2 below)
use (critically) concepts related to language in the widest sense
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non-sexist language (e.g. singular they, their in a student should do their home-work)
“markedness”: NOT subject/object “norm” (who said us Chemnitzer are stupid,
you and me will do it, between you and I).
practise general skills of learning
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Reading
esp. deductive (=from concept/term to examples) and
inductive (=from examples to concept/term) and
academic discourse
Rasinger, Sebastian M. (22014). Quantitative Research in Linguistics: An Introduction.
London: Continuum.
NB: You are allowed to use Wikipedia as a starting point for concept discussions, but not
as an end point (or only reference), because you can only decide whether Wikipedia offers
a suitable entry when you have compared it with further information (often found in the
references at the end) and are convinced that this is a scholarly sound contribution.
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1. Introduction survey
Grammar = linguistics from school
1 Basic thoughts on language, linguistics, culture, English
1.1 Concepts and categories of traditional grammar
from Aristotle (384–322 BC) to Quirk (1920-)
1.1.1 Classification parts of speech (POS = word classes)
grammar = linguistics from school
linguistics = thinking about language
relationships: language, communication, culture, etc.
Englishes: a “wild world” of ENL,ESL,EIL, EAP, …
In grammar, a part of speech (also a word class, a lexical class, or a lexical category)
is a linguistic category of words (or more precisely lexical items), which is generally
defined by the syntactic or morphological behaviour of the lexical item in question.
Common linguistic categories include noun and verb, among others. There are open
word classes, which constantly acquire new members, and closed word classes, which
acquire new members infrequently if at all. …
Linguists recognize that the above list of eight word classes is drastically simplified and
artificial.[7] For example, "adverb" is to some extent a catch-all class that includes
words with many different functions. Some have even argued that the most basic of
category distinctions, that of nouns and verbs, is unfounded,[8] or not applicable to
certain languages.[9]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Part_of_speech (18/10/13)
2 Phonetics & phonology
3 Morphology & word formation
4 Syntax and grammar
5 Semantics, pragmatics and lexicology
word classes are the basis of all traditional grammars (usually chapters)
distinction open/major – closed/minor:
- productivity: high/low
- diachronic change: fast/slow
- semantic: +/- lexical
6 Systems, relationships and thinking
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Traditional English word classes: survey in keywords
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word classes: traditional  modern
Noun =
A. VERBS =
B. NOUNS =
C. ADJECTIVES =
D. ADVERBS =
E. PREPOSITIONS =
F. CONJUNCT(IONS) =
G. PRONOUNS =
H. AUX / NUM / ART =
(INTERJECTIONS) =
“action”? TAM modification? clause head (only 1)?
“things”? (vs. abstracts)
attributive/predicative? gradable? +elative (very)?
FUNCTION “ad-adjective/-clause”? FORM –ly? (see below!!)
introduce NP? (dependency?)
connect CLAUSEs/NPs?
personal pronoun, possessive pronoun is adjective (if
attributive), but:“pro”-clause so?
DETERMINER (his functions like the, pre-nominal)?
own class OR subcategory of category VERB/ADJ./ ?
discourse markers + emotion (like surprise, annoyance)?
NB: interjections are culture-specific!
Conventions like Hi, Bye and Goodbye are interjections, as are exclamations like
Cheers! and Hooray!. …
Expressions such as "Excuse me!", "Sorry!", "No thank you!", "Oh dear!", "Hey that's
mine!", and similar ones often serve as interjections. Interjections can be phrases or
even sentences, as well as words, such as "Oh!" "Pooh!" "Wow!" or "sup!".
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interjection (18/10/13)
Pronoun =
Adjective =
Verb =
Adverb =
Preposition =
Conjunction =
Interjection =
any abstract or concrete entity; a person (police officer, Michael),
place (coastline, London), thing (necktie, television), idea (happiness),
or quality (bravery)
any substitute for a noun or noun phrase
any qualifier of a noun
any action (walk), occurrence (happen), or state of being (be)
any qualifier of an adjective, verb, clause, sentence, or other adverb
any establisher of relation and syntactic context
any syntactic connector
any emotional greeting (or "exclamation")
Open word classes:
adjectives, adverbs, nouns, verbs (except auxiliary verbs), interjections
Closed word classes:
 auxiliary verbs, clitics, coverbs
 conjunctions
 determiners (articles, quantifiers, demonstrative adjectives, and possessive adjectives)
 particles
 measure words
 adpositions (prepositions, postpositions, and circumpositions)
 preverbs
 pronouns
 contractions
 cardinal numbers
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Part_of_speech (18/10/13)
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classification problem: adverb as form? – function?
1.1.2 Establishing patterns/paradigms
(secondary categories)
Adverbs are words that modify
• a verb (He drove slowly. — How did he drive?)
• an adjective (He drove a very fast car. — How fast was his car?)
• another adverb (She moved quite slowly down the aisle. — How slowly did she move?) …
And Infinitive phrases can act as adverbs (usually telling why):
N: declension
V: conjugation
GENDER (# SEX) = “inexplicable noun class system” in German?
depends on sex? Male = masculine (child)?
(except country/ship = feminine)
She hurried to the mainland to see her brother. The senator ran to catch the bus. …
Adverbs frequently end in -ly; however, many words and phrases not ending in -ly serve an
adverbial function and an -ly ending is not a guarantee that a word is an adverb.
The words lovely, lonely, motherly, friendly, neighborly, for instance, are adjectives:
N
That lovely woman lives in a friendly neighborhood. …
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/adverbs.htm (19/10/13)
An adverb is a word that changes or qualifies the meaning of a verb, adjective, other adverb,
clause, sentence or any other word or phrase, except that it does not include the adjectives and
determiners that directly modify nouns. Adverbs are traditionally regarded as one of the parts of
speech, although the wide variety of the functions performed by words classed as adverbs means
that it is hard to treat them as a single uniform category. …
Adverbs are considered a part of speech in traditional English grammar and are still included as a
part of speech in grammar taught in schools and used in dictionaries. However, modern
grammarians recognize that words traditionally grouped together as adverbs serve a number of
different functions. Some would go so far as to call adverbs a "catch-all" category that includes
all words that do not belong to one of the other parts of speech.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adverbs (19/10/13)
CASE =
NUMBER =
PERSON =
V
TENSE (# TIME) =
MOOD =
VOICE =
ASPECT (in E) =
indicates NP relationships in a clause:
form (morphology, mother’s; cf. 3.2.1) –
function (case grammar cf. 4.5.3)
1 (=singular) or MORE (=plural)
(except either/both = dual)
1st=+speaker, 2nd=+hearer, 3rd=-speaker/-hearer
relationship action time - speaker time/ ?
indicative (unmarked) - subjunctive/imperative (God save the Queen)
OR: modality: likelihood? (it may/must be him)
+ necessity/possibility/etc. (you must/may do it)
active/passive = +/-agent; result emphasis (=GENUS VERBI)
progressive, imperfective, etc. (cf. 5.1.6 below)
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category problem: “gender”
Problems in the (English) system e.g. personal pronouns
A system of grammatical gender, whereby every noun was treated as either masculine,
feminine or neuter, existed in Old English, but fell out of use during the Middle English period.
Modern English retains features relating to natural gender, namely the use of certain nouns
and pronouns (such as he and she) to refer specifically to persons or animals of one or other
sex, and certain others (such as it) for sexless objects – although feminine pronouns may
optionally be used when referring to ships (and analogous machinery) and nation states.
Some aspects of gender usage in English have been influenced by the movement towards a
preference for gender-neutral language. This applies in particular to avoidance of the default
use of the masculine he when referring to a person of unspecified sex, and avoidance of the
use of certain feminine forms of nouns (such as authoress and poetess). …
Gender is no longer an inflectional category in Modern English.[7] The only traces of the Old
English gender system are found in the system of pronoun–antecedent agreement, although
this is now generally based on natural gender[8] – the sex, or perceived sexual characteristics
(or asexual nature), of the pronoun's referent. Another manifestation of natural gender that
continues to function in English is the use of certain nouns to refer specifically to persons or
animals of a particular sex: widow/widower, actress, cow/bull, etc.
Benjamin Whorf described grammatical gender in English as a covert grammatical category.[9]
He noted that gender as a property inherent in nouns (rather than in their referents) is not
entirely absent from modern English: different pronouns may be appropriate for the same
referent depending on what noun has been used. For example, one might say this child is
eating its dinner, but my daughter is eating her (not its) dinner, even though child and
daughter in the respective sentences might refer to the same person.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_in_English (18/10/13)
Personal pronouns are pronouns that are associated primarily with a particular grammatical
person – first person (as I), second person (as you), or third person (as he, she, it). Personal
pronouns may also take different forms depending on number (usually singular or plural),
grammatical or natural gender, case, and formality.. …
Some languages distinguish between inclusive and exclusive first-person plural pronouns – those
that do and do not include their audience. For example, Tok Pisin has seven first-person
pronouns according to number (singular, dual, trial, plural) and clusivity, such as mitripela
("they two and I") and yumitripela ("you two and I"). …
For instance, in formal situations, adults usually refer to themselves as watashi or the even
more polite watakushi, while young men may use the student-like boku and police officers may
use honkan ("this officer"). In informal situations, women may use the colloquial atashi, and
men may use the rougher ore.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_pronouns (17/10/13)
Standard English has systematic problems with personal pronouns:
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no distinction 2nd person singular and plural (yous, you’all are AmE, you guys is spreading)
no polite forms (German/French originally plural: tu/Du – Sie/vous), since E plural  sing.!
3rd person singular is not gender-neutral (singular they??) – but Japanese is “worse”!
1st person plural we is inclusive or exclusive (communication problems?)
English (like German) is a non PRO-drop (null-subject) language (Italian, Spanish are!)
English has many archaic (thou) and non-standard forms (hisself, theirself)
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1.1.3 Functions (= clause elements) in a particular sentence
ADVERBIAL
SUBJ
Tomorrow
Mrs Thatcher
To everyone‘s surprise
she
VERB/PREDICATE
will introduce
was elected
OBJ direct/
indirect
COMPLEMENT
her cabinet
to the Queen
subject/
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1.2 Linguistics = “thinking about language”,
= the scientific study of language
1.2.1 History of linguistics (schools)
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Prime Minister
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object
reference identity
the same words can have different functions in different sentences
e.g. active objects become passive subjects:
The student read the book  The book was read by the student
exercises:
Classify each sentence element according to form (POS) and function!
traditional grammar
neogrammarians
structuralism
generative-transformational grammar
cognitive grammar
construction grammar
1.2.2 Linguistic subdisciplines (cf. the “football model”)
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microlinguistics:
phonology, morphology, lexicology, semantics, syntax
text-linguistics - discourse analysis
macrolinguistics: pragmatics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, etc.
applied linguistics: lexicography, translation studies, error analysis, SLA,
corpus-linguistics;
computational linguistics?
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The „football model“
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types
of linguistic
(theoretical - applied)
subdisciplines
methods
historical linguistics
phonology
lexicology/
lexiography
translation
studies
semantics
discourse analysis/
text-linguistics
contrastive linguistics
sociolinguistics
approaches (syn-/diachronic)
subdisciplines (1.2.2)
object
linguistics
grammar/
syntax
pragmatics
dialectology
(empirical, qual./quant)
corpus
history (1.2.1)
psycholinguistics
linguistics = the scientific study
first/second
language
acquisition
of language
English
world-wide
definitions
types (1.3.5)
(1.3)
properties/
design features
language & culture: intercultural communication
(1.3.3)
purpose
medium varieties (1.5)
(communication) (oral – written)
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1.3 Language
1.3.2 Communication vs. language
1.3.1 Definitions of language
communication = the passing on or exchange of information – distinguishes what
is living from what is non-living in nature (O'Grady et al. 1996)
“Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas,
emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols” (Sapir 1921)
human language is different from animal communication because of special features:
“I will consider a language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in
length and constructed out of a finite set of elements” (Chomsky 1957)
1.3.3 The design features of human language
(cf. Hockett, Charles F. 1968)
1. interchangeability: all members of the species can send and receive messages
language and the linguistic symbol/semiotic triangle
(de Saussure > Pierce):
2. feedback: users of the system are aware of what they are transmitting
thought (reference)
3. specialisation: the communicative system serves no other function but to communicate
4. semanticity: the system conveys meaning through a set of fixed relationships
among signifiers, referents and meaning
symbol
5. arbitrariness: there is no natural or inherent connection between a token and its
referent
referent/reality
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The design features of human language II (cf. Hocket)
6. discreteness:
the communication system consists of isolatable, repeatable units
7. displacement:
users of the system are able to refer to events remote in space
and time
8. productivity:
new messages on any topic can be produced at any time
9. tradition, cultural transmission: certain aspects of the system must be transmitted from an experienced user to a learner
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1.3.4 An ideal model of communication
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channel: the messages are primarily transmitted via the vocalauditory channel
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linearity: the message is extended temporally (speech) and locally as
a string
(writing) and is produced and analysed as a sequence
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redundancy: the same information is given several times
10. duality of patterning: meaningless units (phonemes) are combined to form
arbitrary signs; signs can be recombined to form new
larger meaningful units (s-p-o-t  tops, pots)
11. prevarication: the system enables users to talk nonsense or to lie
12. learnability:
the user of the system can learn other variants; humans can
learn different languages, bees are limited to their genetically
specified dialect
13. reflexiveness: the ability to use the communication system to discuss the system itself
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1.3.5 Types of languages
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Types of languages: principles and examples
relation between words is expressed
analytic
synthetic
isolating
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in different words = analytic/isolating (Chinese)
in merged/fused affixes = synthetic/inflecting (Latin)
in unchanging affixes = agglutinative (Turkish)
others, like polysynthetic (Inuit, Nutka)
English
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inflecting
agglutinative
name
Greek ‘dissolve’
Latin ‘put together’
Latin ‘glue together’
language example
classical Chinese,
Vietnamese
Latin, Greek,
Sanscrit, Russian
Turkish, Hungarian,
Japanese, Kiswahili
expressing relation
between words in
different words
merged affixes
unchanging affixes
form example
mit dem Schwert
gladio
ni/na
sie haben geliebt
amaverunt
a/li
to the man
dem Mann(e)
Wa/ta
combines synthetic and analytic features
e.g. Anglo-Saxon –s genitive (used for humans, etc.) is synthetic,
modern of genitive (used for inanimates) is analytic
piga
as moved from synthetic to analytic, further than German (diachronic shift)
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The philological triangle
1.4 Relationships
language
language < communication (see semiotics in 5.6)
language < thinking/cognition (see cognitive linguistics in 4.5.4)
Philology is the academic study of language, literature and culture
(see The philological triangle):
Is the text the basis of all philology?
language
„Anglistik (Englische Philologie) ist die Wissenschaft, die sich mit der englischen
Sprache und Literatur beschäftigt. In der Anglistik werden alle auf englisch
verfassten oder gesprochenen Texte und alle englischsprachigen Kulturen
erforscht.“ (Wikipedia s.v. 11/04/06)
is the core of
culture
culture
literature
creates
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1.5 Varieties of English world-wide
1.5.1 Tok Pisin as an extreme example (beyond the line?)
Sapos yu kisim bagarap kisim namba bilong narapela draiva,
sapos yu ken, kisim naim bilong em na adres tu, na tokim polis long en.
Noken paitim em o tok nogut long em.
If you have an accident, get the other driver’s number,
if possible his name and address and report it to the police.
Do not fight him, or abuse him.
(Crystal, David The English Language. London: Penguin.1988: 13)
buk bilong yu
your book
Bimeby hed bilongyu i-arrait gain
by and by head belong you he-alright again
= your head will soon get well again
literature
“Philology is the study of ancient texts and languages. The term originally meant a
love (Greek philo-) of learning and literature (Greek -logia). In the academic
traditions of several nations, a wide sense of the term "philology" describes the
study of a language together with its literature and the historical and cultural
contexts which are indispensable for an understanding of the literary works and
other culturally significant texts. Philology thus comprises the study of the
grammar, rhetoric, history, interpretation of authors, and critical traditions
associated with a given language.” (Wikipedia s.v. 11/04/06)
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1.5.2 Typology of Englishes
ENL = English as a native language
ESL = English as a second language
EIL = English as an international language
ELF = English as a lingua franca (plural: lingue franche)
esp. of international science and technology
ESP = English for specific purposes
EAP = English for academic purposes
pidgin languages develop rudimentary grammar in superficial
contact situations (e.g. Tok Pisin in PNG)
creole languages develop from pidgins when they expand in
form, parallel to the expansion of functions as
a first language (e.g. Krio in Sierra Leone)
Mi driman long kilim wanpela snek
I dreamed that I killed a snake
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Non-Standard English in Literature
1.5.3 Standard and Nonstandard English
Standard English (often shortened to S.E. within linguistic circles) refers to whatever form of the
English language is accepted as a national norm in an Anglophone country.[1] It encompasses
grammar, vocabulary, and spelling. In the British Isles, particularly in England and Wales, it is often
associated with: the "Received Pronunciation" accent (there are several variants of the accent)
and UKSE (United Kingdom Standard English), which refers to grammar and vocabulary. In Scotland
the standard is Scottish Standard English. In the United States it is generally associated with the
General American accent and in Australia with General Australian.[2] Unlike the case of other
standard languages, however, there's no official or central regulating body defining Standard
English.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_English (18/10/13)
definition “non-Standard” English? (=“broken English”?)
(1) Any dialect of English other than Standard English.
(2) A term used disapprovingly by some non-linguists to describe "bad" or "incorrect" English.
The Stigma of Nonstandard English
"We should not be so naive . . . as to begin thinking that nonstandard English will ever shed its
stigma. Many who argue against teaching Standard conventions seem to believe it will. The reality
is that failure to teach the conventions of Standard and formal Standard English in our classes is
unlikely to have any effect on society's attitudes toward speakers of nonstandard English, but it
will most certainly have an effect on our students' lives. Their horizons will be limited, and many
at the bottom of the socioeconomic scale will remain ghettoized. On this basis alone, I would
argue that we must push students to reach their full potential, especially with regard to language.
Our society is growing ever more competitive, not less, and Standard English, because it is
inclusive rather than limiting, is a basic requirement for social and economic opportunities."
(James D. Williams, The Teacher's Grammar Book, 2nd ed. Routledge, 2005)
http://grammar.about.com/od/mo/g/nonstandterm.htm (18/10/13)
Nonstandard Usage in Huckleberry Finn
"I see Jim before me, all the time; in the day, and in the night-time, sometimes moonlight,
sometimes storms, and we a floating along, talking, and singing, and laughing. But somehow I
couldn't seem to strike no places to harden me against him, but only the other kind. I'd see him
standing my watch on top of his'n, 'stead of calling me, so I could go on sleeping; and see him how
glad he was when I come back out of the fog; and when I come to him agin in the swamp, up
there where the feud was; and suchlike times; and would always call me honey, and pet me, and
do everything he could think of for me, and how good he always was. And at last I struck the time
I saved him by telling the men we had smallpox aboard, and he was so grateful, and said I was the
best friend old Jim ever had in the world, and the only one he's got now; and then I happened to
look around, and see that paper.
"It was a close place. I took it up, and held it in my hand. I was a trembling, because I'd got to
decide, forever, betwixt two things, and I knowed it. I studied a minute, sort of holding my
breath, and then says to myself:
"'All right, then, I'll go to hell'--and tore it up."
(Mark Twain, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, 1884)
"The kinds of errors that Huck makes [in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn] are by no means
haphazard; Twain carefully placed them to suggest Huck's basic illiteracy but not to overwhelm
the reader. Nonstandard verb forms constitute Huck's most typical mistakes. He often uses the
present form or past participle for the simple past tense, for example, see or seen for saw; his
verbs frequently do not agree with their subjects in number and person; and he often shifts tense
within the same sequence."
(Janet Holmgren McKay, "'An Art So High': Style in Adventures of Huckleberry Finn." New Essays on
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, ed. by Louis J. Budd. Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985)
http://grammar.about.com/od/mo/g/nonstandterm.htm (18/10/13)
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Standard or non-standard?
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1.5.4 Stylistic Variation
1) I seen him at the Union this morning.
2) Either he put on weight or his clothes shrinked.
3) Let‘s not get excited now.
4) He wants that we should help him.
5) I‘ll learn you not to be late.
6) She did the job good.
7) It don‘t matter at all.
Stylistics is the study and interpretation of texts in regards to their linguistic and tonal
style. As a discipline, it links literary criticism to linguistics. It does not function as an
autonomous domain on its own, but it can be applied to an understanding of literature,
journalism as well as linguistics.[1][2] Sources of study in stylistics may range from canonical
works of writing to popular texts, and from advertising copy to news, non-fiction, popular
culture, as well as to political and religious discourse.[3
e.g. Northern English, Scots
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scots_language (16/10/13)
“Although a number of paradigms for distinguishing between languages and dialects do
exist, these often render contradictory results. Focused broad Scots is at one end of a
bipolar linguistic continuum, with Scottish Standard English at the other.[8] Consequently,
Scots is generally regarded as one of the ancient varieties of English, yet it has its own
distinct dialects.[7] Alternatively, Scots is sometimes treated as a distinct Germanic
language, in the way Norwegian is closely linked to, yet distinct from, Danish.[7]”
Stylistics as a conceptual discipline may attempt to establish principles capable of
explaining particular choices made by individuals and social groups in their use of
language, such as in the literary production and reception of genre, the study of
folk art, in the study of spoken dialects and registers, and can be applied to areas
such as discourse analysis as well as literary criticism.
Common features of style include the use of dialogue, including regional accents
and individual dialects (or ideolects), the use of grammar, such as the observation
of active voice and passive voice, the distribution of sentence lengths, the use of
particular language registers, and so on. In addition, stylistics is a distinctive
term that may be used to determine the connections between the form and
effects within a particular variety of language. Therefore, stylistics looks at what
is 'going on' within the language; what the linguistic associations are that the
style of language reveals.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stylistics_%28linguistics%29 (18/10/13)
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which variant is marked? what does (marked?) style tell us?
1) I‘m lucky to have found my watch, (ain’t I / am I not / aren’t I)?
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1.6 Why English –
„all languages are created equal“ but …
English is more equal than others
academic:
2) Everybody has (his / his or her / their) work done.
3) We (can / can’t) hardly see in this fog.
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4) The weather looks (kind of / rather) uncertain today.
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5) (Who / Whom) did you meet downtown?
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6) She is taller than (I / me).
style is very ambiguous:
socio-stylistic variation 
general style guides  academic style manuals (APA, MLA)  copy-editing
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practical (post-academic):
•
Markedness, a term which originated in linguistics, is the state of standing out as unusual or
difficult in comparison to a more common or regular form. In a marked/unmarked relation,
one term of an opposition is the broader, dominant one. The dominant default or minimum
effort form is known as the 'unmarked' term and the other, secondary one is the 'marked'
term. In other words, it is the characterization of a "normal" linguistic unit (i.e. the
unmarked term) compared to the unit's possible "irregular" forms (i.e. the marked term).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markedness (18/10/13)
English has a more elaborate spectrum of world-wide functions, esp. as
an additional language (EIL, ESP/EAP)
English is more widely spoken than other languages
English is the language of modern ww communication technology
English is related to German, but has undergone more (radical) changes
in grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, etc.
English linguistics has more and better literature than other languages
•
English has more job offers in “language services”, teaching, translation
(simultaneous interpretation), web publishing, information retrieval, etc.
English skills (advanced and aware) are relevant in all jobs in an international intercultural context
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definitions: phonetics - phonology
2. Phonetics and Phonology
Phonetics (pronounced /fəˈnɛtɪks/, from the Greek: φωνή, phōnē, 'sound, voice') is a
branch of linguistics that comprises the study of the sounds of human speech, or—in the
case of sign languages—the equivalent aspects of sign.[1] It is concerned with the physical
properties of speech sounds or signs (phones): their physiological production, acoustic
properties, auditory perception, and neurophysiological status. Phonology, on the other
hand, is concerned with the abstract, grammatical characterization of systems of sounds or
signs. …
2.1 Phonetics
2.1.1 Introduction to phonetics
Phonetics = the study of the speech sounds that occur in all human
languages to represent meanings (Fromkin/Rodman 1993:176)
In contrast to phonetics, phonology is the study of how sounds and gestures pattern in and
across languages, relating such concerns with other levels and aspects of language.
Phonetics deals with the articulatory and acoustic properties of speech sounds, how they
are produced, and how they are perceived. As part of this investigation, phoneticians may
concern themselves with the physical properties of meaningful sound contrasts or the social
meaning encoded in the speech signal (socio-phonetics) (e.g. gender, sexuality, ethnicity,
etc.). However, a substantial portion of research in phonetics is not concerned with the
meaningful elements in the speech signal.
types of phonetics:
1. articulatory phonetics: study of the way speech sounds are made
(articulated) by the vocal organs
2. acoustic phonetics: study of the physical properties of the speech sounds (like physics)
3. auditory phonetics: study of the perceptual response to speech sounds through the ear,
auditory nerve, brain
While it is widely agreed that phonology is grounded in phonetics, phonology is a distinct
branch of linguistics, concerned with sounds and gestures as abstract units (e.g., distinctive
features, phonemes, mora, syllables, etc.) and their conditioned variation (via, e.g.,
allophonic rules, constraints, or derivational rules).[5] Phonology relates to phonetics via the
set of distinctive features, which map the abstract representations of speech units to
articulatory gestures, acoustic signals, and/or perceptual representations.[6][7][8]
The International Phonetic Association / Alphabet
http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/ipachart.html updated with fonts
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonetics (18/10713)
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2.1.2 Vocal organs and articulations
34
Fig. The human speech organs
vocal tract is the area above the larynx
parts of the oral tract forming the sound= articulators
front to back (numbers on Fig. below):
- lips (1+8)
- teeth (2)
- alveolar ridge (3)
- hard palate (4)
- soft palate (5) (velum)
velum = a flap that can shut off the nasal tract
at the end of velum is the uvula
between uvula (6) and larynx (7) is the pharynx (14)
the tongue can be separated into: tip (9), blade (10), front (11), center (12), back (13)
35
Articulation of consonants and vowels
vocal cords can vibrate under pressure of airstream
vibrating cords = voiced (all vowels + voiced consonants)
non-vibrating cords = voiceless (voiceless consonants)
vowels vs. consonants:
vowels: little obstruction of airstream, generally voiced
= continuous “Selbstlaut”
consonants: voiceless or voiced, obstructed airstream
 consonants are classified according to
place and manner of obstruction
gradients! semi-vowels <w>, <j>, liquids <l>, <r> (syllabic)
36
2.1.3 Consonant articulation I: place
1. labial/bilabial (upper and lower lips) <pie>, <buy>, <my>
2. labiodental (lower lip + upper front teeth) <fire>, <vicious>
3. dental (tongue tip + upper front teeth)
<thigh>, <thy>
4. alveolar (tongue tip/blade + alveolar ridge) <tie>, <die>, <lie>
5. retroflex (tongue tip + back of alveolar ridge)
<row> and <hour>
!not used by all speakers of English!
6. palato-alveolar (tongue blade + back of alveolar ridge) <shy>, <show>
7. palatal (tongue front + hard palate) <Hugh>, <hue>
8. velar (tongue back + soft palate) <hack>, <hag>, <hang>
9. glottal (vocal cords) <heave>, <hug>
not used in English: - uvular (French <r>)
- pharyngeal (Arabic)
- clicks (Zulu)
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Consonant articulation II: manner
Consonant articulation III: manner, special cases
articulators can close the oral tract completely or partially
3. approximant: narrowing of articulators until turbulent airstream occurs, but not close
enough for a fricative
<we>, <Howard>
1. stop (closure, airstream cannot escape)
•
nasal stop: air stopped in mouth but can escape through
nasal tract: <my>, <night>, <song>
•
oral stop: raised velum closes nasal tract
 Pressure builds, airstream is released in bursts: <pie>, <cool>, <guy>, <tool>
4. lateral: obstruction along center of oral tract without complete closure
<lip>
5. affricates: some sounds are combinations of other simpler sounds, cf.
<church>
= stop + fricative
2. fricative (close approximation of two articulators) airstream
is partially obstructed  turbulent airflow
 hissing sounds: <shy>, <those>, <friend>
•
higher-pitched: sibilants
•
lower-pitched: non-sibilants
39
2.1.4 Articulation of vowels I

articulators are open, airstream unobstructed
<heed, hid, head, had, father, good, food>

dome of tongue is raised
<heed, hid, head, had>
Articulation of vowels II
lip position: close together in mid and high back vowels
<good, food>
lip rounding: rounded vs. unrounded vowels
 three factors for vowels
1. height of the body of the tongue
2. front-back position of tongue
3. degree of lip rounding
highest point of tongue is front of mouth  front vowels
high front vowels <heed> and low front vowels <had>

40
Articulation of vowels II
front
mouth is increasingly open
tongue close to back of vocal tract back vowels
high back vowels <food> and low back vowels <father>
central
heed
high
mid
low
back
food
hid
head
had
good
relative position of the
highest point of the tongue
father
41
http://www.soundcomparisons.com/ (04/11/12) day by Paul Heggarty
42
http://www.soundcomparisons.com/ (04/11/12) RP by Paul Heggarty)
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2.1.5 Variation of vowels (Wells’ standard lexical sets for English)
differences between Brit.E/RP and Gen. American
44
2.1.6 Articulation of diphthongs/triphthongs
= a glide from one vowel position to another
(less extreme than monophthongs)
in English all diphthongs are centring or closing (cf. RP Fig. below from Roach 2004:242)
triphthongs (centring)
are unstable and tend to be reduced to monophthongs:
shire, shower > [ʃa:] homophones! (also: Shah)
Wells classifies words of the English language into 24 lexical sets on the basis of the
pronunciation of the vowel of their stressed syllable in the two reference accents. Each
lexical set is named after a representative keyword.
Wells, John C. (1982). Accents of English I: An Introduction. Cambridge: C.U.P.
“[t]he keywords have been chosen in such a way that clarity is maximized: whatever accent of English they are
spoken in, they can hardly be mistaken for other words. Although fleece is not the commonest of words, it cannot be
mistaken for a word with some other vowel; whereas beat, say, if we had chosen it instead, would have been subject
to the drawback that one man's pronunciation of beat may sound like another's pronunciation of bait or bit.” (ibid:
123)
45
2.2 Phonology
46
2.2.2 Levels of description: from minimal pairs to phonemes
2.2.1 Introduction
speech sounds to be analysed after:
physical properties (form)  phonetics
sound differences / similarities (function)  phonology
phonetics
sounds of language
parole, speech act
universal
concrete
phone [ ]




phonology
functioning of sounds as part of a system
langue, language system
language specific
abstract
phoneme / /
•
sounds form segments; speakers know which segments
contrast, i.e. are in opposition or distinctive
•
sip vs. zip; hit vs. hot  minimal pairs
= 2 forms with distinct meanings that differ only by one segment
established on the basis of sound, not spelling
only one segment can differ, NOT soldier vs. shoulder
contrasts are language-specific, i.e. sounds that are
distinctive in one language may not be distinctive in another
wide vs. narrow transcription for leaf-feel
[l] difference is never to differentiate meanings (cf. 2.2.3 below) 
difference is phonetic, not phonemic:
unit of description: phoneme /l/
phoneme: smallest unit with potentially distinctive function
variants: allophones, cf. German /x/: ich vs. Buch
47
48
2.2.3 Principles in phonology
2.2.4 Phoneme relationships
complementary distribution: phonetic units that never occur in the same environment
linking (liaison): BrE (is non-rhotic, but SW England, Shakespeare!)
avoids two distinct vowel phonemes clashing
 insertion of liquid /r/ or glide /j/ or /w/
= allophones if phonetic similarity
[l] only in front of vowels clear
[ɫ] in front of consonants and word endings: dark
free variation: <economics> [e-] – [I-]?
phonetic difference realised by speakers for the same word
spelling systems generally ignore phonetic variation that is non-distinctive,
evidence that speakers have a mental notion of what phonemes are
phonologically relevant differences are never left out in spelling:
cf. /r/ and /l/ in rift vs. lift
near – nearing
see – seeing
sue – suing
near Africa
to see Arthur
to sue Arthur
intrusive /r/ in law and order (r is not there in spelling)
phoneme relationships:
/-et/
/p-t/
/p/
/b/
/l/
/pe-/
/e/
/i/
/o/
/t/
/n/
/k/
= matrix of real and potential words
neutralization: foreigners can have difficulty in phonological
difference, cf. German Auslautverhärtung: <Rad> vs. <Rat>
 language can contain irregular words: as loan words, foreign words
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2.2.5 Distinctive features of English stops
bilabial
velar
dental
voicing
nasal
/k/
+
-
/g/
+
+
-
/ŋ/
+
+
+
/p/
+
-
/b/
+
+
-
/m/
+
+
+
50
2.3 Suprasegmental phonology
/t/
+
-
/d/
+
+
-
/n/
+
+
+
2.3.1 Levels of description: syllable
syllable (σ) = composed of a nucleus (usually a vowel) and its associated non-syllabic
elements
nucleus (N): syllable's obligatory member, forms core
coda (C): consists of those elements following the nucleus in the same syllable
sub-phonemic analysis
rhyme (R): nucleus + coda
basis: distinctivity of the 9 phonemes
“rule”: phonemes of one language can only be defined in contrast to other phonemes of the
same language (Hockett)
onset (O): elements preceding the rhyme
reason: speakers syllabify after underlying rules
closed vs. open syllable: syllable with coda vs. syllable without coda
51
Syllabification of words
52
2.3.2 Phonotactics
= a set of constraints on sound combinations
1) identify nucleus: obligatory, each vowel makes a syllabic nucleus
2) longest sequence of consonants to the left that does not violate phonotactic rules: onset
similar to German:
word-initial consonant clusters /str-/, /spr-/, /sl-/, /sm-/, */sfr-/
(difficult for other foreigners)
3) remaining consonants to the right: coda
NB: English often has a coda = closed syllable, many African/Asian languages do not!
thus learners tend towards adding a final vowel like [buku]
extreme:
but also differences from German, because
word
σ
R
•
σ
•
sound changes (knight, write)
foreign words are accepted or adjusted (psychology)
O R
N C
e k
how segments are formed is part of speaker's knowledge of his/her language
N C
str i: m
53
2.3.3 Introduction to prosody
54
Classification of assimilation in English
word stress: BrE /ˈse.kre.trɪ/ - AmE /ˈse.kreˌtærɪ/
assimilation
rhythm: isochrony / English is stress-timed
= same time span between stressed syllables
contrast syllable-timed = same between all syllables
(French, African languages)
weak forms in unstressed position: auxiliaries, prepositions/conjuncts,
pronouns/determiners
regressive
total
progressive
partial total
tem'mais tem'baiks Kiʃu:
partial
reciprocal
total
partial
wudƷu:
features of connected speech:
•
function words: he’s vs. he is; he’ll vs. he will
•
assimilation = adjacent sounds are altered in context to make
them more similar, i.e. easier to pronounce
types: partial /tem baɪks/ – total /tem maɪs/
regressive /speɪʃɪp/ – progressive (rare!) – coalescent /wudƷu:/
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definition intonation
2.3.4 Intonation
In linguistics, intonation is variation of spoken pitch that is not used to distinguish words;
instead it is used for a range of functions such as indicating the attitudes and emotions of the
speaker, signalling the difference between statements and questions, and between different
types of question, focusing attention on important elements of the spoken message and also
helping to regulate conversational interaction. It contrasts with tone, in which pitch variation
in some languages does distinguish words, either lexically or grammatically. (The term tone is
used by some British writers in their descriptions of intonation, but this is to refer to the pitch
movement found on the nucleus or tonic syllable in an intonation unit – see Intonation in
English: British Analyses of English Intonation, below).
Although intonation is primarily a matter of pitch variation, it is important to be aware that
functions attributed to intonation such as the expression of attitudes and emotions, or
highlighting aspects of grammatical structure, almost always involve concomitant variation in
other prosodic features.
Most transcription conventions have been devised for describing one particular accent or
language, and the specific conventions therefore need to be explained in the context of what
is being described. However, for general purposes the International Phonetic Alphabet offers
the two intonation marks shown in the box at the head of this article. Global rising and falling
intonation are marked with a diagonal arrow rising left-to-right [↗] and falling left-to-right
[↘], respectively. These may be written as part of a syllable, or separated with a space when
they have a broader scope:
He found it on the street? [ hiː ˈfaʊnd ɪt | ɒn ðə ↗ˈˈstɹiːt ‖ ]
Here the rising pitch on street indicates that the question hinges on that word, on where he
found it, not whether he found it.
Yes, he found it on the street. [↘ˈjɛs ‖ hi ˈfaʊnd ɪt | ɒn ðə ↘ˈstɹiːt ‖ ]
How did you ever escape? [↗ˈˈhaʊ dɪdjuː | ˈɛvɚ | ə↘ˈˈskeɪp ‖ ]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intonation_%28linguistics%29 (18/10/13)
variation and control of pitch has 3 functions:
grammatical = to distinguish declarative (falling) from
interrogative clauses (rising in yes/no questions)
pragmatic = to manage information, emphasizing NEW vs. old information
attitudinal = to signal emotions (surprise/enthusiasm=rise-fall, uncertainty /
doubt=fall-rise, boredom/irony/ sarcasm=level tone)
cf. great
English is not a tone language like Chinese (ma may mean mother or horse)
57
58
2.3.5 Introduction to orthography
definition orthography
etymology
An orthography is a standardized system for using a particular writing system (script) to
write a particular language. It includes rules of spelling. Other elements of written
language that are part of orthography include hyphenation, capitalization, word breaks,
emphasis, and punctuation.
Most significant languages in the modern era are written down, and for most such languages
a standard orthography has developed, often based on a standard variety of the language,
and thus exhibiting less dialect variation than the spoken language. …
The writing systems on which orthographies are based can be divided into a number of
types, depending on what type of unit each symbol serves to represent. The principal types
are logographic (with symbols representing words or morphemes), syllabic (with symbols
representing syllables), and alphabetic (with symbols roughly representing phonemes).
Many writing systems combine features of more than one of these types, and a number of
detailed classifications have been proposed. …
In some cases an orthography based on the principle that symbols correspond to phonemes
may lack characters to represent all the phonemes or all the phonemic distinctions in the
language. This is called a defective orthography. An example in English is that the digraph
th is required to represent two different phonemes (as in either and ether). A more
systematic example is that of abjads like the Arabic and Hebrew alphabets, in which the
short vowels are normally left unwritten and must be inferred by the reader.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthography 818/10/13)
The English word orthography dates from the 15th century. It comes from the French
orthographie, from Latin orthographia, which is derived from Greek ὀρθός orthós,
"correct", and γράφειν gráphein, "to write".
functions
Orthography is largely concerned with matters of spelling, and in particular the relationship
between phonemes and graphemes in a language.
Other elements that may be considered part of orthography include hyphenation,
capitalization, word breaks, emphasis, and punctuation.
Orthography thus describes or defines the set of symbols used in writing a language, and
the rules about how to use those symbols.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthography
59
The basic problems of English
Attempts to regularize or reform the language, including spelling reform, have usually met with failure. The
only significant exceptions were the reforms of Noah Webster which resulted in many of the differences
between British and American spelling, such as center/centre, and dialog/dialogue. …
English has fewer graphemes than phonemes <> > //
digraphs <sh>, <ch>, <th>, double graphs for length <door>
huge discrepancy between writing and pronunciation
•
•
1 phoneme many graphemes: /ɔ:/ in glory, all, door, bought,
1 grapheme many phonemes: <ou> in stout, soul, bought, drought, youth, young
in English for historical reasons: orthography fixed earlier than in German (Caxton 1476)
•
•
•
silent letters: <gh> in bough, <b> in lamb, final <e>
different conventions (e.g., <VCe#> long vowel in mate/mat)
Great Vowel Shift (continuous / 1500 - 1700?)
= long vowels become closer and diphthongised
60
English orthography
 spelling reform?
Besides the quirks the English spelling system has inherited from its past, there are other idiosyncrasies in
spelling that make it tricky to learn. English contains, depending on dialect, 24–27 separate consonant
phonemes and 14–20 vowels. However, there are only 26 letters in the modern English alphabet, so there
cannot be a one-to-one correspondence between letters and sounds. Many sounds are spelled using
different letters or multiple letters, and for those words whose pronunciation is predictable from the
spelling, the sounds denoted by the letters depend on the surrounding letters. For example, the digraph th
represents two different sounds (the voiced interdental fricative and the voiceless interdental fricative)
(see Pronunciation of English th), and the voiceless alveolar grooved fricative can be represented by the
letters s and c.
It is, however, not the shortage of letters which makes English spelling irregular. Its irregularities are caused
mainly by the use of many different spellings for some of its sounds, such as the sounds /uː/, /iː/ and /oʊ/
(too, true, shoe, flew, through; sleeve, leave, even, seize, siege; stole, coal, bowl, roll, old, mould), and
the use of identical sequences for spelling different sounds (over, oven, move).
Furthermore, English no longer makes any attempt to anglicise the spellings of loanwords, but preserves the
foreign spellings, even when they employ exotic conventions like the Polish cz in Czech (rather than *Check)
or the Norwegian fj in fjord (although fiord was formerly the most common spelling). In early Middle
English, until roughly 1400, most imports from French were respelt according to English rules (e.g. bataille battle, bouton - button, but not double, trouble). Instead of loans being respelled to conform to English
spelling standards, sometimes the pronunciation changes as a result of pressure from the spelling.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_orthography (18/10/13)
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Writing systems
62
3. Morphology
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Def.: Morphology deals with the internal structure of words that
can be broken down into meaningful parts
 concerned with how speakers understand / create complex words
words have an internal structure consisting of smaller units
morpheme = smallest unit that carries meaning/information about function
= smallest unit in grammatical analysis
“word” is an unreliable term in English because of unclear spelling rules:
football vs. gold watch (NOT ˈgolden ˈwatch = clearly 2 words)
pronunciation decides: ˈblack ′bird vs. ˌblack ˈbird
NB: languages differ in morphological complexity: Japanese relatively low, Turkish high
63
definition morphology
64
3.1.2 Types: Inflectional morphology
(in contrast to derivational morphology, cf. 3.4.1)
In linguistics, morphology is the identification, analysis and description of the structure of a
given language's morphemes and other linguistic units, such as root words, affixes, parts of
speech, intonation/stress, or implied context (words in a lexicon are the subject matter of
lexicology). Morphological typology represents a method for classifying languages according
to the ways by which morphemes are used in a language—from the analytic that use only
isolated morphemes, through the agglutinative ("stuck-together") and fusional languages
that use bound morphemes (affixes), up to the polysynthetic, which compress many
separate morphemes into single words. (One of the definitions for Morphology).[clarification
needed]
While words are generally accepted as being (with clitics) the smallest units of syntax, it is
clear that in most languages, if not all, words can be related to other words by rules
(grammars). For example, English speakers recognize that the words dog and dogs are
closely related—differentiated only by the plurality morpheme "-s", which is only found
bound to nouns, and is never separate. Speakers of English (a fusional language) recognize
these relations from their tacit knowledge of the rules of word formation in English. They
infer intuitively that dog is to dogs as cat is to cats; similarly, dog is to dog catcher as dish
is to dishwasher, in one sense. The rules understood by the speaker reflect specific
patterns, or regularities, in the way words are formed from smaller units and how those
smaller units interact in speech. In this way, morphology is the branch of linguistics that
studies patterns of word formation within and across languages, and attempts to formulate
rules that model the knowledge of the speakers of those languages.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_%28linguistics%29 (18/10713)
which forms a word can take depends on its role in a sentence
- grammatical morphemes express grammatical relationship
between word and context: plural-s, past tense –ed
- free grammatical morphemes (3.2.3) = function words and, the
Inflectional morphemes in English
• nouns:
plural –s
the books
genitive (sing.) –s
my mother’s
• verbs:
rd
3 person sg. non-past -s
Mary reads well
progressive –ing
John is working
past tense –ed
She read
past participle –en/ed
He has eaten/worked
• adjectives:
comparative –er
taller
superlative –est
tallest
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3.2 Morpheme types
66
3.2.2 Conditioning of allomorphs in English
3.2.1 Allomorphs
= a group of morphs constituting 1 morpheme
- variation is phonologically or lexically (“irregular”) conditioned
e.g.
plural {-S}
past tense {-D}
past passive participle {-N}
special cases:
- zero morpheme = no form, but meaning (sheep-sheep)
- ‘empty morpheme’ = form, but no meaning (periphrastic do)
- discontinuous ‘morpheme’ = 2 forms, 1 meaning (is –ing)
Kortmann (2005:93)
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68
3.2.2 Form – function relationship
phonologically conditioned
begged
[d] after voiced cons./+ vowels showed
{-D} Allomorphs
PAST TENSE
[t] after voiceless cons.
passed
[Id] after alveolar stops
expected
build-er; marry/remarry: phonology/form is not revealing
–er/-or +NOUN: indicates function of word: “agent”
cf. reader, writer, runner, actor
re- +VERB: meaning “again” understood automatically
cf. reconsider, rebuild
morphologically conditioned
(contractions)
had made said
root inflection
"
but restrictions: *relike, *rehave (=stative verbs)
won (-win)
+ /-d/
suppletion
“immediate constituents”: |criminal law|²yer|³, |heavy smok|²er|³
sold (-sell)
went
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70
3.2.3 Morpheme level of analysis
Types of Morphemes
simple/monomorphemic words: no further subdivision (cranberry?)
complex/polymorphemic words: 2 or more morphemes
•
•
free
(lexeme)
AUTONOMY
basic types:
free vs. bound morphemes
free = a morpheme can be a word by itself
doghouse, ready-made
bound = a morpheme must be attached to another element
{{un{{manage}V able}A}A}ness}N
FUNCTION
lexical vs. grammatical morphemes
- lexical (in lexicon) for constructing new words {black}{bird}
- grammatical (in grammar) {the}, {BE + -ing}
- bound + lexical = derivational (disbelief, readable...)
- possible: change of word class, change in meaning
lexical
(open)
grammatical
(closed)
content
word
function
word
POSITION
bound
(affix)
lexical
(open)
derivational
affix
prefix
suffix
grammatical
(closed)
inflectional
affix
suffix
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72
3.3 Morphological structure of words
3.4 Word formation
- necessary to identify and classify morphemes according to
their function for the word and its meaning
3.4.1 derivation = process of morphological variation in the constitution of words
- complex words: root + one or more affixes
•
root morpheme: major component of word's meaning,
usually a root belongs to a major word class N, V, A, P
affixes are always bound morphemes
•
stem: morpheme (group) to which inflectional affixes are attached
blackbird: 2 root morphemes form 1 compound stem
•
base: the form to which a morpheme is added
black
en
ed
A: root and base for -en; V1: base for –ed
example/exercise: unhealthy, pretreatment
morphological patterns vary in degree of productivity
high = many cases: -ness (brightness) vs. low = few -ity (eternity)
unproductive (=no new cases): -dom (kingdom, martyrdom, etc.)
3.4.2 affixation: prefixation (bound+free morpheme): unhappy
suffixation (free+bound morpheme): useless
(infixation: unfuckingbelievable)
3.4.3 composition = combination of 2+ free/bound lexical morphemes
•
•
exocentric = meaning cannot be inferred from rightmost component
(walkman, paperback, paleface, redneck) (=“Bahuvrihi” from Sanscrit)
endocentric= right morpheme indicates basic meaning (hyponym)
and determines the word class
(N: blackbird, V: spoonfeed, Adj/Adv: nationwide)
determinative compounds: washing machine
copulative compound: actor-manager
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3.4.4 zero-derivation/conversion = change of word class without change in form
74
3.4.9 Survey of word formation processes
challenge – (to) challenge, ship – (to) ship
V derived from N, N derived from V
less common: N from A (the poor), V from Prep (to down a beer)
3.4.5 backformation = to remove a real or potential affix
to housekeep (AmEn), to babysit, to televise, to liaise
3.4.6 clipping & blending/telescoping = shortening of polysyllabic words
laboratory > lab, gymnasium > gym; influenza > flu; ad, exam, phone
smoke+fog=smog, breakfast+lunch=brunch, motel, heliport, Chunnel, infotainment
3.4.7 acronyms = initial letters of words combined (in capitals)
(first isolated in pronunciation; later combined if possible)
NATO, LASER, AIDS
3.4.8 ‘reduplications’
Kortmann (2005:95)
walkie-talkie, wishy-washy
75
76
3.5 Alternatives to word formation
4. Syntax
new expressions have to be used all the time, but they do not have to use intrinsic material
if there is language contact
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Definitions
In linguistics, syntax (from Ancient Greek σύνταξις "arrangement" from σύν syn, "together", and
τάξις táxis, "an ordering") is "the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are
constructed in particular languages".
The term syntax is also used to refer to the rules governing the behavior of mathematical
systems, such as formal languages used in logic. …
Works on grammar were written long before modern syntax came about; the Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini
is often cited as an example of a premodern work that approaches the sophistication of a modern
syntactic theory.[2] In the West, the school of thought that came to be known as "traditional
grammar" began with the work of Dionysius Thrax.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntax (19/10/13)
In linguistics, grammar is the set of structural rules that governs the composition of clauses,
phrases, and words in any given natural language. The term refers also to the study of such rules,
and this field includes morphology, syntax, and phonology, often complemented by phonetics,
semantics, and pragmatics. Linguists do not normally use the term to refer to orthographical
rules, although usage books and style guides that call themselves grammars may also refer to
spelling and punctuation.
borrowings = taking words/morphemes from another language
e.g. croissant (<French), pretzel (<German), yogurt (Turkish)
from English: suupaa = suupaamaaketto (>Japanese), futbal (>Hungarian)
loan translation (calque) = direct translation of words/morphemes
from another language
e.g. from English sky-scraper > Wolkenkratzer, wolkenkrabber, gratte-ciel
multiple processes!
deli (US) < delicatessen (< German)
waspish attitudes (<acronym WASP=‘white Anglo-Saxon protestant’
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammar (19/10/13)
English grammar is the body of rules that describe the structure of expressions in the English
language. This includes the structure of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_grammar (19/10/13)
77
78
4.1.2 Introduction in traditional/structural thinking:
syntax = formal constituents and word order
4.1.3 Introduction in generative/cognitive thinking:
syntax = how people combine words to form sentences
language is structured, not random - its rules are called grammar
syntax is basically word order
speakers have a finite set of memorized words/morphemes
as a basis for potentially infinite sets of sentences
words/noun phrases behave as units, they form constituents
The cat ate the rat / The rat ate the cat NOT random *Rat ate the
the same words with different word order different meaning
speakers "know" about the importance of word order
but: the rat, the cat ate = the basic units are larger than words
groups of words form a unit and are put in square brackets [...]
sentence switch board (since structuralist language learning in 1960s):
[our vicar] – [likes] – [fast cars] – units, because they can be replaced
[he]
- [likes] – [them]
[our vicar] - [[likes] – [fast cars]]
a unit because like is a Vt
•
•
this includes discrete infinity (recursive: I think you think I think ...)
this is the basis of creativity of human language
this allows speakers to create/understand novel sentences
syntactic theory = how speakers know how to form sentences and how they get this
knowledge
•
speakers' knowledge is their mental / cognitive grammar
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4.1.4 Form – function relationships: subject + predicate
80
4.2 Functions
4.2.1 Properties of subjects vs. objects
subject:
subjects are predominantly nouns, groups with N: NPs
(the stupid dog, the girl with the red hair, this committee...)
subjects are
a) usually NPs
b) (usually) the 1st NP in the clause
c) obligatory
d) determine forms of verbs (agreement in 3rd PSingPres)
performs an action (agent),
what the sentence is about (topic)
what the subject is engaged in doing,
is anything except the subject
predicate:
 operations of finding subjects:
simple, formal subjects do not always "do" something
(agentive in  case grammar, “stative verbs”)
objects are a) often NPs
b) after V
i.e. not all verbs are “dynamic”: I dislike the idea. Miriam stood aside.
subjects can be meaningless: It was hot. It is raining.
There are ways of making you talk.
direct object (DO) = entities that undergo a process denoted by verb:
He broke the teapot
play a patient role (= semantic test)
contrast: complements denote the same referent as subject or object
- DO (in active sentence)  subject (in passive sentence)
- DOs complete the meaning of the verb, are thus complements
 a complement is any element that is required by another element
 non-referential it and existential there:
a dummy fills the subject slot
81
82
4.2.2 Properties of direct vs. indirect object
4.2.3 Transitivity
indirect objects (IO): typical role receiver, goal
Traditional grammar makes a binary distinction between intransitive verbs that cannot
take a direct object (such as fall or sit in English) and transitive verbs that take one direct
object (such as throw, injure, kiss in English).
In practice, many languages (including English) interpret the category more flexibly,
allowing: ditransitive verbs, verbs that have two objects; or even ambitransitive verbs,
verbs that can be used as both a transitive verb and an intransitive verb.
Further, some verbs may be idiomatically transitive, while, technically, intransitive.
This may be observed in the verb walk in the idiomatic expression To walk the dog.
In functional grammar, transitivity is considered to be a continuum rather than a binary
category as in traditional grammar. The "continuum" view takes a more semantic approach.
One way it does this is by taking into account the degree to which an action affects its
object (so that the verb see is described as having "lower transitivity" than the verb kill).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transitivity_%28grammar%29 (19/10/13)
We gave the boys the CDs.
verbs taking DO and IO: ditransitive verbs
a) usually NPs
b) cannot occur without DO
c) always precede DO in E (not in German)
d) can be passive subjects (The boys were given the CDs.)
83
4.3 Form
84
Form criteria of word classes II
4.3.1 Word forms, word classes, phrases
verbs (V)
words are difficult to define (cf. Morphology ch. 3): dogs, eats, duty-free
 grouping into word classes, parts of speech (=POS)
•
•
phrases are groups of words around a head = central element (hat below):
NP, VP, PrepP/PP, AdjP, AdvP
traditional word classes (cf. 1.1.1) are notions of form, not function
4.3.2 Form criteria of word classes I:
nouns (N)
•
•
nouns are words preceded by a ,the, this...
i.e. common determiners: the/a, this/these, that/those,
nouns can be preceded by adjectives
•
•
•
adjectives (Adj)
•
•
•
 N are characterized by their environment
subclasses: common N (+/-count), proper N, pronouns
•
nouns are heads of NP: the hat  the blue hat on the shelf
verbs have inflections, which encode grammatical properties (-ed  past)
like tense, agreement
a special subclass are auxiliaries: they express point of view (deontic - epistemic)
non-finite verbs: to-infinitive (I wanted him to dance),
participles (wanting, reconsidered)
V are head of VPs: The library [VP recalled their books]
•
•
•
may have formal markers: -ful, -ible, -ive but this is not exclusive: green
are gradable (very...) – exceptions: materials, Nationalities
(?very wooden, ?very Swedish)
can take comparative, superlative forms as endings: -er/-est
exceptions are ADJ with analytical comparison : good-better-best
premodify nouns, etc., but
can also be used predicatively, with VL: appear, be, feel, look, seem, smell
ADJ are heads of APs: [AP very glad to be here]
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Form criteria of word classes III
86
4.4 Clauses and sentences
clause = a self-containing expression which contains a subject and a predicate
main vs. subordinate / matrix vs. subclause  complete sentence
finite vs. non-finite clauses: +/- to infinitive,
present/past participle –ing/-ed
adverbs (Adv) modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs; or clauses!
-ly, -wards, -wise, -ways, but not all (very, here, now)
some have comparison (well, soon)
classes: circumstantial often, reluctantly
degree extremely, very
sentence however, probably, perhaps
most cases: predicate has a finite lexical verb
 number of lexical verbs
prepositions (PREP) have no formal criteria, but have linking function for NPs
 number of clauses
a) I paid the entire bill at once.
b) They were happy after I had paid the bill at once.
c) They wanted me to pay the entire bill at once.
introduce nouns/are head of PPs [PP with [NP the dog]]
often: NPs as prepositional object/prepositional complement
Tim thought that Kate believed the story.
matrix clause
subclause
conjunctions (CONJ) have a linking function for clauses
a) coordinating: and, or, but
b) subordinating: that, if, whether, for, because
that: complementiser
87
88
structuralist examples,
esp. C/O (complements/objects) and Adv (adverbials)
4.5 Theoretical approaches to syntax
4.5.1 Structuralist grammar
Structuralism is a theoretical paradigm that emphasizes that elements of culture must be
understood in terms of their relationship to a larger, overarching system or structure. …
Structuralism originated in the early 1900s, in the structural linguistics of Ferdinand de
Saussure and the subsequent Prague[2], Moscow[2] and Copenhagen schools of linguistics. In
the late 1950s and early '60s, when structural linguistics was facing serious challenges from
the likes of Noam Chomsky …
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuralism
de Saussure --> American Indian anthropology:
Boas - Sapir - Whorf - Bloomfield (Language 1933)
Sapir - Whorf hypothesis (cf. W. von Humboldt):
linguistic determinism + relativity =
language determines/influences culture
emphasis on methodology (corpus-based)
segmentation - classification:
•
immediate constituent (IC) analysis (e.g. heavy smoker)
•
bracketing and tree diagrams
application (from 1960 in language lab):
pattern practice, sentence switch boards
His theory is that mutations are not brought about by chance
S
|V|
Cs
We met the Joneses unexpectedly in New York last year.
S |V|
O
|
Adv | Adv
| Adv
My father bought whoever came in a beer
S
| V |
Oi
| Od
Adv?
The jury found the prisoner guilty.
S
| V |
O
| Co
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90
4.5.2 Transformational grammar
In linguistics, a transformational grammar or transformational-generative grammar (TGG)
is a generative grammar, especially of a natural language, that has been developed in the
Chomskyan tradition of phrase structure grammars (as opposed to dependency grammars).
Additionally, transformational grammar is the tradition that gives rise to specific
transformational grammars. Much current research in transformational grammar is inspired
by Chomsky's Minimalist Program. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformational_grammar)
Noam Chomsky:
1957 Syntactic Structures
1965 Aspects of the Theory of Syntax
1986 Knowledge of Language: Its Nature, Origin, and Use
1995 The Minimalist Program
language = an infinite number of sentences, generated by applying an
unconscious finite system of rules (rule-governed creativity)
ideal speaker-listener: performance - competence (all potential well-formed sentences)
selection restrictions (e.g. *colourless green ideas sleep furiously)
generate (in the mathematical sense) = rewrite rules x->y (rewrite x as y):
e.g. S --> NP+VP; VP --> V+NP
transformations: surface structure --> deep structure
e.g. passive transformation: NP1 + VP + NP2 --> NP2 + be VP (+ by NP2)
solves ambiguities (e.g. murdering peasants can be dangerous)
agens/agentive or patiens/object?
transformation example: similar structure, but different meaning
S1) George saw his friend in London.
S
->
NP1 + VP1
NP1 + VP1
NP1
->
PN
PN + VP1
VP1
->
VP2 + PP
PN + VP2 + PP
VP2
->
V + NP2
PN + V + NP2 + PP
NP2
->
Pron + N
PN + V + Pron + N + PP
PP
->
Prep + NP3
PN + V + Pron + N + Prep + NP3
NP3
->
PN
PN + V + Pron + N + Prep + PN
PN
->
George, London
George + V + Pron + N + Prep + London
N
->
friend
George + V + Pron + friend + Prep + London
V
->
saw
George + saw + Pron + friend + Prep + London
Pron
->
his
George + saw + his + friend + Prep + London
Prep
->
in
George + saw + his + friend + in + London
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S2) George saw his friend in a hurry.
92
4.5.3 Functional Grammars: case/valency/systemic functional
Case Grammar is a system of linguistic analysis, focusing on the link between the valence,
or number of subjects, objects, etc., of a verb and the grammatical context it requires.
The system was created by the American linguist Charles J. Fillmore in (1968), in the
context of Transformational Grammar. This theory analyzes the surface syntactic structure
of sentences by studying the combination of deep cases (i.e. semantic roles)
S
->
NP1 + VP1
NP1 + VP1
NP1
->
PN
PN + VP1
VP1
->
V + NP2
PN + V + NP2
NP2
->
NP3 + PP
PN + V + NP3 + PP
NP3
->
Pron + N
PN + V + Pron + N + PP
PP
->
Prep + NP4
PN + V + Pron + N + Prep + NP4
NP4
->
Art + N
PN + V + Pron + N + Prep + Art + N
PN
->
George
George + V + Pron + N + Prep + Art + N
V
->
saw
George + saw+ Pron + N + Prep + Art + N
Pron
->
his
George + saw + his + N + Prep + Art + N
N
->
Friend, hurry
George + saw + his + friend + Prep + Art + hurry
Prep
->
in
George + saw + his + friend + in + Art + hurry
Art
->
a
George + saw + his +friend + in + a + hurry
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_grammar 18/10/13)
underlying cases (e.g. agentive, instrumental, dative/benefactive, objective, locative,
source, goal) matched by surface-structure relations
verb as central element with obligatory complements: e.g. NP put NP PNP
obligatory complements, e.g. They enjoyed the trip.
optional complements, e.g. She is reading a book.
adjuncts, e.g. Alcohol can be obtained at the bar.
1. John opened the door with the key.
2. The door was opened by John.
3. The key opened the door.
4. The wind smashed the window.
5. John gave me the book.
6. I went to London the other day.
7. This tent sleeps ten people.
8. No one can escape the difficulties of life.
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Systematic Functional Grammar
developed by Michael (M.A.K.) Halliday:
Language as a Social Semiotic: The Social Interpretation of Language and Meaning (1978),
An Introduction to Functional Grammar (1985/94)
focus on language as a social semiotic system: focus on meaning and social aspects
grammar as system of choices, not of rules
lexis and grammar inseparable => lexicogrammar
basis: language as means to create meaning in discourse
3 metafunctions:
ideational/field: language construes experience (social process)
interpersonal/tenor: language describes social relations (distance, status, persona)
textual/mode: language constructs discourse (textual interaction, spontaneity,
cohesion)
Note: clause as basic unit of analysis
Examples metafunctions
94
At the lake shore there was another rowboat drawn up.
The two Indians stood waiting.
Nick and his father got in the stern of the boat
and the Indians shoved it off
and one of them got in to row.
Uncle George sat in the stern of the camp rowboat.
The young Indian shoved the camp boat off
and got in to row Uncle George.
The two boats started off in the dark.
Nick heard the oar-locks of the other boat quite a way ahead of them in the
mist.
The Indians rowed with quick, choppy strokes.
Nick lay back with his father's arm around him.
It was cold on the water.
1. ideational: context, persons, process
2. interpersonal: What establishes a relation to the reader?
3. textual: limitations of clause described through punctuation, word
order, etc.
example taken from: http://folk.uio.no/hhasselg/systemic/Intro.htm (18.10.13)
Important Concepts: Rank
95
The 5 Principles of Systematic Functional Grammar
96
text: one or more sentences
1)
paradigmatic dimension: meaning is choice
2)
stratification dimension: lexicogrammar
group: phrases and words
3)
metafunctional dimension: ideational, interpersonal, textual
phrase: words
4)
syntagmatic dimension: language is structured into spoken or written
word: morphemes
5)
instantiation dimension: relationship between instance and system
(cf. parole – language, performance – competence)
sentence: one or more clauses
clause: groups and phrases
from biggest (text) to
smallest unit (morpheme)
morpheme: phonemes
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4.5.4 Cognitive grammar/linguistics
Lakoff, George/Mark Johnson (1980), Metaphors we live by. Chicago: U. of Chicago Press. pp. 3-24
Cognitive grammar is a cognitive approach to language developed by Ronald Langacker, which
considers the basic units of language to be symbols or conventional pairings of a semantic
structure with a phonological label. Grammar consists of constraints on how these units can be
combined to generate larger phrases which are also a pairing of semantics and phonology. The
semantic aspects are modeled as image schemas rather than propositions, and because of the
tight binding with the label, each can invoke the other.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_grammar (12710/14)
The term construction grammar (CxG) covers a family of theories, or models, of grammar that are
based on the idea that the primary unit of grammar is the grammatical construction rather than
the atomic syntactic unit and the rule that combines atomic units, and that the grammar of a
language is made up of taxonomies of families of constructions.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_grammar
“Cognitive linguistics is an approach to the analysis of natural language that focuses on language
as an instrument for organizing, processing, and conveying information. (...) The formal
structures of language are studied not as if they were autonomous, but as reflections of general
conceptual organization, categorisation principles, processing mechanisms, and experiential and
environmental influences.” (Geeraerts 1995: 111)
conceptualisation in grammar
cf. gold nugget vs. gold dust , a continuum of sizes
BUT grammar does not reflect physical reality but experienced reality
conceptual distinction:
- grammar codes gold nugget as a count noun, bounded
- grammar codes gold dust as a mass noun, unbounded
98

conceptualisation in lexicon: metaphor (cf. Lakoff/Johnson below)
1 argument is war (e.g. your claims are indefensible)
2 time is money (e.g. you are wasting my time)
2a time is a limited resource
2b time is a valuable commodity
3 ideas (or meanings) are objects (e.g. I gave you that idea)
4 linguistic expressions are containers (e.g. put in a nutshell)
5 communication is sending
6 happy is up; sad is down
6a conscious is up; unconscious is down
6b health and life are up; sickness/death are down (e.g. his health is declining)
6c having control or force is up; being subject to control or force is down
6' more is up; less is down
6d foreseeable future events are up (and ahead)
6e high status is up; low status is down
6" good is up; bad is down
6f virtue is up; depravity is down
6g rational is up; emotional is down
6h active is up; passive is down
7 the mind is an entity
7a the mind is a machine
7b the mind is a brittle [breakable] object
99
4.5.5 Construction grammar
groups a number of models of grammar that all subscribe to the idea that knowledge of a
language is based on a collection of "form and function pairings". The "function" side
covers what is commonly understood as meaning, content, or intent; it usually extends
over both conventional fields of semantics and pragmatics.
Such pairs are learnt by hearing them being used frequently enough by others. Uses of
constructions may happen and be acquired in mainstream or everyday language, but also
in linguistic subcultures that are using a sociolect, dialect, or in formal contexts using
standard languages or jargon associated with greater sociolinguistic prestige in
comparison to plain language.[1]
Construction grammar (often abridged CxG) is thus a kind of metalinguistic model, letting
the door open to a variety of linguistic theories. It is typically associated with cognitive
linguistics, partly because many of the linguists that are involved in construction grammar
are also involved in cognitive linguistics, and partly because construction grammar and
cognitive linguistics share many theoretical and philosophical foundations. …
The usage-based model is based on inductive learning, meaning that linguistic knowledge
is acquired in a bottom-up manner through use. It allows for redundancy and
generalizations, because the language user generalizes over recurring experiences of use.
The shift towards the usage-based approach in Construction grammar has inspired the
development of several corpus-based methodologies of constructional analysis (for
example, collostructional analysis).
Types of CxG:
Berkeley (=Filmore) - Goldberg/Lakoff - Cognitive (Langacker) - Radical (Croft) etc.
100
4.6 Formal vs. functional grammar
Contrasts between formalism and functionalism
(cf. Kortmann 2005:30)
issue
autonomy of
grammar
formation
functionalism
Yes,
as a cognitive system
No,
inseparable part of cognition
syntax
cannot be separated from semantics
and pragmatics
competence
an instrument of interaction
(communicative tool designed for key
purpose communication)
language acquisition
‘nature’
= genetic, innate
‘nurture’
=result of communicative interaction
universals
formal properties
functional tendencies
relationship form-function
arbitrary
motivated (iconicity, metaphor, etc.)
dichotonmy syn-/diachronic
sharp
fuzzy
method
deductive
introspection
reductionist, formal
indicative
empirical (authentic data)
non-reductionist
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_grammar (12/10/14)
101
Some differences between systemic-functional grammar
and traditional grammar
(http://folk.uio.no/hhasselg/systemic/Intro.htm)
102
5. Semantics
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Ogden/Richards (1923). The meanings of meaning
5.1.2 For language to fulfill communicative function/convey a message
form must have content
same form – different content: ambiguous sentences
like Ruth saw the people with binoculars.
5.1.3 structuralist system of lexicology:
seme  sememe + morpheme = lexeme?
5.1.4 approaches:
semasiological = FORM  CONTENT
e.g. chair means 1. “thing to sit on” 2. professor
onomasiological = CONTENT  FORM
e.g. “things to sit on” are called: chair, arm-chair, stool, sofa, couch, etc.
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definitions semantics
104
5.1.5 Seven types of meaning
Semantics (from Ancient Greek: σημαντικός sēmantikós)[1][2] is the study of meaning. It
focuses on the relation between signifiers, like words, phrases, signs, and symbols, and
what they stand for, their denotation.
Linguistic semantics is the study of meaning that is used for understanding human
expression through language. Other forms of semantics include the semantics of
programming languages, formal logics, and semiotics.
The word semantics itself denotes a range of ideas, from the popular to the highly
technical. It is often used in ordinary language for denoting a problem of understanding
that comes down to word selection or connotation. This problem of understanding has been
the subject of many formal enquiries, over a long period of time, most notably in the field
of formal semantics. In linguistics, it is the study of interpretation of signs or symbols used
in agents or communities within particular circumstances and contexts.[3] Within this view,
sounds, facial expressions, body language, and proxemics have semantic (meaningful)
content, and each comprises several branches of study. In written language, things like
paragraph structure and punctuation bear semantic content; other forms of language bear
other semantic content.[3]
The formal study of semantics intersects with many other fields of inquiry, including
lexicology, syntax, pragmatics, etymology and others, although semantics is a well-defined
field in its own right, often with synthetic properties.[4] In philosophy of language,
semantics and reference are closely connected. Further related fields include philology,
communication, and semiotics. The formal study of semantics is therefore complex.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantics (18/10/13)
105
5.1.6 Non-lexical semantics
1. CONCEPTUAL MEANING
(or Sense)
2. CONNOTÀTIVE
MEANING
3. SOCIAL/
STYLISTIC
MEANING
4. AFFECTIVE
MEANING
ASSOCIATIVE
MEANING
5. REFLECTED
MEANING
6. COLLOCATIVE
MEANING
7. THEMATIC MEANING
Logical, cognitive, or
denotative content
What is communicated by virtue
of what language refers to.
What is communicated of the
social circumstances of language
use.
What is communicated of the
feelings and attitudes of the
speaker/writer.
What is communicated through
association with another sense
of the same expression.
What is communicated through
association with words which
tend to occur in the
environment of another word.
What is communicated by the
way in which the message is
organized in terms of order and
emphasis.
(cf. theories)
female= soft, caring,
likely to cry, cooking?
domicile – residence –
abode – home;
cast – throw - chuck
will you belt up
[+intonation]
intercourse, erection,
gay
heavy smoker, rain,
fine;
pretty vs. handsome
She donated the first
prize.
The first prize was
donated by her.
Source: Leech, Goeffrey (1981). Semantics. 2nd ed. Harmondsworth: Penguin, p.23.
106
5.2. Semantic theories
5.2.1 Semantic features/markers theory
meaning in grammar: continuous form (cf. Cambridge Grammar 2002:162-8)
aspectual meanings depending on aktionsart and meaning context
progressive:
he was speaking
durative
long reference time
imperfective:
she was phoning
durative
simultaneous reference time
non-telic:
he has been reading
dur.-telic
mid-interval implicature
aktionsartshe is mowing the lawn
single event not serial/habitual
-specific:
they were nodding
punctual
iterative
dynamizing:
he is being silly
stative
temporary
limited duration: she is studying at TUC
durative
limited time/not habitual
temporary:
he is cycling to work
singular/not habitual (car is in the garage)
vaxing/vaning:
you are making more
develp.-telic linear development up/down
and more/fewer and fewer mistakes
time meanings: near future plan: I’m phoning her tonight
meaning in intonation: rising = doubt, question (s. 2.3.4)
meaning in discourse: How are you? … Nice talking to you.
meaning in paralinguistics (intercultural differences!):
nodding and shaking one’s head
smile + you know I hate you (+ irony)
Fodor/Katz "The structure of a semantic theory“. Language 1963, 170-210
incl. the principle of compositionality (Frege, a logician)
list components (incl. distinctive markers):
e.g. cat [+concrete +animate -human +mammal +mature +/-male]
the meaning of single words is determined in componential analysis
•
girl [+anim, +human, -adult, +female]
•
woman [+anim, +human, +adult, +female]
•
table [-anim]
aunt
girl
calf
animate
+
+
human
+
+
-
male
-
-
+-
+
-
-
mature
…
+
.
.
.
107
5.2.2 Semantic field theory
108
5.2.3 Prototype theory: the emergence of prototypes
the lexical field theory introduced by Jost Trier in the 1930s
= the field value of a lexeme is due to oppositions to paradigmatic neighbours
standard examples (from any Thesaurus, e.g. http://thesaurus.com/):
 walk, hike, march, pace, amble, stroll, sneak, stagger
 stupid, thick, silly, dumb; imbecilic, half-witted, half-baked; senseless, trivial
mosaic with overlaps? lexical gaps?
e.g. English: Shona or Welsh colour terms (cf. 5.2.3)
ENGLISH
WELSH
green
gwyrdd
blue
glaz
grey
brown
llwydd
the borders of meanings are blurred, fuzzy
bird [+animate, -human, +wings?, +lays eggs, +can fly?, +feathers?]
 concept of prototypes
use of attributes: can be similar (birds) or not (games)
board/ball/card games only a network of overlapping similarities “family resemblance” (cf.
Wittgenstein)
•
attribute tests confirm the (intuitive) ”best example”
•
thus: prototypical members have the largest number of attributes in common
Berlin/Kay Basic Color Terms: Their Universality and Evolution (1969)
basic color terms (today defined by brightness, hue, saturation);
focal colors are consistent for speakers of the same and of other languages
B/K claim as languages evolve, they develop colour terms in a strict chronological
sequence; if a colour term was found in a language, then colour terms from all previous
stages would also be present:
white, black; red; green/yellow; blue; brown; purple, pink, orange, gray
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Def.: prototype = “the clearest cases of category membership defined [...] by people’s
judgments of goodness of membership in the category”
from Eleonore Rosch 1973 "Natural categories," Cognitive Psychology 4: 328-50
•
•
•
110
5.3 Semantic relations
5.3.1 Synonymy and antonymy
synonymy = two words have the same meaning in a number of contexts:
I spent my holidays/vacations in Spain but
Christmas, Easter holidays
humans classify things into categories with no discrete boundaries
categories can be distinguished with emphasis on their structure
prototype is an image that averages similar experiences
real synonyms rare or not-existent
most frequent phenomena?
youth
purchase
remember
begin
coded as basic categories?
= earliest to be learned?
= easiest to be triggered?
classic example: bird with prototype robin
(from Wikipedia)
-
adolescent
buy
recall
start
antonymy = lexemes contrast in semantic feature(s)
one member can be marked: How tall is Rita?
(tall vs. small, tall is unmarked)
graded antonymy: not clever  stupid
ungraded antonymy: alive vs. dead
dark
hot
in
-
light
cold
out
111
112
5.3.2 Polysemy and homonymy
homonymy
polysemy = lexemes have two or more related meanings (cf. surfer)
 seen as single word with different meanings
(numbered under the same headword in dictionaries)
bright:
deposit:
1. shining
1. minerals in the earth
medium dependent
in general
2. intelligent
2. money in the bank
homonymy
pronunciation:
homophony
homonymy = lexemes have entirely distinct meanings
 seen as separate words with same pronunciations
(listed as separate headwords in dictionaries)
bat1:
club1:
flying mammal
social organization
total
sight-site
– bat2: equipment in baseball
– club2: a blunt weapon
partial
bear N-bear V
total
flower-flour
partial
see-sea
orthography:
homography
total
lead/led/ (metal)
-lead/li:d/ (+dog)
partial
tear N-tear V
homography = words written identically but pronounced differently:
wind = /ωaind/ - /ωind/
homophony = words pronounced identically but written differently:
threw – through = /θru:/
113
5.3.3 Syntagmatic Relations
114
5.3.4 Con- and Cotext
collocations = words which tend to occur together: fair hair, fair play
When analyzing the structure of language statistically, a useful place to start is
with high frequency context words, or so-called Key Word in Context (KWICs).
After millions of samples of spoken and written language have been stored in a
database, these KWICs can be sorted and analyzed for their co-text, or words
which commonly co-occur with them.
Valuable principles with which KWICs can be analyzed include:
collocational range: limited, if a lexeme has few collocates
(omen has only few, like good, bad; good has many)
colligation = a lexical item may be primed to or with a particular
grammatical function (Firth, Sinclair, Hoey)
in QUALIFIER [some/many] cases; I think - I am thinking?
lexical priming = “a word becomes cumulatively loaded with the contexts and
co-texts in which it is encountered” (Hoey)
( grammatical priming: bus is primed to be used as a N but can also be a V)
semantic prosody/associations, e.g. cause + negative contexts
amazingly/astonishingly/surprisingly good – surprisingly bad
idioms = composite meaning cannot be deduced from individual elements
(semantically opaque): to pull s.o.'s leg
sayings: the early bird catches the worm
rituals: keep one’s fingers crossed




Collocation: words and their co-occurrences (examples include "fulfill needs" and
"fall-back position")
Semantic prosody: the connotation words carry ("pay attention" can be neutral or
remonstrative, as when a teacher says to a pupil: "Pay attention!" (or else)
Colligation: the grammar that words use (while "I hope that suits you" sounds
natural, "I hope that you are suited by that" does not).
Register: the text style in which a word is used ("President vows to support allies"
is most likely found in news headlines, whereas "vows" in speech most likely refer
to "marriages"; in speech, the verb "vow" is most likely used as "promise").
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexis_%28linguistics%29
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5.4 Lexicology
116
Lexicology
= subfield of semantics?
5.4.1 Introduction to the lexicon
- investigates the lexicon of a language and its relationships
In short, the lexicon is:





Formulaic: it relies on partially fixed expressions and highly probable
word combinations
Idiomatic: it follows conventions and patterns for usage
Metaphoric: concepts such as time and money, business and sex,
systems and water all share a large portion of the same vocabulary
Grammatical: it uses rules based on sampling of the Lexicon
Register-specific: it uses the same word differently and/or less
frequently in different contexts
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexis_%28linguistics%29
lexicon entries: not seen as a list of isolated elements
lexicology tries to find generalizations and regularities
•
lexicon = vocabulary considered from a synchronic, psycholinguistic,
perspective [in English NOT an encyclopaedia]
systematic
lexicography
= study of dictionaries and dictionary making
•
•
•
common: based on the assumption that English contains a large
central area that is shared by all speakers (cf. diagram)
literary: contains scientific, foreign and archaic words
colloquial: contains dialectal, vulgar, slang and technical elements
117
118
5.4.2 Structure of the English vocabulary
5.4.3 History of the lexicon: etymology
English vocabulary: not homogeneous
waves of (lexeme) invasions: loan words (and loan translations)
•
continental Latin: cheese
•
Celtic (mainly in place names: -comb)
•
North Germanic: skirt (vs. shirt)
•
Norman: beef, pork, mutton (vs. ox, pig, sheep)
•
French: guardian (vs. warden)
•
Latin/Greek: disk (vs. dish Greek via Latin)
•
colonial (Dutch): yacht
•
imperial/global: pizza, curry, nasi goreng
archaic
A temporally variable
(changes over time)
= synchronic vs. diachronic
view:
although words look familiar
their meanings can have
changed (see 5.4.3)
scientific
common
technical
vs.
dialectal
colloquial
B spatially variable
BrE
railway
luggage
lorry
foreign
literary
AmE
railroad
baggage
truck
typological parallels German – English and differences
(false friends: actual, brave, bright?)
homophones through phonetic change:
meet vs. meat, queen (vs. quean)
slang
vulgar
types of semantic shifts:
town (Zaun), knight (Knecht), knave (Knabe)
diagram adapted from Lipka 1992
119
5.4.4 Fundamental distinctions in lexicology
bilingual vs. monolingual dictionaries
monolingual dictionaries should contain the following information:
pronunciation, definitions, collocations/ idioms, notes on usage
for English: Oxford English Dictionary OED ( COED)
- online: e.g. beolingus at TUC, LEO at TUMunich
- “production dictionary”/Thesaurus: Longman Language Activator (on LDOCE CD)
learner dictionaries (all with CD!):
•
Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English (OALD)
•
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (LDOCE)
•
COBUILD English Language Dictionary
•
Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (CALD)
- paradigmatic vs. syntagmatic relationships in a lexicon
- language is linear, elements follow sequentially
syntagm: successive linguistic elements that are combined
(de Saussure)
paradigm: linguistic elements in opposition or alternatives to
the same position in a syntagm/sentence
syntagmatic relations = elements can be combined, co-occur
paradigmatic relationships = elements can be exchanged, replaced
He
she
I
You
can
may
will
could
go
come
start
sleep
tomorrow
soon
next
now
120
5.4.5 Dictionaries of the English language
syntagmatic
paradigmatic
others:
encyclopedic: e.g. Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language
Encycopedia Britannica vs. Wikipedia?
ontology = a set of terminologies for organising (technical) information
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122
5.5 Pragmatics
5.5.2 Grice‘s (1975) rules of cooperative behaviour
5.5.1 Introduction
cooperative principle
describes how people interact with one another normally behave in conversation:
"Make your contribution such as it is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the
accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.“
pragmatics: = the study of how context influences the interpretation of meaning
context includes: speaker, hearer, third party participants, beliefs, world knowledge
(in expanding circles)
•
deals with people's use of language
•
is part of performance (not competence)
•
is concerned with principles people use when communicating
•
cannot be captured by semantic theory, cf.: It is rather cold in here.
performative utterances/verbs (the saying of the words constitutes the performing of an act)
e.g. I name this ship Queen Elizabeth.
Speech acts (Austin/Searle): e.g. There's a bull in the field.
•
locutionary speech act
is purely a description
•
illocutionary
“
is a warning (+speaker intention)
•
perlocutionary
“
has the intended effect (+hearer reaction)
1. maxim of quantity
•
give the right amount of information when talking
•
make your contribution as informative as required but not more
2. maxim of quality
•
be truthful, try to make a contribution that is true
•
do not say anything for which you lack evidence
3. maxim of relevance
•
give a reply that fits the question
4. maxim of manner
•
be brief/clear and orderly, avoid obscurity and ambiguity
123
5.5.3 Implications and facticity
124
5.6 Semiotics
Conversational implicatures: something is understood although it is not said explicitly said
 we draw conclusions from what is said
The cooperative principle goes both ways: speakers (generally) observe the cooperative
principle, and listeners (generally) assume that speakers are observing it. This allows for
the possibility of implicatures, which are meanings that are not explicitly conveyed in what
is said, but that can nonetheless be inferred. e.g, if Alice points out that Bill is not present,
and Carol replies that Bill has a cold, then there is an implicature that the cold is the
reason (from: Wikipedia)
He continued writing the essay. - implication: He wrote an essay before.
Facticity of utterance
•
factive verbs: situation is true: The cat is in the garden.
•
non-factive verbs: situation has some probability: I believe the cat is in the
garden.
•
contrafactive verbs: situation is not the case: I wish the cat was in the garden.
•
performative verbs: statement is an action itself
I warn you, John accuses Mary, Fred promises
= the study of signs and sign processes (semiosis), indication, designation, likeness, analogy,
metaphor, symbolism, signification, and communication.
Semiotics is closely related to the field of linguistics, which, for its part, studies the
structure and meaning of language more specifically.
Semiotics is often divided into three branches:
•
Semantics: Relation between signs and the things to which they refer; their denotata,
or meaning
•
Syntactics: Relations among signs in formal structures
•
Pragmatics: Relation between signs and the effects they have on the people who use
them
Semiotics is frequently seen as having important anthropological dimensions; for example,
Umberto Eco proposes that every cultural phenomenon can be studied as communication.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiotics (5/12/13)
 we act with speech (speech act)
125
126
6. Systems, methodologies and academic thinking
6.2 Linguistics is categorisation
6.1 Grammar is a complex system
“If linguistics can be said to be any one thing it is the study of categories: that is, the
study of how language translates meaning into sound through the categorisation of reality
into discrete units and sets of units”. (Labov 1973: 342)
“My aim, if you like, was to provide a 'grammar' of English behaviour. Native speakers
can rarely explain the grammatical rules of their own language. In the same way,
those who are most 'fluent' in the rituals, customs and traditions of a particular
culture generally lack the detachment necessary to explain the 'grammar' of these
practices in an intelligible manner. This is why we have anthropologists.”
Kate Fox (2005). Watching the English. The Hidden Rules of
English Behaviour. London: Hodder & Stoughton.
Some systems share common characteristics, including
•
A system has structure, it contains parts (or components) that are directly or indirectly
related to each other;
•
A system has behavior, it contains processes that transform inputs into outputs
(material, energy or data);
•
A system has interconnectivity: the parts and processes are connected by structural
and/or behavioral relationships.
•
A system's structure and behavior may be decomposed via subsystems and subprocesses to elementary parts and process steps.
“The task of cognitive systems is to provide maximum information with the least cognitive
effort”. (Rosch 1978: 28)
complex categorisation - gradience / gradients:

vowels – consonants -> semivowels

verbs – auxiliaries -> semiauxiliaries
According to the classical view, categories should be clearly defined, mutually exclusive
and collectively exhaustive. This way, any entity of the given classification universe belongs
unequivocally to one, and only one, of the proposed categories. …
Conceptual clustering is closely related to fuzzy set theory, in which objects may belong to
one or more groups, in varying degrees of fitness. …
A cognitive approach accepts that natural categories are graded (they tend to be fuzzy at
their boundaries) and inconsistent in the status of their constituent members.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categorization (15/12/13)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System (15/12/13)
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A comparison of auxiliaries and main verbs
syntax
auxiliary verbs
main verbs
the only verb in the
sentence
no
*He has,
except in ellipsis, answers
to questions of the type
Has/Is/Does he …?
yes
Has he come?
no
inversion (Vfin S)
yes
NICE properties
- do
128
A comparison of auxiliaries and main verbs
He comes every day.
morphology:
modal verbs
main verbs
bare infinitive
yes
He can come,
not: *He can to
come
no
*He comes see me;
but: He comes to see
me
non-finite forms
no
*to can,
*canning,
*canned
yes
walk, walking, walked
3rd sg. ind. pres. -s
no
*he cans,
*she musts
yes
he walks, she comes
He could/might
come tomorrow
yes
*He came tomorrow
*Comes he?
+ do
N) in negations
no
He hasn‘t come;
not: *He doesn‘t have
come.
yes
He doesn‘t come;
not: *He comes not.
I) inversion in
questions
no
Has he come?
not: *Does he have come?
yes
Does he come?;
not: *Comes he?
C) „code“ = ellipsis of
main verb after first
occurrence (proform)
no
John will come and so
will _ Mary.
yes
John came and so did Mary
stranding:
John never sings, Mary does
E) for emphasis
no
He HAS come,
not: *He DOES have come
yes
He DOES come.
past tense in simple
no
declarative sentences
has past meaning
129
6.3 Linguistics is systematic
e.g. the Great Vowel Shift
130
6.4 Linguistics uses divers research methodologies
6.4.1 Overview of research approaches in linguistics
Understanding research approaches used for collection of data in Linguistics is critical.
In general, research approaches employed in linguistics studies cover both quantitative and
qualitative approaches.
e.g.
•
ethnographic or observational research techniques
•
survey technique and experimental methods
•
content analysis/discourse analysis
Many researches combine a thorough qualitative analysis of key concepts and a quantitative
analysis of most frequent categories later, e.g.
in socio- and corpus-linguistics.
http://facweb.furman.edu/~mmenzer/gvs/ see and hear the GVS
131
132
6.4.1 Combining research methodologies, e.g. Grounded Theory
6.4.2 Collecting the data
Grounded theory method is a systematic methodology in the social sciences involving the
discovery of theory through the analysis of data. It is mainly used in qualitative research,
but is also applicable to quantitative data.
Grounded theory method is a research method which operates almost in a reverse fashion
from traditional social science research. Rather than beginning with a hypothesis, the first
step is data collection, through a variety of methods. From the data collected, the key
points are marked with a series of codes, which are extracted from the text. The codes are
grouped into similar concepts in order to make them more workable. From these concepts,
categories are formed, which are the basis for the creation of a theory, or a reverse
engineered hypothesis. This contradicts the traditional model of research, where the
researcher chooses a theoretical framework, and only then applies this model to the
phenomenon to be studied.
All is data is a fundamental property of GT which means that everything that gets in the
researcher’s way when studying a certain area is data. Not only interviews or observations
but anything is data that helps the researcher generating concepts for the emerging theory.
Field notes can come from informal interviews, lectures, seminars, expert group meetings,
newspaper articles, Internet mail lists, even television shows, conversations with friends
etc.
Collecting different types of data (or combination of data)
• quantitative data: numeric data often collected by questionnaires
• qualitative data: textual data collected from written or spoken text analysis,
interviews, diaries, questionnaires
Popular to combine different types of data:
• in order to triangulate your data, i.e. to be able see an object from different
perspectives
• in order to use multiple methods, i.e.
•
to combine data that can be generalised to a wider population (e.g. survey)
•
with data that reflects the experience of individual actors or agents
(e.g. sequence of interviews over time)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grounded_theory (18/10/12)
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6.4.3 Analysing and interpreting the data
The data does not analyse and interpret itself !
You need to adopt an explicit method of analysing your data and describe
this in your methods section:
Quantitative analysis: a few simple statistical tests.
But this must be written into the research design from the beginning!
Qualitative analysis: according to themes and categories.
Look at previous studies and research methods primers in order to decide
a systemic approach to this.
The discussion relates back to the theoretical framework in the literature
review:
• To what extent do your findings confirm/contradict previous findings?
•
What is your contribution to knowledge in the field?
6.4.4 Sampling
= the process of selecting units (e.g., people, organizations) from a population of interest so
that by studying the sample we may fairly generalize our results back to the population from
which they were chosen, a process commonly known as making inferences. The main idea of
statistical inference is to take a random sample from a population and then to use the
information from the sample to make inferences about particular population characteristics
such as the mean (measure of central tendency), the standard deviation (measure of spread)
or the proportion of units in the population that have a certain characteristic. E.g.
•
Probability sampling
•
Non-probability sampling
•
Simple random sampling
•
Convenience sampling
•
Stratified sampling
•
Systematic sampling
•
Cluster sampling
•
Sequential sampling
•
Disproportional sampling
•
Judgmental sampling
•
Snowball sampling
•
Quota sampling
•
Sampling Error
•
Sampling distribution
135
6.4.5 Experimental Methods
136
6.4.6 Inferential statistics
Experiments are suit of scientific method, consisting of a set of techniques used by the
scientific community to investigate natural phenomena, by providing an objective
framework in which to make scientific inquiry, and analyze research data to reach a
conclusion about an inquiry. Experimental method is a systematic and scientific approach to
research in which the researcher manipulates one or more variables, and controls and
measures any change in other variables. There are a number of ways to conduct a scientific
experiment, depending on the subject being studied. Some are performed in laboratories,
while others require accumulating data in field work, surveys, longitudinal or double-blind
studies, or in other manners, such as an archeological excavation. This module will cover
experiments conducted in field work.
E.g.:
•
Pretest-Posttest Design
•
Control Group
•
Randomized Controlled Trials
•
Solomon Four-Group Design
•
Between Subjects Design
•
Within Subject Design
•
Counterbalanced Measures Design
…
Inferential statistics involves making inferences from sample statistics, such as the sample
mean and the sample standard deviation, to population parameters such as the population
mean and the population standard deviation. With inferential statistics, we are trying to
reach conclusions that extend beyond the immediate data observed. We can also use
inferential statistics to make judgments of the probability that an observed difference
between groups is a dependable one or one that might have happened by chance in a study.
E.g.
1. HYPOTHESIS TESTING
•
Developing hypothesis
•
How do we know whether a hypothesis is correct or not?
2. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VARIABLES
•
Correlation (linear relationship)
3. MAKING PREDICTIONS
•
Regression analysis
•
Linear Regression
•
Multiple Regression
…
137
6.4.7 Comparison of empirical linguistic research
based on Rasinger (2008:12)
quantitative analysis
because it
 is conscious of current terminology and concepts
 is focussed, exemplary, data-based
 is driven by data, theories, etc.
 uses explicit methodology
 is critically aware (of implications, applications, etc.)
 is “readable” (with examples, diagrams, etc.) to facilitate academic
discourse
Methodology
Develop
Generate
Methodology
Generate
Data
Analyse
Data
Analyse
Patterns, structures
Result
Deduct
138
6.5 Linguistics supports academic
thinking/writing/research
qualitative analysis
Hypothesis/ theory/
research question
Hypothesis/
theory true
134
 linguistics can combine theory and practice in English studies
- and beyond
Induce
Hypothesis/
theory false
Hypothesis/ theory
137
23