CHAPTER - 1
INTRODUCTION
Thesis starts with this chapter. In this chapter, historical back
ground of different kinds of waxes with respect to their applications and
uses is given. A detailed classification and description of waxes is
presented. This information forms the basis for the understanding of
physical properties of waxes and fat of the present investigation. The
chapter ends with literature survey on chemical and physical properties
of waxes and animal fat.
________________________________________________________________________
Waxes played an important role from ancient times especially the
beeswax. In Roman times, they used to honour statues made with wax.
The historic wax statues are available in Wax Museum at Los-Angeles. In
the first century AD, the city of Trebizond was learned conquered by the
Romans and beeswax was demanded. Also Romans imposed a fine of
1,00,000 pounds of bees wax after defeated the Corsicans. Wax was a
unit of trade for taxes in medieval European times. In 1330, farmers
used to pay 2 pounds of beeswax per year as a tax in France. The Roman
Catholic Church utilized exclusively candles of beeswax. In ancient
times, beeswax candles were used for lighting purpose as well as in
religious liturgy. 600 pounds of beeswax as a rent per annum was
recovered by French monastery as per the records. Egyptians used
beeswax for painting the surface of their tombs to protect from
environmental disaster. Persian coated their bodies, wore a form of
embalming with wax as per Greek historians in 400 BC. Wax figure of
deities were used in funeral ceremonies by the Egyptians. During World
War II, waxes were used for coating planes and weapons.
1.1 WAXES
Wax is a material which is firm at 200C, it changes from soft to
fragile and later to rigid, melting point is more than 400C, the value of
viscosity is low at above the melting point, it is semi transparent, it can
change its color under slight pressure also. It holds ionizing chain of
carbons. The classification of wax is represented by the block diagram in
figure 1.1.
CLASSIFICATION OF WAX
WAX
Animal Wax


Plant Wax
Bee wax
Shellac




Candelilla
Carnauba
Soya Wax
Jojoba
Mineral Wax
 Paraffin
 Microcrystalline
 Montan
 Ozokerite
Synthetic Wax




Figure 1.1 Block diagram of classification of wax
PP: Poly-Propylene; PE: Poly- Ethylene;
HDPE: High Density Poly Ethylene; PTFE: Poly tetra fluoro ethylene
PP
PE
HDPE
PTFE
1.2 ANIMAL WAX
Animal waxes are natural waxes obtained from animals such as
Beeswax, shellac wax and Lanolin wax.
1.2.1BEES WAX
How beeswax is produced?
Beeswax is produced by honey bees of a certain age in the outline
of thin scales. These scales are produced by glands of 12 to 17 days old
worker bees on the ventral surface of the stomach. These bees have 8
wax producing glands. Each bee starts from an egg. This egg further,
produces white worm shaped larva which will be fed by young worker
bees. This larva grows very rapidly in six days. When the larva is fully
developed, it fills the wax cell. The worker bees then cover it with wax.
The young insect becomes pupa. The young insect is transformed into an
adult bee and comes out of the cell. The figure 1.2 (a) and (b) shows the
picture of honey comb and beeswax respectively.
After the winter period when the summer season starts the worker
bees go in search of flowers. At this moment, the queen bee starts laying
eggs and soon after hatching, the new workers will come out. As in these
days many flowers will blossom, all the worker bees start collecting
honey. These days become favourable for the drone for mating. After
mating with the queen, it die instantly. If a drone is still alive in the hive
then it will be driven out by the worker bees from the hive by any means,
otherwise they eat honey. Worker bees are hygienic female bees. They are
in large figures about 60,000. Their names suggests, they do the works
like cleaning the hive, making bees wax, nursing larvae providing food to
the queen, protecting the hive foraging for nectar, producing honey and
keeping the hive cool or warm as preferred. The life span of worker bee is
1-2 months in the active spring or summer. If she is reared in late
summer or early winter, she may live 6 months or more. The queen bee
will produce 1000 to 2000 eggs daily in all 7 days in a week. Bees wax is
produced from glands on her abdomen. They utilize the wax to build
honey comb and brood comb. The comb cells are used to raise the young
ones and to accumulate honey and polling. For wax producing bees to
secrete wax the temperature in the hive has to be 330C to 36 0C (91 to
970F). About 8 pounds of honey is consumed by bees to produce one
pound of bees wax. The bee keepers remove honey by cutting the wax
caps of each honey comb cell. The wax extracted from the brood comb is
darker than the wax from the honey comb, because of impurities
accumulated more in the brood comb. Due to the impurities, the wax has
to be rendered before further uses. Some of the physical properties of
beeswax is, it is insoluble in water and its density in 0.95. It becomes
fragile below 180C and soft above 350C to 400C, melting point is 650C.
USES
Beeswax is used for making Candles and ornaments, Lip balm,
medicinal cream in pharmaceutical firms, water proof shoes, polishing
the furniture and making soaps. Also it is used in embroidery machines,
belts in vacuum cleaners, glass designing and in industrial organization,
as lubricant for doors and windows. It creates freely moving surface on
irons and frying pans in kitchenware, for sealing jams and jellies in food
product industries.
1.2.2 SHELLAC WAX
Shellac is scraped from the bark of trees where a female lac bug laccifer
deposits on the trunk. This insect is of the same family as the insect from which
cochineal is obtained. These insects suck the sap of the tree and excrete “stick
lac” in almost nonstop manner. The least colored shellac is produced when the
insect of Parasitic upon kursum tree. The row shellac which contains bark
shavings and lac bug pert‟s put in canvass tubes (like long sock) and heated. It
causes the shellac to liquefy and comes out through the canvas bag keeping
inside the bark of the tree and bug ports. The thick liquid shellac is dried in to
flat sheet and broken in to flakes and sold. The figure 1.2 (c ) and (d) represent
female lac bug and dry flakes of shellac wax.
Shellac is a resin secreted by female lac bug to form a cocoon in the
forest of India and Thailand. It is produced in the form of dry flakes which are
dissolved in denatured alcohol to liquidate for utilizing in wood finish. Shellac
functions as tough of all natural premier standing sealer, odor blocks, stain
pigment and high gloss varnish. Shellac is used in electrical applications as it
possesses good insulation qualities. It seals moisture. It is used as paint for
hard wood floors, wooden wall ceiling. The thickness of the shellac is measured
by a unit “pound cut”. One pound cut is got by dissolving one pound of shellac
in a gallon of alcohol.
Shellac contain small amount of wax (3% to 5% by volume), which
comes from lac bug. In some preparation, the shellac wax is removed so
it is called has dewaxed shellac. This is done, when shellac is coated with
paint or varnish so that the top coat able to stick. Non waxed shellac
appears milky white. Shellac comes in many colors ranging from dark
brown to light yellow.
USES
This type of wax is used for shining the articles made of wood,
molded goods like surgical dye, sanitary articles, picture frames, and
ornaments. In motor vehicle industries, Shellac wax used for tiers
manufacturing. Shellac compounds were used in phonograph records
upto1940. It is used as a protective coating for sheets used by the blind
people. Shellac wax is useful in painting industry, manufacturing of
Indian ink, in electrical industry for installation of armature rotor, stator
(a)
(c)
(b)
(d)
Figure 1.2 (a) honey comb, (b) beeswax, (c) female lac bug, (d) dry flakes of
shellac wax
windings of motors, generators, and transformers. Shellac is mixed with
form aldehyde resin to form Bakelite for electrical use.
The user mixes with denatured alcohol a few days before in order
to dissolve the flakes and make liquid shellac. The liquid shellac will
have limited shell life (about one year). The liquid shellac sold in
hardware shops is marked with production time at the bottom or top so
that the consumer to know the shellac inside is in good condition or not.
Shellac was very customary being accessible at any place where
paints and varnishes are sold like hardware stores. But in these days, it
is replaced by cheaper, clear and more chemical resistant substance
such as polyurethane. Shellac is soluble in alkaline solutions such as
NH3, Na2B4O7, Na2CO3 and NaOH and also in a variety of organic
solvents. When dissolved in alcohol blends containing C2H5OH and
CH3OH. Shellac yields a hard and durable coating.
1.3 PLANT WAX
Plant wax is a natural wax. It is derived from the various plants like
Candelilla, Carnauba, Soya and jojoba. The types of plant waxes are

Candelilla wax

Carnauba wax

Soya wax

Jojoba wax
1.3.1 CANDELILLA WAX
It is derived from the leaves of small Candelilla shrub native to
northern Mexico and south-western United States. It is yellowish brown,
hard, delicate and dense to translucent with distinctive odour. Candelilla
wax consists of mainly hydrocarbons about 50%. It consists of 29 to 33
number of carbon atoms which are arranged in a long chain. Candelilla
wax is obtained by boiling the leaves and stems with dilute sulphuric
acid. It is skimmed from surface and further processed. The figure 1.3(a)
shows Candelilla shrub. Candelilla wax is not as hard as carnauba wax.
It will not become hard even after cooling for several days. The melting
point is in between 670c to 790c. Candelilla wax is insolvable in water
and soluble in solvents like chloroform, acetone and benzene. Carbon
atoms present in this wax is 29 to 33. It is found having higher
molecular weight of esters, free acids, resins present 20 to 29%, 79%,12-14%
respectively.
The
heat
capacity
is
measured
as
C = 754.71 ± 29.35j/K. Thermal diffusivity, αs = 0.026 ± 0.00095
cm2/sec.
Density,
ρ
=
1086.54kg/m3.
Thermal
conductivity,
К = 2.132±0.16w/mk. Time constant, ‫ = ד‬66.17 ± 5.48hrs. Electrical
resistivity, ρe = 5.98 ± 0.19x1017 ohm-cm.
USES
Candelilla wax is utilized in Textile industry, Leather industry,
Casting, precision electroplating and Automobile for coating. It is also
used for manufacturing Greases, adhesive agents, Lipstick and chewing
gum.
1.3.2 CARNAUBA WAX
Carnauba wax is obtained from the leaves of Carnauba plant. In
general these plants are found to grow in northeastern Brazilian estates
and are known as queen of waxes. It usually comes in the appearance of
hard yellow-brown flakes. It is got after collecting, carnauba beating
them to loosen the wax. After refining and bleaching the wax, its
composition contains mainly esters of fatty acids, fatty alcohols, and
hydrocarbon. Cinnamic acid an antioxidant may be hydroxylated or
methoxylated.
Its melting point is 82-860C highest of natural waxes. Its density is
above to 0.97gm/cm3. It is the hardest natural waxes, harder than
concrete in pure form. It is insoluble in water but soluble on heating
ethyl acetate and in xylene. It is practically insoluble in ethyl alcohol.
USES
Carnauba wax appears as ingredient in many cosmetics, where it
is used to thicken lipstick, eyeliner, eye shadow, deodorant, various skin
care preparation. It makes high gloss finish while wood bluffing. In food
processing unit, the wax is used as a anti caking agent and surface
finishing agent. It is also used for manufacturing fruit juices, gravies,
sauces and soft sweets. The figure 1.3 (b) shows Carnauba plant. It is
combined with beeswax to treat water proof. In many leather products,
where it provides a high gloss finish, increases leathers hardness and
durability. It is used in pharmaceutical company as a tablet coating
agent. In 1980, Charles tainter patented the use of carnauba wax on
phonograph cylinders as a substitute for the combination of paraffin and
beeswax. It is mostly used with epoxies in engineering plastics for
enhancing required properties. An aerosol mold is released from
carnauba wax as a solvent. The aerosol qualities are used extensively for
moulds in semiconductor devices. Carnauba is used to melt explosives so
as to produce an intensive formula such as composition „B‟ which is a
blend of RDX and TNT.
1.3.3 SOYA WAX
The source is the Soya beans, first grown in United State. From the
wax produced, Soya candles were manufactured. It has many advantages
over paraffin wax. It is 100% natural and non toxic. It is biodegradable
gives practically no soot or less than 95% soot. It burns cleanly and 25%
to 50% longer when compared to paraffin candles. It is water soluble and
cleans the container with soap and water, which can be reusable. It
releases its own fragrance for a long time. It contains no toxic or
air
(a)
(c)
(b)
(d)
Figure 1.3 (a) Candelilla shrub, (b) Carnauba plant, (c ) Soya bean plant,
(d) Jojoba plant
contamination. The figure 1.3 (c) represents Soya bean plant. Farmers all
over world grow Soya beans as it supports farmers and is 100% natural.
It gives clean burning, long lasting and wonderfully scented.
While burning the wax melts but nothing will fall down as in case
of paraffin. Many people in U.S.A use it and their usage is spread to the
other countries. The residue left after refining petroleum is known as
Paraffin. It contains carbon and other chemicals which give toxic effect
but Soya candles will not produce any toxic effect.
USES
It is used in breast cancer treatment to remove tumor and to
inspect some carcinogenic compounds means cancer causing agents.
They are found in the tumor due to soot coming from paraffin candles
but people using Soya candles are not affected by cancer as it has no
toxic effect and no soot is present when Soya candle burns. Burning
Soya candles do not cause air pollution. American lung association found
out that the soot coming from paraffin diesel exhaust and factory
emission goes in to the deepest areas of lungs causing respiratory
diseases like asthma. But this is not the case with Soya candles as no
soot is produced.
1.3.4 JOJOBA WAX
Jojoba wax is a plant wax obtained first in Sonoran and Mojave
deserts of Arizona, California and Mexico desert. Jojoba wax is grown
commercially for its oil. A liquid wax is derived from the seed of the plant.
The maximum height of a Jojoba plant is about two meters with broad
thick branches on the top. The leaves are oval in shape two to four
centimeters long and one to three centimeters wide. The color of the
leaves is gray-green with waxy. Jojoba flowers are small and greenish
yellow in color. Each plant is single sex either male or female.
The
mature seed is a hard oval, dark brown in color. It contains
approximately 54% of liquid wax. The figure 1.3 (d) shows Jojoba plant.
USES
A jojoba plant provides food for many animals such as deer,
bighorn sheep and domestic animals etc. Its seeds are toxic to many
mammals
and
the
wax
acts
as
a
laxative
for
human
beings.
Simmondsia California is the scientific name of Jojoba. It has extremely
long carbon chain atoms (C36 to C46). Jojoba ester is more similar to
human fat or whale oil rather than any vegetable oil. The Jojoba oil can
be refined into odourless and colourless. It is used in cosmetics as
moisturizer and carrier oil for special fragrance. It is used as bio-diesel
fuel for vehicles like cars and trucks and also as a biodegradable oil
lubricant. Plantation of jojoba is done in deserts of Argentina, Australia,
Israel, Mexico, Peru, U.S.A, as well as in India.
1.4 MINERAL WAXS
Mineral wax is a natural wax obtained by mining and extraction
from the earth. The examples are Paraffin wax, Microcrystalline wax,
Montan wax and Ozokerite wax.
1.4.1 PARAFFIN WAX
Fully refined paraffin wax is hard having white crystalline material
derived from petroleum and it is refined by means of a carefully
controlled selective solvent process into different melting point grades.
The refined paraffin we have exceptional gloss and resistance. Its degree
of purity and low order makes many applications.
Paraffin waxes predominantly composed of normal straight chain of
hydrocarbons. They vary from 18 to 40 carbon atoms and the chain
length determines average melting point, resistant to acids an alkaline
substances. In chemistry, paraffin is the common name for the alkane
hydrocarbon having general formula CnH2n+2 paraffin wax is related to
solids having n=20 to 40. The solid paraffin called paraffin wax is C20H42
to C40H82. The fuel name in Britain has paraffin, which is now called as
kerosene in U.S.A and Australia. The name is derived from Latin parum
(barely) + affins which means lacking in reactivity or highly in reactive.
Paraffin is the alternative for kerosene. Its melting point is above 470C to
640C. Its density is 0.9gm/cm3. It is insoluble in water but soluble in
ether like benzene and some esters. It is unaffected by reagents and
combustible.
The electrical resistivity is very high. It is an effective neutron
moderator used by James Chadwick to identify neutron. Paraffin wax is
having specific heat 2.14 to 2.9 j/kg K. Its latent heat of fusion is 200220 j/kg.
USES
Liquidities paraffin state is used as a fuel. Paraffin wax has wide
application like it is used as laxative; it is used in paints and pigments,
dyes, inks, in medicine, in lavatories, cosmetics, making candles and
coating for wax paper. Paraffin is used as a sealant for jars, cans, and
bottles. It acts as anticaking agent moisture repellent and dust binding
coating for fertilizers. It is used as solid propellant for hybrid rocket
motors. It used on handrails, cement ledges and in skate boarding for
reducing friction. The wax is melted, sprayed on the paper producing
images with shiny surface and is used to detect nitrates on the hands of
the suspect murderer in forensic nitrate test. It is used as additive for
chewing gum. The combination of paraffin and micro wax is used in
rubber compounding to prevent cracking of rubber. It is used as a sheet
lock in home building materials. It is infused in sheet rock during
manufacturing. When installed its melt during the day absorbing heat
and solidify at night. It expands when its melt is used in the thermostats
for industrial, domestic and in automobile. The modification is usually
done with the addition such as copolymers to produce polyethylene.
Liquid paraffin is kept as a mixture of heavier alkenes having a number
of nujol adepsine oil, glymol and medicinal paraffin saxol. Liquid paraffin
has a density 0.8gm/cm3. Liquid paraffin is used to help bowel moment
in persons suffering chronic constipation it passes through alimentary
canal without going to any part of the body. It used as lubricant in
mechanical mixing when applied as a coating to fruits for shining
appearance for sale.
1.4.2 MICRO CRYSTALLINE WAX
Microcrystalline waxes are produced by de-oiling petroleum which
is
a
part
unbranched
of
petroleum
alkenes,
but
refining
process.
microcrystalline
Paraffin
wax
wax
contains
contains
higher
percentage of isoparaffinic (branched) hydrocarbons and naphthenic
hydrocarbon. High molecular weight saturated aliphatic hydro carbons
are present in this wax. Compared to paraffin wax this wax is generally
darker more viscous, denser and more elastic. Micro crystalline wax is
more flexible than paraffin wax. Microcrystalline waxes consist of two
grades hardening grades and laminating grades. The melting point of
laminating grades is (1400F -1750F) and will have 25 mm or above needle
penetration. Whereas the melting point of hardening grade will range
from (175-2000F) and will have a needle penetration 25 mm or below.
Depending upon the degree of processing at the refinery level, colour of
both grades ranges from brown to white. Microcrystalline waxes are
obtained from the refinining of heavy distillates from lubricant oil
production. At a wax refinery this by product is de-oiled. Odour and
colour of the product can be removed mainly by filtration method of the
wax. The colour of wax typically varies from brown to dark yellow.
USES
Microcrystalline wax is used in industries where petrolatum is key
component. It is used for making candles adhesives, corrugated board,
cosmetics and castings. Industries in rubber and tire are using paraffin
combined with microcrystalline wax. It is observed that microcrystalline
waxes are excellent materials to modify the crystalline properties of
paraffin wax. The branching of the carbon chains which are back bone of
paraffin
wax
has
a
significant
effect
on
microcrystalline
wax.
Microcrystalline wax properties such as flexibility, higher melting point
and increased opacity are necessary for functional changes in paraffin
wax. In printing ink they are used as slip agents. Microcrystalline wax is
the key component of petrolatum. When it is combined with paraffin wax
it is used in rubber and tire producing industries.
Recent industry trends have reduced total number of refineries
producing microcrystalline waxes. Long term supply of micro crystalline
wax is done by the International Group Inc (IGI), which is one of the few
remaining companies that have committed refining capacity. IGI
refineries in Farmer‟s valley, Toronto, Ontario, Canada have capability for
refining
unfinished
“slack
wax”
(the
raw
material)
to
a
fine
microcrystalline wax. Exxon-mobile is also major North American
producer with facilities in TX and LA. Some companies still purchase
Micro Crystalline wax and uses internally for finished blends.
1.4.3 MONTAN WAX
Montan wax is known as lignite wax. It is a hard wax. It is formed
by solvent extraction of certain types of lignite such as brown coal. It is
found at very few places such as Amdorm (Germany) lone basin in
California. The colour of wax varies from dark brown to light yellow but
when it is crude. It is white in colour after refined. Its melting point is in
between 820C to 950C. It contains carbons, carboxylic acid, and esters. It
also contains non glyceride chain, long chain of alcohols ketones ,
hydrocarbons and resins. The figure1.4 (a) and (b) represents the place
where Montan wax is available and the candles made of Montan wax
respectively.
USES
It is used in automobile, leather and phonograph records for
polishing. It is also used as lubricant for molding paper and plastics. Its
(a)
(c)
(b)
(d)
Figure 1.4 (a) the place where Montan wax is available, (b) candles of
Montan wax, (c) picture of Ozokerite mine, (d) sample of Ozokerite wax
main use is in making carbon paper. Scratch resistance; water proof and
high luster are the main properties of this wax.
1.4.4 OZOKERITE
Ozokerite is a mineral oil, which is obtained from Scotland, north
ember land and Wales. It also got from deposit of Utah in U.S.A. Its
occurrence is in the peninsula of cheleken near turkey. The main source
of commercial supply is Galicia at boryslaw. The figure 1.4 (c) and (d)
shows the picture of Ozokerite mine and sample of Ozokerite wax. It
requires mining up to a depth of 200 to 225 meter. After extraction to the
surface, the pure material is separated by adopting different procedure
as per the necessity. The impure wax is subjected to water treatment at
higher temperature in large vessels made of copper for purification. The
melting point varies from 580C to 1000C, the density in between 0.85 to
0.95gm/cm3. It is soluble in ether, petroleum, benzene, turpentine,
chloroform, carbon disulphide. It varies in colour from light yellow to
dark brown.
USES
Due to high melting point, wax is used to make candles and
enables to use in hot climatic region. When it is got by distillation it
resembles Vaseline. When it is mixed with rubber it is called okonite
which acts as an electrical insulator.
.
1.5 SYNTHETIC WAXES
1.5.1 POLYPROPYLENE (P.P)
It is a thermo plastic polymer made by chemical industry. An
addition of polymer made from monomer propylene behaves like a
resistant to many chemical solvent, bases and acids. Its molecular
formula is (C3H6)x. Density is 0.855gm/cm3 when amorphous and
0.946gm/cm3 when it is in crystalline form. Its melting point is 1600C.
Commercial polypropylene is static and has intermediate level of
crystallinity between low density polyethylene (LDPE) and high density
polyethylene (HDPE). When copolymerized with ethylene, it is normally
tough and flexible. This makes polypropylene to be used as an
engineering plastic. It is economical and made translucent when it is
uncolored.
The molecular weight of Polypropylene can be measured by
measuring its MFR (melt flow rate) or MFI (melt flow index). There are
three types of Polypropylene.
1. Homo polymer
2. Random copolymer
3. Block copolymer
USES
The commonly used polymer is ethylene polypropylene polymer,
when mixed with Ethylene-propylene rubber increases its
low
temperature impact strength. Randomly polymerized ethylene monomer
added
to
polypropylene
homo
polymer
decreases
the
polymer
crystallinity. This is mostly used in carpets, clothes and textile
industries. Stationery plastic parts and reusable containers of various
types are made using polypropylene polymer. It is used as laboratory
equipment, loud speaker, automotive components and polymer bank
notes.
1.5.2 POLYETHYLENE
Polyethylene or polythene is a thermo plastic product which is
used as plastic shopping bags. Polyethylene is a polymer consists of long
chain of monomer ethylene. Therefore, it is named by IUPAC as
polyethylene. In polymer industry the name is shortened to PE. The
ethane molecule C2H4 is in the form CH2=CH2.Common name of ethane
molecule is ethylene. The polymerization of ethane creates Polyethylene.
It is manufactured by addition of ions and radical polymerization.
CLASSIFICATION OF POLYETHYLENE
1. Ultra high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE).
2. Ultra low molecular weight polyethylene (ULMWPE or PE-Wax).
3. High molecular weight polyethylene (HMWPE).
4. High density polyethylene (HDPE).
5. High density cross linked polyethylene (HDXLPE).
6. Cross linked polyethylene (PEX or XLPE).
7. Medium density polyethylene (MDPE).
8. Linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE).
9. Very low density polyethylene (VLDPE).
UHMWPE: UHMWPE has a molecular weight in millions between 3.1 &
5.67 millions. The high molecular weight makes it a tough material. The
UHMWPE is used in bottle handling machine parts, moving parts of
weaving machines, bearings, gears, artificial- joints, butchers chopping
boards.
HDPE: The high density polyethylene is having a density 0.93 to 0.935
gm/cm3 and has a low degree branching and stronger inter molecular
force and tensile strength. It is used in packing milk, jugs, detergent
bottles, garbage containers and water pipes.
PEX: Medium to high density polyethylene contains cross link bonds
introduced in polymer structure changing thermoplast into elastomer.
MDPE: The density range is 0.926-0.94 gm/cm3 .It is produced by
chromium silica catalysis. It is used in gas pipes fittings, sacks, packing
film, carrier bags and screw closers.
LLDPE:-Its density range is 0.915-0.925 gm/cc .It is a linear polymer got
by copolymerization of ethylene with alpha-olefins. It is used in cable
covering, toys, lids of buckets.
LDPE:-Its density ranges from 0.910-0.94 gm/cc. It has weaker inter
molecular force as instantaneous dipole and induced dipole attraction is
less. It is used in plastic bags and film wraps.
VLDPE: Its density is 0.88-0.915 gm/cc. It is a linear polymer. It is made
by copolymerization of ethylene with short chain of 1butane, 1hexene,
1octene. It is used for covering eyes, frozen food bags, food packing.
German chemist Hans‟s von-Pachmann produce Polyethylene
accidentally by heating diazomethane. It s melting point cannot be
assessed based on crystallanity and molecular weight. For commercial
grade medium and high density polyethylene the melting point varies
from 1200C to1300C. For commercial grade low density polyethylene has
melting point 1050C to 1150C. Most LDPE, MDPE and HDPE do not
dissolve at high temperature in solvents like trichloroethane or
trichlorobenzene.
1.5.3 H IGH DENSITY POLYETHYLENE (HDPE)
High density polyethylene is made from petroleum. It is very strong
and hard material. It will not change its nature even at high temperature.
It is opaque and cannot be exposed to autoclaving conditions.
USES
It is used as cell liners in sanitary land. Large sheets of HDPE
welded to form chemical resistant barrier with the intention to prevent
pollution of soil and ground water. This wax is used as an alternative to
steel or pvc in pyrotechnic. When compared to steel or pvc it is more
durable
and
much
safer.
Milk
bottles
and
other
hallow
goods
manufactured through blow molding are the important application for
HDPE. Manufacturing of beverage bottles, packing material, pipes, cable
insulation, laundry detergent bottles, milk jugs and fuel tanks for
vehicles are other applications. It is used for making folding tables,
chairs, storage sheds and portable basket ball bases. It is used to
manufacture plastic bags, chemical resistant pipe systems and high
resistant fireworks. Also used in natural gas distribution pipe systems,
water pipes, coaxial cables, for protecting against corrosion of steel pipes,
snow board rails and boxes. Bottles suitable for reuse such as refillable
bottles and Ballistic plates are made from the HDPE.
1.5.4 POLYTETRAFLUOROETHYLENE
It is a synthetic fluoropolymer of tetrafluoroethylene. Teflon is its
brand name. It is a fluoro carbon solid of high molecular weight
containing only carbon and fluorine. Its other names are Teflon, sync
Lon. Its molecular formula is Cn F2n+2. Its density is 2.2gm/cc- Its melting
point is 3270C.It is used as non stick coating for pans and other
cookware, because of the strength of carbon fluorine bonds, it is partly
non reactive. French engineer produced non stick Teflon under the name
Tefal when his wife urged to try for the material non stick on her cooking
pan. It is a white solid at room temperature, its melting point is 3270C,
coefficient of friction is 0.1 or less. At above 2600C its properties will
degrade.
USES
The dielectric properties of PTFE are excellent at high radio
frequency. Hence it is used in cables and printed circuit boards used at
microwave frequencies. It is useful for fabricating long life electrics due to
its high bulk resistivity.
It is used for manufacturing application of bearing, bushings,
gears, and slide plates due to its low friction. Gore-Tex is a material
incorporating fluoro polymer membrane with micro pores. Over wide
range of wave lengths from ultraviolet to near infrared most optical
properties of PTFE stay constant. Computer mice feet such as Logitech
G5, Logitech G7, and Logitech G9 utilize PTFE low frictional properties.
The low friction of PTFE allows the mice to be moved and glide across
surfaces more smoothly. In plumbing operation PTFE can be used as a
thread.
1.6 FATS
Fats which are liquid at room temperature are called oils. Oils can
be vegetable, fish or mammal. The fats derived from olive, canola,
sunflower, soya bean, cotton seed, and peanut are all oils. The extent of
instauration of stability in a fatty acid is determinant. Instability is
related to chemical degradation of fatty acids by oxidation. Dietary fat is
necessary for the energy. This includes all fats contain energy 37kilo
joule/kg or 4 calorie/gm. Fats also have biological function which change
with their chemical structure. Fats are essential to maintain good health.
Most of the dietary fatty acids are lengthened up to 20-22 carbon atoms.
The 20 carbon atoms fatty acids help the formation of hormone like
agents called prostaglandins, thromboxane, and leukotrienes. The
membranes of our nerves, blood cells, blood vessels, are made of trillions
of fatty acid molecules when our diet is balanced. Omega6 in Omega3
fatty acid are also balanced.
Most dietary fat takes the form of triglycerides. A triglyceride has
glycerol back bone. Triglycerides can vary considerably in the type of
fatty acid. There are three types of fatty acids. They are saturated, mono
saturated, poly saturated. The type depends on the number of double
bond in the molecule. Polysaturates are divided in to omega-6 and
omega-3 depending on the difference due to the presence of double
bonds in the molecule. Omega-6 fatty acid has a double bond after sixth
carbon atom. Omega-3 has a double bond after the third carbon atom.
All fatty acids are made of two parts which gives them oil and water
soluble property. All fatty acids have fatty chain at one end which has
carbon and hydrogen atoms. Therefore they are soluble in oil; due to
presence of acid group on the other end it is soluble in water. Double
bond fatty acids contain more fluid and they are less likely to stick
together like straight fats which tend to solidify.
The extent of saturation or unsaturation has practical importance
for use of fats, for our health and food applications. The more saturated
fat mixture such as lard butter and palm oil will be in the form of solids
at room temperature. It act as a cell membranes and transmits the signal
comes in the form of trauma, virus, bacteria, a free radical, toxic
chemical. Once call from action is sent the cell fatty acids released from
the membrane are chemically transformed into highly active hormone
like substances which will counter act them. Prostaglandin in prostate
gland produces dietary fatty acids such as PGE1, PGE2, and PGE3.
PGE1: It is found in corn oil, sunflower oil and useful to the nerves
system. It is having properties like anti inflammatory and immune
enhancing. It can reduce fluid accumulation and has significant effect on
the nerves system. It tends to improve depression.
PGE2: It is made from fatty acid arc hedonic acid. It is Leukotrienes are
inflammatory substance. They are highly inflammatory. It is associated
with running nose, watery eyes, allergy and hay fever, so it is treated as
bad acid.
PGE3: It is Eicosa pentanenoic acid (EPA) available in some fishes. It is
useful for enhancing immune, as an anti-inflammatory, to prevent
clumping of blood platelets and to avoid blood vessel spasm. It can also
alter the production of highly inflammatory messengers.
SURVEY OF LITERATURE
Hsi-Hsin-Shih and Gary (1997) studied poly based hot melt
adhesives relating adhesives rheology to peel adhesion.
The successful selection of bonding conditions of hot melt
adhesives depend on melt morphology and rheological conditions. These
properties were determined for poly hot melt adhesives. The fractional
energies of joints containing polypropylene films bonded with their films
were determined. The data related to the rheological data aspects showed
that the EVA and its blends form homogenous melt. It is found that the
wax melt lowers the viscosity and elasticity but increases the activation
energy. It showed little dependence on peel strain and bonding
temperatures. It requires little time to reach the equilibrium bond
strength. The adhesives containing wax and their T-peel strength is
independent of bonding temperature. It is due to the existence of a week
boundary layer for its high flow ability.
Oschmann, et al (1998) developed a technique for separation of
paraffin from crude oil by supercritical fluid extraction.
Author has studied the amount of paraffin‟s that influence the
quality of petroleum products. It was noticed there was change of
physical properties like ductility, adhesion, cold resistance, temperature
dependence of viscosity and brittleness. Author presented a technique
based on extraction with entrained revised supercritical carbon dioxide
for quantitative division of paraffin‟s from heavy petroleum products.
Limitations of the technique were determined by use of model mixtures
such as microcrystalline, microcrystalline and pure straight chain
Fischer-tropsch wax signifying different kinds of paraffins. This process
proved to be well suited for each and every samples under investigation.
Identification
of
the
extracted
paraffins
was
achieved
by
high
temperature gas chromatography and by thin layer chromatography with
flame ionization detection.
Kandwal V.C, et al (2000) investigated paraffin deposition and
viscosity temperature behavior of Assam crude oil.
The importance of the research work is to find the rate of paraffin
deposited at equilibrium under different flowing conditions, viz, flow rate
and surface temperature. The viscosity temperature behavior of Assam
crude having wax content 11% wt is also studied.
The viscosity
temperatures behavior has been determined, which is the effect of
different diluents viz commercial kerosene and diesel oil on paraffin
deposition. Deposition statistics has also been quantified in the form of a
regression equation. It has been seen that added solvent affect the
paraffin deposition and viscosity temperature behavior significantly.
Anke
Buchholz
and
Jorg
Schonherr
(2000)
reported
thermodynamic analysis of diffusion of non-electrolytes across plant
cuticles in the presence and absence of plasticiser tributyl phosphate.
Harms and Strophanthus were measured at the temperature range
25-550C. For that five organic model compounds with different sizes and
cuticle/water partition coefficient were taken. The data were plotted for
all individual cuticle membranes (CM) according to the thermodynamic
relationship between the activation energy of diffusion and the pre
exponential factor of the Arrhenius equation. A linear correlation was
gained, providing confirmation that the five compounds diffused along
the same lipophilic diffusion path in all plant species tested. It was
observed extracting cuticular waxes from CMs of four plant species had
no effect on the slope of the plot, but it was also found a parallel
displacement towards higher entropy with these polymer matrixes (MX)
membranes. This displacement deduced tortuosity factor directly related
to entropy. The influence of the plasticizer tributyl phosphate on solute
mobility at different temperatures was measured for CM and MX
membranes. The information are used to differentiate the lipophilic
pathway across plant cuticle in the terms of free – volume theory.
Michael Mathal, et al (2001) conducted an investigation of the
dependence of penetration on the temperature and composition of
paraffin wax.
The objective of the work was to derive penetration/temperature
function for paraffin wax at the temperature range from 250C-400C. In
this function all entity temperature is entered as the variation to the
theoretical melting temperature of the n-alkanes of the mixture. The
theoretical melting temperature of the n-alkanes was resolute based on
the results of gas chromatography (GC) analysis. The dependency of the
parameters of this function were examined on the basis of the GC and
differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) data of the paraffin waxes, slack
wax and the urea adducts obtained from paraffin waxes with various
progressions. In this context the influence of crystalline as a link
between composition and physical properties was considered. The
crystallinity was defined as the ratio of the melting enthalpy of the
respective product to the melting enthalpy of the n-alkanes it contained.
It was revealed that, in the addition to crystallinity, the length of chain of
n- alkanes also plays a important role in the penetration/temperature
behavior.
Yuhai Feng, et al (2002) presented the micro emulsion behavior of
the oxidized paraffin wax.
The research work carried on interfacial tension between oxidized
paraffin wax and water. The results showed that the interfacial tension
between oxidized paraffin wax and water decreased noticeably after
paraffin wax was oxidized to proper degree. The phase diagram of the
oxidized paraffin wax has been determined. It was established that using
a solo surfactant A or co- surfactant B couldn‟t set up oxidized paraffin
wax micro emulsion and the co surfactant A/surfactant B mass ratio km
has a appropriate range and create the oxidized paraffin wax micro
emulsion. At last the micro emulsion particle distribution was analyzed.
Haijun
zhang,
et
al
(2003)
investigated
the
synthesis,
characterization and microwave properties of ZnCo –substituted W-Type
Barium Hexaferrite, from a sol-gel precursor.
Author has been investigated a citrate sol-gel method for the
preparation of BaZn(2-x)CoxFe16O27 W-type hexaferrite powders. The
samples
were
studied
under
the
techniques
scanning
electron
microscopy (SEM), TG-DSC, X-ray diffraction. By using transmission/
reflection coaxial method in the range from 50 MHz-3 GHz, the complex
dielectric constant and complex permeability of hexaferrite-paraffin wax
composites were measured. The result was presented the data consists of
annealing temperature, composition and frequency that dependence on
complex dielectric constant and permeability.
Sanat kumar, et al (2003) reported carbon number distribution of
high melting microcrystalline waxes. Microcrystalline wax that was
derived from tank sludge‟s of Bombay high crude oil is considered to
determine the carbon number distribution. To study different high
melting fractions high temperature Gas Chromatography technique is
used. It has been observed in the microcrystalline wax along with their
many isomers with predominant alkanes being C40 and C67 present. It
was also noticed that higher melting wax fractions have Gaussian
distribution.
Tomas Alonso, et al (2004) studied selective separation of normal
paraffin from slack wax using the molecular sieve adsorption technique.
The main objective of the study was selective separation of heavy
n-paraffin‟s (C20-C30) from refinery slack wax. Three slack waxes were
used i,e light, medium and heavy, which were analyzed by gas
chromatography and simulated distillation. Many tests were carried out
in rector to high pressure and with temperature (100oC – 150oC) and
with pressure 0-5, 1.5 and 2.5 mega Pascal and the time was (1-24
Hours). After the isothermal absorption for the range 60-1700C was
found for each wax. The results indicated the absorption equilibrium
controlled by the internal diffusion on account of large length of the
normal paraffin chains.
zeolite channels.
The diameter was found to be very close the
The amount of paraffin retained shows the lighter
products absorption is more than the heavier because the temperatures
greater than 170oC have cracking reactions more and more.
Joseph Barrud, et al (2004) presented Analog models of Melt-flow
Networks in Folding Migmatites.
They modeled the formation of the layer parallel shortening the
layered migmatites. The mold consists of slim superposed layers of
partially molten microcrystalline wax. It is found the melt has negative
buoyancy and a high viscosity contrast with its solid matrix. Once the
shortening starts the melt filled veins with high phase ratio open along
foliation. The melt is separated into the veins forming a stromatic
coating. During initial folding, crescent shaped load reefs open at the
pivots of open sinusoidal folds. Further shortening and melt-enhanced
shear dislocation on interlayer interfaces causes chevron folds to develop
and the load reefs to become triangular. On the basis of the experimental
results, author proposed that in migmatities: (a) mesoscale melt
migration is a mixture of flow in immobile veins and movements of veins
as a whole; (b) the alteration in the geometry of the mesoscale melt flow
network produce the pressure gradient that impel melt migration; (c) the
melt flow network does not require to be fully interrelated to allow limited
expulsion;
(c)
melt
exclusion
is
episodic
because
the
temporal
development of the network combines with the spatial heterogeneity of
the deformation.
Muharrem Certel, et al (2004) reported the effects of sodium
caseinate and milk protein concentrate based edible coating on the post
harvest quality of Bing cherries.
Bing cherries were covered with sodium caseinate or milk protein
concentrated based on edible coating. It was coated with different
concentration of stearic - palmitic acid blend or beeswax and either
glycerol beside the proteins. It is noticed stearic -palmitic acid blend
successfully reduced water loss of the fruits. The edible coatings had
useful effects on the sensory worth of the cherries and there were
important effects of the coating action on soluble solids.
Mujika Garal, et al (2005) suggested the effect of raw material
composition on water repellent capacity of paraffin wax emulsion on
wood.
The objective of the study is the vapor-water-solid interface and the
water-repellent capacity of a paraffin wax. The wax used to covered wood
substrate has been related to the structure of the hydrocarbon of which
it is composed. To study the above techniques used are the axisymmetric
drop shape analysis (ADSA) and gas chromatography (GC). It was found
the distributions of hydrocarbons in paraffin wax affects its surface
properties like contact angle and surface tension. Paraffin wax‟s
″inherent″ water proofing capacity, dependent on the hydrocarbons
chemical configuration, and the loss of this capability is reliant on the
hydrocarbon molecular weight. The “inherent” water proofing capacity is
calculated as the vapor –liquid-solid interface contact angle and the loss
of this capability is calculated as the time dependent, Which decrease
with the same interface contact angle. The chromatographic gives the
ideal surface properties for the paraffin wax that covered wood substrate.
Sanat Kumar, et al (2005) studied composition and properties of
some petroleum waxes.
The research work was carried out to study structural composition
of paraffin waxes and soft wax fractions derived from microcrystalline
wax were determined. Both the waxes were fractionated by multistage
solvent
crystallization
at
various
temperatures.
The
structural
parameters of original waxes, their fractions and urea adductables were
predicted by 1H and
13C
NMR spectroscopy. By using DSC the thermal
parameters such as phase transition temperature and the associated
energy during phase transitions were determined. By GC the carbon
number distribution were determined for these waxes.
Tsunenori Kameda (2005) presented
13C
solid state NMR analysis
of heterogeneous structure of beeswax in native state.
Author investigated the molecular structure of natural wax from
Japanese bees in his local state by
presence of two strong
13C
13C
and
1H
NMR. He noted the
peaks at 32.9 and 34.0 ppm were
characteristic to signals from internal chain methylene carbons in two
types of crystal form. The peak at 32.9 ppm was allotted to an
orthorhombic crystal where as the peak at 34.0 ppm was assigned to a
triclinic or monoclinic crystal form. In both crystalline regions, it was
observed the crystalline peaks were due to chain diffusion. The 1H NMR
tells the spin lattice relaxation values for protons of the CH3 group and
for int-(CH2) in the crystalline and amorphous regions were identical.
This heterogeneous character was interpreted as out coming differences
in the molecular composition of both crystal forms.
Talens and Krochta (2005) investigated plasticizing effects of bees
wax on tensile and water vapour permeability properties of whey protein
film.
The plasticizing effect of carnauba wax and beeswax on tensile and
water vapour permeability properties of whey protein isolate (WPI) films
was considered. The experiments are carried out taking 3 groups of films
with different WPI: glycerol ratios were prepared. The first group was
prepared without the addition of wax, and the other 2 groups were
prepared with the addition of carnauba wax and beeswax respectively.
Tensile properties, lipid particle size, water vapour permeability and
thickness of films were examined and measured. The outcomes show
that the incorporation of beeswax producing plasticizing effect, where as
carnauba wax created an anti-plasticizing effect.
Jose Luis Bernal, et al (2005) studied physio-chemical parameters
of the characterization of pure beeswax and detections of adulterate.
The research work based on determination of nine physiochemical parameters of pure bees wax produced in different climatic
regions
of
Spain.
The
nine
physio-chemical
parameters
are
saponification, density, acid, ester, ratio number, iodine, peroxide,
melting point and ash content values. Author found that it is difficult to
determine density and saponification values in fats and oils so
alternative methods are proposed to determine both of the parameters.
The physio-chemical factors used to detect adulterations with stearic
acid, paraffin, carnauba wax and tallow was tested. adulteration
percentages of 5%, or higher, were commonly detected. Beeswax sheets
were o analyzed to discuss their quality and it is noticed that 25 out of
27 beeswax sheets show anomalous values for at least one parameter.
Sperber, et al (2005) reported about the structure analysis of
paraffin wax by
13C-NMR
spectroscopy.
The composition of macro and microcrystalline paraffin waxes
focused on the structure of these paraffin waxes. It illustrates an
analytical method that gives enormous information about the structure
of the paraffin waxes, using a unique
13C-NMR
spectroscopy technique.
This technique based on the characterization of ethane/a-olefine
copolymers that demonstrate a similar constitution to that of paraffin
waxes.
Lin, et al (2005) investigated about the magnetic behaviour of
Nanocomposites containing self-assembled magnetite particle Dispersed
in a Paraffin Wax Matrix.
The concept of this work is hexane-based magnetic fluids with
uniform magnetite nanoparticles of 4, 6 and 8 nm have been prepared by
thermal decomposition techniques and seed arbitrated growth methods.
They were characterized by light scattering and Transmission electron
microscopy. The study further extends to investigate their magnetic
properties.
The
size
of
the
magnetite
wax
nanocomposites
was
investigated by the VSM within the temperature 77 to 300K.
Kaygusug Kamil and Ahmed Sari (2005) presented thermal energy
storage system using a technical grade paraffin wax as latent heat energy
storage material.
The concept of this study is to experimentally set up thermal
energy storage performance using a technical grade paraffin wax as a
(PCM) in a latent heat storage system. The solidification and melting
temperature range of paraffin was found as 360C-420C and 380C-430C
respectively. It is found the values were agreed with the values measured
by differential scanning calorimeter (DSC). The experimental parameters
were selected as inlet temperature and mass flow rate of the heat
transfer fluid (HTF). During heat charging and discharging process of
PCM the radial and axial temperature distribution was determined. The
temperature data showed that the parameters were more effective on the
melting time than on the solidification time. Experimental results
specifies that the heat was influenced by change in the significant
experimental
parameters
more
during
the
heat
charging
than
discharging processes of PCM. The results explored the technical grade
paraffin wax summarized that it is suitable for passive solar thermal
energy storage material.
H.Huseyin Ozturk (2005) put forward experimental evaluation of
energy and energy efficiency of a seasonal latent heat storage system for
greenhouse heating.
The work was carried out on a seasonal thermal energy storage
using paraffin wax as a PCM with the latent heat storage technique. It
was attempted to use of 180 m2 floor area. The system consists mainly of
five units: (a) experimental greenhouse, (b) heat transfer unit, (c) flat
plate solar air collectors, (d) latent heat unit and (e) data acquisition unit.
The external heat collection consisted of 27 square meter of so heaters
mounted at a 55 deg tilt angle. The dimension of steel tank is 1.7m
11.6m and 3m respectively. The unit was filled with 6000 Kg of paraffin,
which is equivalent to 33.33 kg of PCM per m2 of the green house ground
surface area. To evaluate the system efficiency energy analyses were
applied. The temperature difference of the heat transfer fluid at the inlet
and outlet of the unit is evaluated during the changing period.
Shiryaeva,
et
al
(2005)
developed
a
theory
improving
the
rheological properties of high-viscosity crude oils, modifying additive and
high-frequency electromagnetic field.
The study is based on rheological properties of crude oils from
Yuzhno-Inzyreisk and Vostochno-Kharyaginsk fields in Arkhangel Oblast
at different shear rates and temperatures. The incongruities of these
properties are due to the high concentration of waxes, which were
capable of phase transitions in the crudes. Viscous flow activation energy
was resolved with the respect to the logarithm of the viscosity on the
reciprocal of the temperature, which increased with the wax content in
the crudes. The viscosity of the crudes significantly decreases with the
high frequency electromagnetic field.
Xuhong Guo, et al (2006) reported effect of cooling rate on
crystallization of model waxy oils with microcrystalline poly ethylene
butane.
It is reported the crystallization of long-chain of n-paraffin and
their binary mixtures from model waxy oils with decane as the solvent.
The
cooling
rates
were
restricted
using
optical
microscope
and
differential scanning calorimeter (DSC). The DSC showed that the pure
C28 was precipitated from the solution having multiple metastable phases
as shown by X-ray scattering earlier. It is noticed the addition of
microcrystalline poly wax crystal reduced single or mixed solution to a
large extents of gel yield stress. The PEB‟s reduces the crystal size and
changes its morphology.
Alaa Kamel and Ahmad (2006) determined of acaricide residues in
Saudi Arabian honey and beeswax using solid phase extraction and gas
chromatography.
The objective of this study was to determine the acaricide residues
of flumethrin, tau-fluvalinite, coumaphos, and amitraz in honey and
beeswax was carried out using rapid extraction method utilizing C-18
SPE cartridges. The analytical methods like GC with ECD, NPD, and
MSD detectors are also used. Coumaphos was not detected in beeswax.
It was observed that five honey samples and eight beeswax samples were
found to be contaminated with tau-fluvalantine, While One of the wax
samples was polluted with high residue of tau-fluvalantine and included
above 10 mg/kg.
Prahlad Rao, et al (2006) studied about brain tissue phantoms for
optical near infrared imaging.
In this study authors developed inverse methods to study solid,
stable, and cost effective optical phantoms of scalp-skull, white matter
and gray matter. The measured reflectance values for each phantom got
from the four channel reflectometer is compared with that of obtained
from the steady state diffusion equation, later the values of μa and were
determined. Phantoms show particular optical properties of scalp-skull,
white and grey matter are developed by evaluating actual reflectance
measurement got by regulating the color concentration with the expected
reflection value from the diffusion equation. As more attenuation of light
occurs in bone tissue, to get μa of 0.04 mm
-1for
scalp skull, 9.5 mg of
black dye per100ml of wax added. Similarly to make easy for more
scatter of light a 6.0 mm
-1
for white matter in brain tissue, 190mg of
white dye per 100ml of wax was used.
Xiau Li, et al (2006) reported about the modification of paraffin
wax. Author investigated the modification of paraffin that is related to
physical condition and chemical oxidation.
All catalogs of modified
paraffin wax were nearer to those of the natural beeswax.
The best
catalyst was chosen and thermal effects of the reactions were determined
experimentally.
The use of phase transfer solvent and strong oxidant
improved the acid number and soponification number of the product and
shortened their reaction period.
This laid the foundation for reaction
design.
Kotb, et al (2006) put forward thermal Characteristics of Paraffin
Wax for Solar Energy Storage.
The importance of this work is to store thermal energy. Thermal
energy storage medium of a stable storage material with high heat
capacity is discussed. The study gives information that the heat storage
based on the latent heat related with a change in phase of a material
offers many advantages over sensible heat storage. The significant
characteristic of such a subsystem is its adequate storage capacity. The
PCM performance is visualized by creating an idealized model thermal
capacitor subjected to simulated solar system, environmental conditions
which comprise thermal cycling utilizing the latent heat of paraffin for
heating and cooling. The planned model of the capacitor is of flat plate
geometry consisting of two panel partitions forming the body of the
capacitor having the paraffin wax, parting at their inner surface a thin
channel allowing the water flow. The whole arrangement is assumed to
be insulted to diminish heat loss. Analysis result is used to generate data
about the temperature allotment using computer program. Author
noticed the temperature of the exit water increases until it becomes equal
to the inlet temperature. Similarly it is also observed the increasing mass
flow rate for a given inlet temperature, decreases with the time necessary
for outlet temperature. Further it is noticed that instantaneous rate of
heat storage decreases till it reach a stable value. The rising value of heat
storage is depend on time.
Robert Buchwald, et al (2006) investigated Interspecific variation in
beeswax as a biological construction material.
Bees used beeswax to store honey and pollen. Dorsata, Mellifera
and two Cerana are four kinds of the honey bee species. To study the
properties of the above species of beeswax a circular and cylindrical
samples are compressed in an electromechanical tensometer.
Wax of
Dorsata was found to be stiffer and posses a higher yield stress. It is also
observed that the waxes of Cerana and Mellifera have intermediary
strength and stiffness, while Andreinformics wax has least strong and
stiffness. Mellifera and Cerana have their nests in cavities which defend
them from environment stresses. Dorsata construct‟s a heavy and strong
nest to the branches of tall trees. It is noticed the wax of Andreinformics
has greater mechanical forces than others which is less strong and stiff.
It constructs its nest within the shielded branches of trees that can
absorb forces of wind and rain.
Claire Bourlieu, et al (2006) reported performance of lipid –based
moisture barriers in food products with intermediate water activity.
To carry out the work author took nine lipid-based barrier films, in
which white beeswax and aetoglycerides/beeswax blends were present.
The samples were distinguished using classical water related and
physical properties of edible barriers. Among other samples White
beeswax and acetoglycerides permitted the best extension of the drycomponent shelf life from 2h to between 100 and 330h. Mechanical
property evaluation can be done by combination of moisture effective
diffusity and water vapour permeability. The combination of both water
related and physical characteristics of the barrier provides an important
advantage of an integrated approach through the simulation of the
material behaviour. The models are highlighted under its real conditions
of use.
Han, et al (2006) studied physical and mechanical properties of
pea starch edible films containing beeswax emulsions.
Hydrophobic beeswax suspensions were un incorporated into
hydrophilic starch films to modify thermal, physical and mechanical
properties of the films. Beeswax was mixed in the film to make solution
of high amylase pea starch. Mechanical properties were reduced
significantly due to the addition of beeswax. It reduces tensile strength
and elongation and increases elastic modules. The addition of Beeswax
decreases the water vapor permeability and increases the oxygen
permeability.
Erica, et al (2007) gave information about sunflower oil wax
reduction by seed solvent washing.
In this study wax distribution in sun-flower seeds was determined
by Gas chromatography. The wax constituents in sunflower oils acquired
from washed seeds and the wax constituents in the solvent extracts. The
morphology of wax distribution was observed by scanning-electron
microscopy (SEM). In washing the crystallized fraction is removed. The
removed material consists of C40-C54 waxes. Solvent washing before
heating of the seeds caused a decrease in sample moisture content that
decreases dehulling ability.
Kotelnikova, et al (2007) studied the identification of biogenic and
their thermal phase transitions.
Natural paraffin hydrocarbons CnH2n+2 of a biological origin were
studied in terms of their composition, structure polymorph alteration
and thermal phase transition. The compositions of Paraffin were
measured from beeswax, plant wax, as well as from various parts of rat
cerebrum. For the investigation X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD),
chromatography and high temperature XRD analytical techniques were
used. In beeswax, the composition of paraffin corresponds to the six
constituent solid solution with a super periodic four layer orthorhombic
cell was exposed to experimental modeling for the first time.
Sharifullin, et al (2007) reported on heated solution of asphaltene –
resin-wax deposits in straight-run petroleum fractions.
The process of disbanding of asphaltene-resin-wax deposits was
studied from the standpoint of the heat mixing. It was revealed that of
the main ingredient groups of asphaltene-resin-wax deposits, not only
paraffin waxes and resins but also asphaltenes can form true solutions.
The constituents segregated from the paraffin base demonstrated best
solubility in kerosene and diesel fractions of crude oil.
Pierluigi Delmonte and Jeanne I. Rader (2007) determined
evaluation of gas chromatography methods for the determination of trans
fat.
Consumption of trans fat has increased risk of coronary heart
disease. The US food and administration FDA regulation states that label
declarations of trans fat are not required for products that having less
than 0.5 gm of trans fat per serving. Fourier –transformed infrared
spectroscopy
(ATR-FI-IR)
provides
reproducible
measurements
for
samples containing more than 5% trans fat. Gas chromatography (GC) is
used to measure lower trans fat levels. Trans fat quantization by GC has
recently been updated by considering more fatty acid, focusing more
attention on fatty acids present in low amounts, and by using 100-m
high-polarity capillary columns for optimal separation. The parameters
associated with GC analysis of fatty acid define consistently the high
interlaboratory relative standard derivations and interlaboratory RSD
values for trans fat.
Li and Hsieh (2007) put forward synthesis of carbon nanotubes by
combustion of paraffin wax candle.
The research work reports the method for the synthesis of multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTS) using paraffin wax candles. The
MWCNTS were allowed to grow on a carbon-coated silicon wafer with a
combustion rate of 80 s at a flame temperature of 700
0C.
The
dimensions of MWCNTS are 15-20 nm in diameter and 1-3 μm in length.
Raman spectroscopy tells that the Ig/Id ratio is 0.88. The growth of the
MWCNTS was investigated using different combustion times. The result
gives information that amount of MWCNTs decreased for experiments
longer than 80s, because the MWCNTs were burned off with a long stay
in the flame.
Jin-Hong,
et
al (2007)
reported
microwave
electromagnetic
characteristics of a micro coiled carbon fibers/paraffin wax composite in
P band (12.4-18) GHz.
The importance of the study is to measure complex relative
permittivity ε and permeability μ of micro coiled carbon fibers (MCCFs)
imbedded in paraffin wax at p-band frequencies (12.4-18 GHz). It is
observed the real and imaginary parts of ε of the MCCFs /paraffin wax
composite decreases with increase of the frequency. The real part of the
μ of the composite increases with increase of the frequency, and the
imaginary part are non-zero and remains same over the measured
frequency range. The parameters like dielectric loss tangent (tan de), the
magnetic loss tangent (tan dm) and amplitude attenuation factor (a) were
determined. On the basis of the experimental results it is noted the
MCCFs/paraffin wax composite is mainly a kind of dielectric lossy
material.
Man Singh (2007) reported the transition states of melamine for
micromixing with wax emulsion+4-nonyl phenol ethoxylate,
that was
estimated with SEM technique.
Author determined some of the physical properties like viscosity,
density and apparent molar volume. From the data activation energy,
intrinsic viscosity and apparent molal volume were calculated. It was
observed paraffin wax suspension was become stable by a nonylphenol
ethoxylate and wax particles on the surface due to interaction among
poly dispersant and ethoxylate group of surfactant. From the above it is
concluded –NH2 group interactions for micromixing and scanning
electron
micrograph
elucidates
microstructure
and
uniformity
of
micromixing.
Shiva Kumar and Gowda (2007) developed preparation and
evaluation of waxes/fat micro spheres loaded with lithium carbonate for
controlled release.
The concept of this work is to minimize the unwanted toxic effects
of anti maniac drug lithium carbonate by kinetic control of drug release.
It was captureped into biodegradable, waxes, gastro resistant and fat
such as beeswax. The micro spheres have the size ranges from 115 to
855 mm. As the surfaces of micro spheres were smooth, it has highquality of packaging properties. Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
confirmed their micro spheres structures within size range of 339-355
mm. The DSC and FTIR studies confirmed the drug loaded in waxes and
fat micro spheres was stable and compatible. It takes more than 8 hour
for the release of drug. The release kinetics go after different transport
systems. The drug release shows that it was greatly affected by materials
used in micro sphere preparations.
Geethama, et al (2008) determined Oxidized wax as compatibilizer
in linear low density polyethylene-clay nanocomposites: X-ray diffraction
and dynamic mechanical analysis.
The investigation is carried on oxidized paraffin wax that is used
as a compatibilizer in composites of linear low density polyethylene and
layered nano silicate clays. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was carried
out to study the crystalline morphology of 5 types of clays, oxidized wax,
and their composites with LLDPE. The compounds revealed different Xray diffraction and dynamic mechanical behaviour in the presence of
various clays. In general composites keep the partially crystalline actions
of LLDPE and no exfoliation was seen. The morphology in most cases did
not change with increase amount of wax. It is noted in some cases these
values also increased with the incorporation of wax. The compounds with
10% clay and 10% oxidized wax explained the highest storage and loss
moduli, with respect to the nature of the clay. It is noted that the tan d
values did not change considerably with the addition of clay or wax.
Silvia Lopez, et al (2008) developed application of GC-MS and
chemo metrics to categorize the feeding regime of Iberian pigs in Spain.
Author has been studied the analysis of subcutaneous fat by GCMS and chemo metrics to classify three different feeding regimes of
Iberian pigs. It is seen 19 fatty acids present in 57 fat samples. Principal
component analysis was in use for the beginning study of the data
structure. Analysis was used to sort samples into three categories on the
basis of the fatty acid profiles. The most important fatty acid for
distinguishing between groups was analyzed at ordered from the highest
to the lowest coefficient. The paper displays the potential of statically
data treatment in the classification of the animal feeding regimes.
Maria Peterson, et al (2008) investigated ageing of two petroleum
waxes.
Author investigated the effect of ageing at various storage
conditions and their melting points. For that he took two petroleum
waxes such as petroleum and microcrystalline wax. They stored at
different temperatures for 50 weeks. The results were analyzed before
and after storage at different storage times. The techniques like confocal
laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and modulated differential scanning
calorimeter (DSC) were used for analyses. From the analysis it is noticed
the amount of fine and irregular structures found in the earlier in
petrolatum samples reduces with storage time. The outcome of the CLSM
and modulated DSC results says the recrystallization takes place in both
waxes during storage.
Maria
Peterson,
et
al
(2008)
reported
comparison
of
microstructural and physical properties of two petroleum waxes.
In
this
work
Petroleum
and
microcrystalline
wax
were
characterized. Due to hydrophobic nature of Petroleum wax, it is used in
applications where there is needed of good moisture barrier. To attain a
better understanding of different intrinsic properties of a wax, the two
waxes were characterized with infrared spectroscopy (IR), confocal laser
scanning microscopy (CLSM), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC),
rheology and X-ray diffraction (XRD). From the results of IR it was
concluded that the two waxes consisted only of saturated alkanes. CLSM
indicates that the petroleum sample had a more open microstructure
with coarse crystals separated from each other than the microcrystalline
wax. An XRD result tells that both waxes crystallized over a broad
temperature range but their crystallization characteristics were quite
different. According to modulated DSC and rheological measurements
the microcrystalline wax crystallized found to be a two-step process,
while petrolatum crystallized through only one step.
Liao, et al (2008) investigated the mechanism of paraffin oxidation.
For that Paraffin was mixed with microcrystalline wax at certain
temperatures, airflow rate, and time. The oxidation reaction took place
when the catalyst and the catalyst promoter were added. The Factors
affecting induction period and activation energy is investigated from air
flow rate, the reaction temperature, the mass of the catalyst, the mass of
catalyst promoter and the reaction time. By increasing the airflow rate
and the reaction temperature, the induction period and the activation
energy could be decreased and the productions of acid number and its
saponification number could be increased. The principle can also be
applicable for beeswax.
Mohamed, et al (2008) determined the separation of paraffin wax
using solvent fractionation.
The objective of this work was to separate and characterize some
grades of paraffin waxes from America crude waxes. One phase fractional
crystallization method has been done to separate the paraffin waxes with
different characteristics by taking unlike solvents and solvent mixtures
at 200C and set dilution and washing solvents ratios (S/F) of 4:1and 2:1
by their weight respectively. The results revealed that dioxane and nhexane solvents are not suitable for fractional crystallization of slack
waxes , where as the most suitable solvents for separating paraffin waxes
are ethyl and butyl acetates, methyl isobutyl ketone, and the mixture of
methyl ethyl ketone, benzene and toluene.
Lehto, et al (2008) reported about polymeric paraffin micro
actuator. For that author took Paraffin wax as a promising material in
micro actuators not only because of its capability of producing great
displacements and high forces but also several developed techniques
accessible. A simple actuator based on the paraffin wax as the active
material is fabricated and tested. A heater is connected in the paraffin
reservoir and a polyimide tape is used as a deflecting film. Thermo
mechanical investigation of the paraffin wax shows that it exhibits a
volume expansion of 10% as well as phase transitions and linear
expansions. The actuator can be used in Microsystems, so that both
large strokes and forces are required.
Maria, et al (2008) studied fatty acid effect on hydroxypropyl
methylcellulose-bees wax edible film properties and post harvest quality
of coated „ortanique‟ mandarins.
To investigate the effect of fatty acid (FA) type and content on
mechanical
properties,
water
vapour
permeability
and
oxygen
permeability of hydoxypropyl methycellulose (HPMC) and beeswax (BW)
stand alone edible films. The effect of these films formed as coating on
the post harvest quality of „ortanique‟ mandarins was also investigated.
Selected fatty acids were stearic acid (SA), palmitic acid (PA), and oleic
acid (OA) using beeswax / fatty acid ratios of 1:0.5 and 1:0.2. Coatings
containing oleic acid provided the best weight loss control at both
concentrations tested. The mechanical properties might be used to
understand coating performance and permeability of oxygen on the
coated fruit.
Robert Buchwald, et al (2008) investigated the thermal properties
of beeswaxes.
In this paper author described the standard melting point analyzes
only partially the thermal properties of eusocial beeswaxes. Thermal
phase changes in wax are initiated at substantially lower temperatures
than visually observed melting points. Differential scanning calorimeter
(DSC) analyzes wax yielded from Apis mellifera gives broad melting curve
that shows the initiation of melting is at approx 400C, where as Apis
beeswax retained a solid appearance at these temperatures. Heat
absorption and beginning of melting could affect the structural
characteristics of the wax. The thermal properties provides information
that the onset of melting, melting range and heat of fusion of beeswax
varied significantly among tribes of social bees. It is found the relatively
malleable wax of bumblebee had the lowest onset of melting and lowest
heat of fusion but had an intermediate melting temperature range. The
heat of fusion of Stingless beeswax was intermediate between bumblebee
and honey beeswax, but had the narrowest melting temperature range
and the highest onset of melting.
Gonen, et al (2008) reported the effect of zinc stearate on thermal
degradation of paraffin wax.
The research work is carried out to study the effects of zinc
stearate addition on paraffin wax degradation by differential scanning
calorimeter (DSC) and thermogravimetry (TG). The activation energies of
wax decomposition in nitrogen and air atmosphere were determined. The
degradation rate constants of paraffin containing zinc stearate were
found to be double than that of paraffin only in air atmosphere. It is
noted zinc stearate did not affect rate constants in nitrogen significantly.
Salar Amoli, et al (2009) determined Amitraz by headspace gas
chromatography in honey and beeswax samples from Iran.
The concept of this study to analyze by taking 70 samples of honey
and beeswax from different beehives markets and store shelves of (Iran).
The samples were analyzed for detection of amitraz and DMA residues by
static headspace solvent micro extraction, for that gas chromatography
with thermionic specific detector (GC/TSD) is used. The results shows
that according to EU standard all the samples of honey could be declared
as appropriate for human consumption.
Pinter, et al (2009) studied DSC analysis of human fat tissue in
alcohol-induced a vascular Necrosis of the femoral head.
The importance of work is to analysis human fat tissue. According
to him the antero-superior part of the human femoral head (ANFH)
causes unease in the hip joint, this leads to severe pain middle aged
patients. For that there is need of surgical operation, essentially total hip
arthoplasty (THA). The literature contains the information of different
conditions of patients like steroid therapy, alcohol abuse, metabolic
changes and dyslipidameia. The comparison is made between the
different fat tissues the patient from THA, ANFH due to alcohol abuse
and other healthy patient who underwent surgery due to traumatic hip
fracture. It is notified the size and shape the cells have no such changes.
With the help of analytical method e.g. gas chromatography and DSC the
alteration in the fatty acid profile can be detected.
Gang and Steven (2009) indicated dependency of contact angle
hysteresis on crystalline for n-alkane substrates.
In this paper author reported the changes in dynamic contact angle
for the wetting of heat-treated paraffin wax surfaces. According to author
the advancing angle found to be same, while the receding angle was
found to be reduces with the higher action.
From the differential
scanning calorimetry and x-ray diffraction experiment it is observed a
reduction in crystallinity, this leads to these changes. Due to heat
treatment it is found surface roughness decreases. Using Raman
confocal microscopy the heterogeneities of the wax surfaces were
observed. It is revealed the heat treatment increases the crystallinity on
the surfaces. The results also make out a possible process for estimate
the arrange of packing of straight-chain hydrocarbon at surfaces by
means of dynamic contact angle measurements.
Ansarifar, et al (2009) studied assessing effect of the migration of a
paraffin wax on the surface free energy of natural rubber.
The investigation was carried out to study the effect of migration of
a paraffin wax on the surface energy of natural rubber. The rubber was
mixed with the wax and then stored at room temperature for 168 hrs. Its
surface
free
energy
was
measured
before
using
contact
angle
measurement. Ion mass spectrometry was used to provide a chemical
finger print of the rubber surfaces. The surface free energy decreased
with storage time because of the migration of the wax to the rubber
surface. It is found the highest rate of the reduction was 3 hrs and
thereafter, the surface free energy decreased at much slower rate. The
surface free energy reduced by approximately 46% of the wax to the
rubber surface.
Sea, et al (2009) reported tensile and moisture barrier properties of
whey protein-bees wax layered composite films.
According to author there is lack of research on producing layered
protein lipid composite film with improved tensile and barrier properties.
Several film-forming parameters were influence the extent to which lipids
were either dispersed within or layered upon whey protein films. Film-
forming parameters investigated were ratio of WPI (whey protein isolate)
to BW (beeswax). It is noted when elongation increased then tensile
strength and elastic modulus decreased. Water vapor permeability values
for WPI film decreased by 57% when the film composition was modified
by the addition of 40% BW. Beeswax phase separation was observed in
all of the tested films. Particle size of Beeswax in the film-forming
emulsions was larger in the presence of sodium chloride, indicating a
neutralization of particle charge. The addition of sodium chloride did not
improve the moisture barrier of WPI-BW film.
From the above literature survey it is found extensive information
available on the chemistry of waxes such as separation of wax from
crude oil, water repellent capacity, rheological property, deletion of
impurities and emulsion behaviour of oxidized wax. But studies on
physical properties are meagre.
In view of this, it is proposed to study electrical properties and
dielectric parameters of waxes in the range of radio and microwave
frequencies, in order to have an insight into their application in
electronic components and devices. Structural analysis is essential for
the understanding of electrical and dielectric behaviour of waxes. Hence,
1H
NMR,
13C
NMR, Gas Chromatography mass spectrum (GC-MS) and
FTIR spectroscopy are employed.