Industrialization-Immigration-Urbanization-Labor
Lecture Notes
1865-1900 – 35 years after the Civil War – Time of Industrialization
->Rise of big business
Rise will
o Help the slow recovering economy take off
o Led to free enterprise and individual initiative
Led to monopolistic practices
Led to abuse by industries
Led to the start of labor unions
Why did Industrialization happen??
1. Expansion of the National Market
2. Abundant Resources
3. Adequate Labor Supply
4. Expansion of Transportation
5. Technical Improvements, inventions and innovations
6. Developments in Communication
7. Corporate System of Organization
8. Territorial Extension of U.S. Manufacturing
1.
Expansion of the National Market
a. Opening of the west – an entire territory west of the Mississippi becomes a domestic market
b. Innovations in Transportation – Transcontinental Railroad
i. Made it possible to –
1. move raw materials to the industrial areas
a. food – crops and livestock
b. lumber – Pac. Northwest
c. minerals – gold, silver and copper
2. move finished goods to the market – out west
c. Govt. policy established to protect new industries – Tariff
2.
Abundant Resources
- discovery and utilization of the nation’s natural resources aided the growth in manufacturing
- mining contributed gold, silver and copper
iron ore found in Pennsylvania and the Great Lakes Region
oil discovered in Pennsylvania and the southwest
lumber from the Pacific Northwest
coal – The Newest Source Of Energy – abundant in the central Appalachian mtns.
3.
Adequate Labor Supply
vets from the Civil War looking for jobs in the cities/factories
men, women and children looking to leave the farm
largest source of labor => Immigrants
came from Europe because
•
political and social unrest in Europe
•
religious persecution
•
belief the U.S. was a great place to live
•
non-restrictive immigration policy
3 Waves of Immigration
1. 1820-1860 – 5 Million People
came from Ireland, England and Germany
most were Protestant
most had some money
most had some education – most spoke the language
settled in eastern cities
Midwest cities and states
New York
Chicago Cleveland
Boston
Cinn.
Wisconsin
Philadelphia
Detroit
Minnesota
Milwaukee
- work in
- started farms
factories
Assimilation was fairly easy – happened for most
2.
1860-1890 – 10 Million People
came from Western and Northern Europe
Great Britain
Ireland
Germany
Scandinavia
Protestant and Catholic
Irish and English – settled in the cities in the east
Germans and Scandinavians – settled on the farms and cities in the
Midwest
Some had money
Some had education- some with language skills
Assimilation was a little more difficult
3. 1890-1920 – 15 Million People
came from southern and eastern Europe
Italy
Poland
Greece
Russia
Hungary
Catholic and Jew
Rural peasants at home with no skills, no education, no $
They came with nothing – skills, $, education
Much more different than any other group who had immigrated
Settled mainly in NYC and Chicago
A fight will rage between “New Immigrants” – those who came after 1880
And “Old Immigrants” – those who came before 1880
This fight will bring a rise in opposition to immigration – it had existed with the Know-Nothing Party in the pre-war time, but it will take off
1820-1880 – assimilation was pretty easy
1880-1920 – opposition grew – especially to southern and eastern Europeans
they were the most “different”
Josiah Strong => Congregational minister
“ Catholics and Jews posed a threat to American Life”
He wrote Our Country: It’s Future and Possible Crisis (1885)
Henry Bowers – Iowa – started the
American Protective Association
it opposed Catholic Immigration
pushed for WASP control
White
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Anglo
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WASP
Saxon
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Protestant}
- most WASPs thought that immigrants
drank too much
caused too much crime
female WASPs disliked immigrant women because they accepted male domination
Eventually the govt. will begin to restrict immigration – not too effective
1875 – no prostitutes or convicts allowed
1882 – no insane or mentally retarded
no people who couldn’t take care of themselves
1882 – Chinese Exclusion Act – Signed by Chester A Arthur
1880- 17% of Calif = Chinese – seen as a bad thing and we needed to stop it
1882- Chinese were banned for 10 years
1892- renewed
1904- made permanent
1894 – Immigrant Restriction League
Republican Senator – Henry Cabot Lodge from Mass. spoke for the group
Pushed Congress for more legislation
- wanted to require a literacy test to get into the country
Vetoed by Grover Cleveland
Some Basic Facts
the majority of the immigrants came with little or no skills
they worked long hours, for very little pay and no benefits
they lived in urban areas that were not suited for the massive influx of people
4.
Transportation
probably the most critical to the development of manufacturing
effects all aspects of American life
carried raw materials to the manufacturers
carried finished goods to the buyer
new innovations/inventions increased the value of the railroad as an industry
steel
air brakes
signal devices
refrig. Car
sleeping car
5.
Technical Improvements – Inventions and Innovations
1. Steel and the Bessemer Process (1850s)
Henry Bessemer and William Kelly found a way to use oxygen with
molten iron to create a better steel
Steel was stronger and more durable, lighted than iron and cheaper
1870 – 77,000 tons of steel manufactured
1880 – 1.39 Million tons
1900 – 11.4 Million tons
took huge supplies of iron ore and coal and we had it
Lake Superior
Ohio
Wisconsin
Alabama
Mesabi Range – Minn.
Pittsburgh
Manufacturers developed steel mills around the supply – more settlement
2. Discovery of Petroleum
Edwin Drake drilled the first successful well in Pennsylvania in 1859
1860-1865 – 2-3 million barrels a year
1873 – 10 mill barrels produced
1880’s – ave 20 million barrels a year
1890’s – 50 million barrels per year
crude oil was refined into kerosene and eventually gasoline
another new source of fuel
3. Telephone (1876)
Alexander Graham Bell
1880 – 85 towns and cities had local phone networks
1895 – 300,000 phones in the country
1900 – 800,000 phones
AT&T consolidated over 100 local systems into one of the biggest
companies in America
4. Electric Light (1879)
Thomas Edison – incandescent light bulb
1882 – opened a power station and gave light to 85 consumers
1898 – 3000 power stations in country
electric power began to replace steam as the main power source and as
coal replaced it as a source of fuel
5. Vulcanization of Rubber
Charles Goodyear
made rubber stronger and more resistant to heat
6. Continued and increased use of Eli Whitney’s idea of interchangeable parts
***** bottom line – more stuff made – stuff was less expensive *****
6. Developments in Communication
telephone and Alexander Graham Bell
transatlantic cable was laid – 1866 – Cyrus Field
1865-1870 – miles of telegraph line tripled
7. Corporate System of Organization
individual proprietorships and partnerships gave way to the corporation
corporations were charted under state law
Advantages to the Corporate System
relative permanence
limited liability
opportunity to acquire lots of land/capital in a short time
Manufacturers throughout industrialization seeked corporate charters
from these grew elaborate structures designed to insure monopolistic control of
particular businesses
- once a corporation was set up and going – the desire to control an entire industry
this led to consolidation
objective of consolidation – eliminate competition
horizontal consolidation
vertical consolidation
Horizontal Consolidation
controlling one part of every industry
for example: you control the sewing machine business -> Singer
every sewing machine used – no matter what you were making –
was made by Singer
Vertical Consolidation
controlling all aspects of a certain industry
for example: John Rockefeller and Oil
he controlled the business “from ground to tank”
Consumers complained and new ideas to control businesses developed
1.
Pool
-
used mostly by the railroads
Pools were like an agreement among several companies
- establish prices
- regulate output
- divide markets
Pools weren’t legal – they weren’t binding
They could be easily broken
Not really effective
2.
3.
Trust
-
developed by John Rockefeller and his Lawyers
Standard Oil Trust (1879)
group of corporations engaged in refining and transporting oil
the group took its stock and turned it over to a Board of Trustees
this Board had the power to control all these companies
the original stockholders received Trust Certificates in exchange for their stock
they were paid dividends based on what the Trust made
1882 – 76 companies in the Standard Oil Trust
76 companies = 90% of the nation’s oil refineries and pipelines
Trust soon developed in the
Steel -}
Sugar }
Industries
Beef -}
Holding Companies
some states began to prosecute Trusts – saying they were unlawfully restricting
trade
industry leaders began to experiment with holding companies
Holding Company was a company that neither made anything nor provided any
service
Holding Companies instead purchased controlling interest in companies that did make
stuff or perform a service
8. Territorial Extension of U.S. manufacturing
Northeast still the manufacturing leader but ….
- Chicago and Midwest – center of meatpacking and flour milling
- Pennsylvania-Ohio-Indiana-Illinois
center of iron and steel
- South – lumber, textiles and tobacco
Take the 8 factors – and realize there are 4 basic dominant features
1 – we have a rapid spread of technology and the factory system
2 – there is constant pressure on firms to compete tooth and nail
cut costs
cut prices
eliminate competition
consolidate into monopolies
3 – continued drop in prices
4 – then we have a failure of the money supply to keep up with productivity
this in turn effects prices and credit
The Factors and the Features combine into some basic facts
technological changes lead to increased production
also made it possible to lower costs
less skilled worker needed to work in factor
could pay workers less
cost cutting leads to competition
competition leads to consolidation
consolidation leads to monopolies
farmers and small businessmen
suffered from low costs- harder to make $
benefited from lower prices on store bought goods
The Railroad System
-
-
very important to industrialization
- united all sections of the country
- brought raw materials and food to industrial areas
- brought finished goods to domestic markets
- brought finished goods to port for shipment to foreign markets
the nation believed it was a good idea to bind us together by the railroad
Railroad – East of the Mississippi
- lots of construction during the 1850s
- construction slowed a little during the war
- got going again after the war
Basic Facts
1865-1873 – 30,000 miles of track laid
1880 – 93,000 miles of track in use
Railroads made changes after the war
- adopted a standard gage for the track
- improved their engines
- introduction of air brake in 1868
- allowed brakes to be applied to all cars at the same time
- allowed for longer, heavier trains – more cars/more stuff/ more $
- use of Pullman Cars
- invented by George Pullman
sleeper (1859)
dining (1868)
parlor (1875)
1860s – while the Transcontinental Line was being constructed
Railroad Lines in the East were consolidating into major railway systems
- New York Central
ran from NYC to Chicago
organized by Cornelius Vanderbilt
- The Erie
served the state of New York
financed by Jay Gould and James Fisk
- they will go bankrupt due to stock manipulation
- The Pennsylvania
Pittsburgh to
Chicago
Cleveland
St. Louis
- The B&O (Baltimore and Ohio)
extended to Chicago
- Illinois Central
Chicago to New Orleans
run by Edward Harriman
one of the few major north-south lines
*** Most of the small lines were consolidating and most of the area east of the Miss.
Had railroad access *****
Railroad – West of the Mississippi
The Transcontinental Railroad
Union Pacific } Both Chartered
Central Pacific }
in 1864
Credit Mobilier Construction Company
Given the right to build the Union Pacific from Omaha, Neb. -> west
Crocker Corporation – Run by the “Big 4”
Charles Crocker
Mark Hopkins
Collis Huntington
Leland Stanford
Given the right to build the Central Pacific from Sac, CA -> east
Both companies got help from the government – the companies got
1. right of way – land the track was on
2. free use of timber and minerals on the public land
3. a grant of 10 square miles of public land for every mile of track laid
4. Congress also agreed to “lend” each company
$16,000 per mile across the plains
$ 32,000 per mile across the plateaus
$ 48,000 across the mountains
Construction Methods
1867 – construction got going
most work done by immigrants
Chinese on the Central Pacific
Irish and Germans on the Union Pacific
They worked nearly 24 hours a day
The two railroads met at Promontory Point in Utah in May of 1869
Other Western Railroads
1890- several major lines were in operation in the west
organized by shrewd and powerful entrepreneurs who used ethical and
unethical methods to secure domination
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Union Pacific
Central Pacific
Great Northern Railway
Run by James Hill
Only line built without govt. assistance
The Northern Pacific
Organized by Jay Cooke and taken over by Henry Villard
The Southern Pacific
Organized by the central pacific guys
Atchison, Topeka and the Santa Fe
Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific
Patterns of Financing
Most of the western railroads used methods developed by the Union Pacific to finance their
construction
- sale of land given to the railroad company by the state and federal govts
- “loans” state and federal govts
- loans/grants from county and local govts. Trying to attract the RR to go
through their area
- private investment by Americans and Europeans
Government Stimulus
more than 130 mill acres given by the federal government
more than 55 mill acres from state governments
for every $3 invested by private individuals the government “loaned” $2
late in the 1880s – govts at all levels chose to stop requiring payment
Effects of the Transcontinental Rail System
1. Influence on Manufacturing
a. Raw materials, farm commodities and manufactured goods could be moved freely
b. Frontier farms and western commodities could supply urban centers of the east
c. Manufacturers were encouraged by the expanding market and easy access to raw materials to seek higher profits
with mass production at lower cost per unit
d. Foreign trade expanded
2. Influence on the Population
a. Due to high cost of construction the railroad sold as much land as possible – quickly which will led to more
western settlement
b. Railroad agents actively sought immigrants as workers and purchasers of land
3. Influence on Politics
a. Territories became states
b. Western senators and reps would go head-to-head with eastern business interests in the 1890s
4. Indirect effect of the railroad on the Economy
a. Railroad bought $41.6 mill worth of cars and engines
i. New jobs
b. purchases led to a need for new technical advances
c. caused growth in other industries – steel
Negative Effects
1. Political Corruption
a. Railroad lobbyists gained more power in state legislatures
b. Pressure was exerted in various ways to get legislation favorable to railroads or to block legislation that restricted
them
c. Railroad Companies
i. Gave free passes to office holders
ii. Made contributions to party campaigns
iii. Bribery
2. Financial Abuses
a. Fraudulent sale of securities
i. Sold more stock to Europeans than was allowed by law
ii. Would sell stock and pocket the $
b. Market Manipulation
i. Manipulated the stock exchange
ii. Most cared more about making $ than about running a railroad
c. “Stock Watering”
i. selling more stock than the railroad was worth
Lecture Notes – Industrial Revolution II
The Railroad was very important, but so were
Steel
Oil
Meatpacking
Steel and Carnegie
Andrew Carnegie (1835-1919)
Carnegie learned his business sense from Tom Scott
- his boss on the Pennsylvania Railroad
As Scott moved up so did Carnegie
he developed a cost cutting analysis and helped the railroad make lots of money
set up the first night train service
worked on scheduling and on time zones
Carnegie invested his money in things he knew the railroad would need
sleeping cars
bridge building companies
1868 – Carnegie making $50,000/yr. just from his investments
1875 – Carnegie got involved in steel
he was never big in creation but was fantastic in mgmt.
He bought up
production lines
coal and iron mines
limestone quarries
coke ovens
ships and railroads
He built his steel plant in Homestead, Pennsylvania
He used only the Bessemer Process in his plant
1890- he dominates the Steel industry
he has two choices
take over all of the steel industry
get out completely
1901 – He decides to get out
JP Morgan offered to buy Carnegie Steel
Morgan had already purchased
American Steel and Wire
American Tin Plate
National Tube
He then purchased
Carnegie Steel
All Andrew’s mines and transportation
U.S. Steel – first Billion $ industry
The stock was worth $1.4 Billion
Carnegie stockholders made $492 Million
Carnegie himself made $250 Million
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He will
put it all
together
and create
U.S. Steel
Once finished with steel Carnegie turned to philanthropy
Between 1901 and 1919 he gave away $350-400 Million
Built Libraries and stocked them with books
Built art museums and school
Built Carnegie Hall for the education of musicians and singers etc.
Why ??? _ Gospel of Wealth ( we will cover that later ☺)
Oil and Rockefeller
1870 – John Davison Rockefeller
founded the Standard Oil Company of Cleveland
Rockefeller used every technical advancement, employed every means – fair and unfair
to eliminate his competition
He would begin by trying to get a competitor to join him – but when they didn’t
he got the railroad to give him a 10% rebate and to charge his competition more
he cut local prices to force competition out
Kerosene was sold in grocery stores so Rockefeller got meat, sugar and other products – sold them to the stores
which sold only his kerosene at real cheap prices- and crushed the stores who sold the competition’s products
He hired spies to track down customers of independent refineries and offered them bargains
He used bribery
1879 – he controlled +90% of the nation’s oil refining businesses as well as the pipelines and the oil
reserves
Meatpacking
3 phases of the industry developed
slaughtering and packing
storage and distribution
by products
Gustuvus Swift established Swift & Co.
1877 – with the first refrig. Car – shipped meat from Chicago to Boston
Business had been living in a society of Social Darwinism
they had been allowed to go and prosper
they had created trusts and monopolies
they had abused their workers and their customers
Eventually – the public will begin to push for changes
Economists and authors wrote against Social Darwinism
Henry George – Progress and Poverty (1879)
- discussed the unequal distribution of wealth
- pushed for a single tax for land owners
- this would bring money to the govt. and they could give it
to the poor
- Edward Bellamy – Looking Backwards (1888)
- novel that urged the elimination of competition and the creation of a socialist
society based on cooperation
- Henry Demarest Lloyd – Wealth Against Commonwealth (1894)
- an attack on John Rockefeller and Standard Oil
- argued that social Darwinism represented nothing more than an attempt to
legitimize the greed of industrialists
The public began to ask and then to demand some regulation on the
trusts
railroads
In both cases – the states had to act first and then Congress will act
Anti-Trust Legislation
By 1890 – 15 states passed laws against corporate practices that restricted trade
BUT
Most didn’t work because the Supreme Court was willing to see corporations as “persons” and under
the 14th Amendment no state could deny “life, liberty or property without due process of law”
from any person
1890 – Congress also acted
Sherman Anti-Trust Act
it made illegal “every contract, combination in the form of a trust or otherwise
or conspiracy in restraint of trade or commerce among several states or with
a foreign nation”
it authorized prosecutions by the federal district attorneys and suits for damages by any individual or firm injured
by a company in violation of the Act’s provisions
*** Until the 1900’s the Act did NOTHING to control the abuses by big business ***
WHY ???
loose wording of the law
attitude of the Supreme Court
- U.S. v E.C. Knight & Co. (Jan 1895)
- Court ruled 8-1 that the American Sugar Refining Company’s
acquisition of the stock of it’s leading competitor was not
a violation of the act. American Sugar owned 95% of the
sugar industry
- the lack of desire by Harrison, Cleveland and McKinley to see the govt. go after trusts
- Court would begin to use the act against labor union activity when the unions went after big business
Railroad Legislation
Like with Anti-Trust Laws – railroad regulation began with the states
State Regulations
- 1869 Mass. will be the first state to set up a commission with the power to
supervise the railroad
- New York and New Hampshire will soon follow
- The first major success in the Midwest
- Fixing Maximum Prices
- The Grange in many Midwestern states were able to set up commissions that set
rate schedules
The Commissions and Rate Fixing were initially upheld by the Courts
1877 Munn v Illinois
said Illinois’ law fixing grain storage rates didn’t deprive the warehouse owners their 14th Amendment
property rights
1877 Peik v Chicago
gave the states the right to deal with railroad abuses that were limited to INTRA – state commerce
Unfortunately - 1886
Wabash Rate Case
Supreme Court decided that state laws set to prevent rate discrimination were
Unconstitutional
*** Result: most of the state passed regulations were useless
Court believed it was the job of Congress to control the Railroad
*** A complete reversal from the previous cases
1868 - Issue of Railroad abuses had been a topic in each election
1872 – Labor reform demanded Congressional regulation of rates
1876 – Prohibition Party called for govt. action
1880 – Greenback Party called for action
1884 – Greenback-Labor Party called for action
1874 – Windom Commission reported the problems to the Senate
many pieces of legislation were proposed – but none could pass the house and the senate
1887 – Congress will finally act
Interstate Commerce Act – it forbid Railroads
to form pooling agreements
to charge more for a short haul than for a long haul under the same conditions and same traffic
to grant rebates
It required
railroads to publish their rates
to give a 10-day public notice to rate changes
It set up
- a 5 member commission ( Interstate Commerce Commission) which would
- supervise the accounting systems, rate schedules and business methods used by the RR
- hear complaints of shippers
- assist the Attorney General in prosecuting offenders
Like the Sherman Act – the Interstate Commerce Act was initially ineffective
couldn’t compel witnesses to testify
railroad companies continued to win cases on appeal after the Commission had ruled
Supreme Court continued to use the law against the commission
*** Two pieces of legislation – both passed to prevent abuses by big business – both succeeded only in allowing more abuses to
happen until things change in the 1900s. *****
While the government was helping big business to grow – the also saw cities grow and the abuse of workers continue
Urbanization – The growth of cities
1860 - <25% of the American Population lived in cities
1890 – 33 % of the American Population lived in cities
1910 – 50 % lived in cities
1860 – NYC = only city with +1 million population
7 cities = +100,000
1870 – 15 cities = + 100,000
1920 – 68 cities = + 100,000
New England and the Middle Atlantic states were the most urban
Most major cities were on the water
Why did cities grow ???
annexation
taking areas outside of a city into the city limits
i.e. 1898 – NYC annexed – Brooklyn
Queens
Population of NYC
The Bronx
grew 1.5 mill to 3 mill
Staten Island
migration
to the west and north
by blacks looking for jobs
by farmers to the cities
by people moving from one urban area to another
immigration
30 million people in 100 years
most became city dwellers
1890- 4 of 5 New Yorkers = foreign born
this led to the creation of ethnic neighborhoods – ghettos
poor, inadequate housing
slums in deteriorated areas
inadequate social services
decreasing health care and sanitation
will lead to political corruption
Technical advances assisted growth of the cities
urban mass transit
1871 – Andrew S Hallidie = Cable Car
1873 – San Francisco first city to put a system into operation
still in use today
1880s – Stephen Dudley Field = Electric Street Car
led to elevated trains and subways
1890 – 50+ street car systems operating in major urban areas
1902 – 22,000 miles of street car track
1880s – John Roebling – Suspension Bridges
1870s – James Eal – cantilevered steel bridges
bridges over rivers
Paved Streets
Cobblestones-brick-asphalt
Electric Street Lights
-
More electric power in major most cities
Central Water and Sewer Systems
Improved public health
Fire Departments
Steel Frame Construction
Skyscrapers
Electric Elevator – 1889 – Otis Elevator Company
Urban Problems
1. Housing
- most immigrants could only afford to rent tenements
Tenement = 4 to 6 stories
4 apartments per floor
2-3 families per apt.
- poorly lit and ventilated
- dirty and dangerous
- 1895 – 702 people/acre in NYC on the lower east side
2. Poverty
-1890s – unskilled workers - $9 a week
- worked 10 hrs per day – 6 days per week
- in steel workers worked 6 – 12 hr days
- 1870 – 11% of all workers were women
- 1920 – 20% made $5-6 per week
domestic help - $2-5 per week
- 1880 – 20% of the nation’s 10-14 yr olds worked – they made less than women
3. City Bosses
- Boss = the head of an urban political machine
- Political Machine would provide
jobs
fuel
food
legal aid
- all held picnics and provided entertainment
- advocated public improvements
- city dwellers who benefited from this help repaid the bosses with their votes
- city bosses controlled the politicians that made the major decisions
- politicians did what they were told
- bosses took bribes from construction companies to insure companies got
govt. contracts
- electric street cars
- water and electricity
- public works
- Most Famous Boss – William M Tweed – “Boss” Tweed
- He controlled NYC’s Democratic Political Organization
- Tammany Hall
- Lots of widespread graft and corruption
- helped immigrants who in turn supported the bosses
Urban Social Reform
Key was education
Public Education for adults and kids
McGuffey Readers used by kids
taught them how to read and also taught religious and ethical values
Chautauqua Movement
education for adults
1873 – first Kindergarten set up in St. Louis
1860-1900 – increase in teacher training
1860- 10 training schools
1900 – 350
Development of the Social Gospel Movement
Led by Washington Gladden
Philosophy – Problems caused by modern industrialism could be solved by applying the teachings
Of Jesus
Walter Rauchenbusch – first major proponent of social gospel
“In Christianity and social crisis”
urged Protestants to carry Christian principles into action by supporting the causes of social reform
Led to the creation of Settlement Houses
community centers to help urban dwellers improve their education and vocational skills
and getting better jobs
They offered – child care
- health care clinics
- art and music education
- recreation opportunities
1886 – first settlement house in NYC = Neighborhood Guild
Lillian Ward – Henry Street Settlement
1889 – Most Famous – Chicago – Hull House
run by Jane Addams and Ellen G Starr
Management and Labor Disputes
Mgmt. Aims = achieve the greatest profits possible through the effective use of materials and labor
Tactics
1. Yellow Dog Contract
a. Agreement by workers not join a union while working
2. Blacklists
a. Name of workers who engaged in actions contrary to the employers’ interest
3. Injunction
a. Court order preventing an action
4. Open Shop
a. Employment was not determined by union membership
5. Company Police and Spies
6. Strikebreakers
Labor Aims = 3 Principal Aims
1. Higher Wages
2. Shorter Hours (8 Hr. Day)
3. Safe and Sanitary Working Conditions
Secondary Goals
1. Establishment of Federal and State Labor Bureaus
2. Abolition of Child Labor
3. Abolition of Contract Labor
- laborers imported in from a foreign nation by an employer
4. Recognition of the Principles of Collective Bargaining
5. Institution of Compulsory Arbitration of Mgmt. And Labor Disputes
7. Laws Providing for Workers’ Compensation
Labor Tactics
1. Strike
2. Picketing
3. Boycott
4. Closed Shop
a. Employer only hires union members in good standing
First Labor Unions
1. Craft or Horizontal Union
a. Membership limited to workers in the same craft
2. National Industrial or Vertical Union
a. Membership included workers in an entire industry no matter the occupation/craft
1866 – National Labor Union
William H Sylvis
skilled iron workers union
Goals:
1. elimination of monopolies
2. establishment of the Dept. of Labor
3. abolition of contract labor
4. arbitration
5. 8 hour day
lasted until 1872
1869 – Knights of Labor
first under Uriah Stephens and then Terence Powderly
Knights stressed
1. industrial unionism
2. inclusion of all workers skilled and unskilled
3. formation of local assemblies of workers – based on residence not on occupation
4. highly centralized control of local assemblies by the national body
Objectives
1. 8 Hour Day
2. equal pay men and women
3. abolition of child (under 14) labor
4. no foreign contract labor
5. arbitration
6. state and federal depts.. of labor
7. safety and sanitation standards
8. laws making employers pay laborers on a weekly basis
9. creation of co-ops
10. income tax
11. govt. regulation of railroad and telegraph
1886 – under Powderly – 5892 local chpts. And 700,000 members
Knights began to decline
1. unsuccessful strikes
2. unions=violence in the public eye
3. issue of skilled workers vs. unskilled workers
4. unsuccessful co-ops = unions lose $
5. conflicting leadership goals
principal goals vs. idealist social reform
6. local assemblies vs. national body
7. increase in the # of unskilled workers
1886 – while the Knights were declining…
the AFL – American Federation of Labor began to rise
under the leadership of Samuel Gompers and Adolph Strasser
AFL – League of separate and quite autonomous craft unions
Strong on the local level with restrictions on control by the central body
Objectives: “Bread and Butter” Issues
1. Higher Wages
2. Shorter Hours
3. Safer and more Sanitary Conditions
The Organization also
1. advocated restrictions on immigration
2. used strikes, boycotts and collective bargaining
3. stayed away from joining one political party
a. used it’s power to achieve specific objectives – NOT major social change
1890 – 190,000 members
1900 - 550,000 members
1915 – 2 million
}
}
}
not a
great % of the
work force
AFL – did achieve
1.
2.
3.
4.
development of effective programs for sickness and unemployment benefits within the union
establishment of an 8 hour day in many trades
recognition of collective bargaining by many employers
slow but steady growth in influence on state and federal legislation
1905 – creation of the IWW – Industrial Workers of the World
Mgmt./Labor Conflicts
1880-1900 – 25,000 strikes involving 6 million workers – Most ended in Failure
1877 – Railroad Strikes
B & O Railroad workers walked because of wage reductions
Other workers from across the country also walked
Riots, Bloodshed, Destruction of Property
State Militias were called into action
President Rutherford B Hayes eventually sent in federal troops to restore order
1886 – May 4 – Haymarket Square Riot
A mass meeting organized by anarchists
Held in Haymarket Square in Chicago to protest police tactics against strikers at the
McCormick Harvester Plant
Police tired to disperse the crowd – a bomb was thrown at them
7 dead policemen and many injured
Both sides opened fire – 2 more dead and more police and civilians injured
8 anarchists were convicted of inciting a crowd to riot
4 anarchists were hanged
*** Significant because the Labor Movement was injured throughout the nation
The public believed the Knights of Labor were
1. affiliated with anarchists
2. condoning violence
3. were responsible for the riot
1892 – June – The Homestead Strike
Homestead, Penn – Plant of Andrew Carnegie Steel
Members of the Iron, Steel and Tin Workers struck in protest of reduced wages
In order to destroy the union the company hired 300 Pinkertons to protect the hired strikebreakers
Strikers fired on and killed several Pinkertons
Eventually the state militia was called in to restore order
After 5 months – the union could no longer operate – out of spirit and out of money
Strike collapsed
1894 – June – The Pullman Strike
Pullman Car Company – Chicago – workers went on strike
Company had reduced wages to keep the dividend paid high
Members of the American Railway Union in Chicago tried to help the strikers
Refuse to handle trains with Pullman Cars
Across the country the boycott continued
Attorneys for the Railroad Managers Association got a court injunction
Used the Sherman Act saying that the ability to move the U.S. Mail was being restricted
the strike was a “conspiracy in restricting trade”
Strikers ignored the injunction and the govt. reacted
1. Grover Cleveland sent troops to Chicago – He said “to assure mail delivery”
but it was more to maintain order
2. Attorney General – Richard Olney
instructed govt. attorneys to press charges against the union for contempt in
court
President of the Union – Eugene V Debs
Got 6 months for refusing to obey the injunction
*** First time an injunction was used against a union ***
Effects of the Major Strikes
Change in public opinion
- most Americans believed in “bread and butter” issues but were suspicious of unions and the
violence that went with them
Use of Sherman Anti-Trust Act against the unions
Some Successes
1892 – 8 hr. day for federal employees
1882 – Chinese Exclusion Act
1898 – Erdman Act
mediation in disputes with railroad and interstate commerce
1898 – Max. hours for miners
1907 – Hours of Service Act
limited consecutive hrs. worked by railroad employees - safety
1908 – Max hours for women
Opening of the West
After the Civil War
1.
2.
3.
People got greedy
tired of sacrifice
tired of government control
“ let things regulate themselves”
“ the progress of the country is independent of legislation”
People weren’t concerned with waste of resources or corruption in high places
As long as no one interfered with their own personal gain – people didn’t care
Mark Twain called this the Gilded Age
“Dazzling on the surface, basic metal below”
America displayed vigor, imagination and confidence in themselves and the future of the country while cheapness and corruption ran
rampant
Intellectuals drove the exploitations
Charles Darwin – The Origin of the Species (1859)
Theory of Evolution
(1870)
Both began to influence opinion in America
“Nature and Natural selection brought progress”
“Let the buyer beware”
Adam Smith – Wealth of Nations (1776)
Echoed the same ideas in economics
*** The Stage is set for the 2nd Half of the Century ****
Opening of the West
1860 – For 250 years the Indians had been pushed west and they still inhabited ½ of the US
1862 – Homestead Act – led to more settlement
Contributing Factors to the move West
1. Courage and Perseverance of Pioneers
2. Lots of Capital and Supply of Labor for Business to expand
3. Govt. policies and support for settlement
4. Building of the Railroad
Settlement signaled a change for the Indians
1860 – most Indians lived in
1. Great Plains
2. Great Basin
3. Rocky Mountains
They were faced with
1. introduction of disease
2. killing of buffalo/bison
3. forced movement to reservations
1865 – most Indians very angry – 225,000 – because of the Chivington Massacre
Colorado Militia led by Colonel JM Chivington came upon a community of Cheyene Indians at
Sand Creek Colo.
The militia killed 450 men, women and children
“The Indians were scalped, their brains knocked out, the men used their knives, ripped open
the women, clubbed the little children. Knocked them in the head, beat their brains out
mutilated their bodies in every sense of the word.”
“It is the foulest and most unjustifiable crime in the annuals of America.”
The Indians were ready to retaliate
Some friendly tribes
Some not so friendly
Crow
Southern Arapaho
Northern Arapaho
Sioux
Cheyene
Comanche
Blackfoot
1865-1875 – 30,000 military men moved into the area to take care of the problem
1867 – US Govt. thought it had a solution – they had gotten most of the chiefs to agree to move to 2 reservations
1. Black Hills of the Dakota Territory
2. Oklahoma
This will work until gold is found in the Black Hills and the US wants the land back
Also
1. many Indians refused to follow their chiefs
2. people in charge of Indians were some of the most corrupt govt. officials around
1874 – Gold found in the Black Hills
Northern Pacific Railroad was being built
- both of these sent the Sioux into action
- Sioux were
i. Large tribe
ii. Well armed
iii. Well led
1. Sitting Bull
1876 – Sioux will be able to defeat Custer at Little Big Horn
- won the battle
- not the war
1890 – Final Battle took place at Wounded Knee
1877 – the US government had gotten the upper hand
- they had pretty much succeeded in extermination of the Buffalo
- 1860- 13 – 15 million
- 1887 – almost extinct
Buffalo were killed to
1) feed railroad workers
2) trophies to hang on the wall
- buffalo hunting had become a sport
- ride the railroad through the Plains and kill them
i. “Buffalo Bill” Cody – legend has it he killed 4300 in 2 years
3) commercial uses increased in the 1880’s and the killings increased
The last two tribes to keep up the fight
1) Nez Perce – under Chief Joseph
2) Apaches under Geronimo
With the reduction of fight came a shift in the policy
Old Policy – run by the Dept. of War
Goal: extermination
New Policy – govt. set up the Bureau of Indian Affairs – part of the Dept. of the Interior
Goal: assimilate Indians into the agrarian economy
As the fighting came to a close – Indians were put on reservations
- by 1885 – 171 reservations
Indians were dependent on the tax payers to pay their way
Govt. $ was never enough
System was very corrupt
1) govt. agents were making a ton of $
2) sold Indians shoddy goods
3) sold them prohibited liquor
4) cheated them on real estate deals
a. miners, ranchers, cattlemen and farmers pushed the government to let them use the Indian
land
On the other hand there were those who participated in Humanitarian Efforts on behalf of the Indians
- pushed for change
Helen Hunt Jackson – A Century of Dishonor (1881)
1) talked about government practices
2) degradation of the reservation Indians
3) poor treatment the Indians had dealt with from the start
Book led to a division between reformers
1) we should push for assimilation of Indians into American society
2) let them continue with their tribal customs
Government went with assimilation
1) outlawed the Sun Dance and Ghost Dance (1884)
a. there goes the culture
2) Passed the Dawes Severalty Act (1887) AKA Dawes Act
a. Tribal lands were split into individual allotments – 160 acres
b. Allotments couldn’t be sold for 25 years
c. $ was to be provided for the education and training of the Indians
d. those who accepted the allotments had to
i. take up residence and separate form the tribe
ii. adopt the habits of civilized life
then they could be US citizens
Motivation behind the act
1) encourage Indians to become assimilated
2) get some of the reservation land back so the whites could settle on it
Result of the Act – whites benefited and blacks didn’t
1906 – Government tried again – Burke Act
1) provided for new incentives for Indians to assimilate
a. move from tribal membership to individual citizens
b. anyone who proved they could manage the land became citizens right away
1924 – all Indians were given their citizenship
1934 – government restored tribal ownership of land
Once the Indians were gone – the white people moved in
1) miners
2) cattlemen
3) farmers
1st major group to move west – Miners
1850-1875 – a majority of the minerals out west had been discovered and was being mined
1848 – Gold in Calif
1858 – Gold in the Pike’s Peak area – Colo
1859 – Comstock Lode discovered in Virginia City, Nev
1874 – Gold in the Black Hills
1881 – Copper in Montana
Silver in Idaho
Where miners were found, towns sprung up – Boomtowns
Most contained
1) saloon
2) hotel
3) general store
4) dance hall
5) gambling hall
6) brothel
***Virginia City had 25 saloons before it had 4000 people
Most had no law and order
Many used any means to get rich
1) shop keepers charged outrageous prices
2) claim holders “salted” their worthless claims to sell them
Biggest Injustice of it All
- in the end it wasn’t the rugged individual who made big $ off the Comstock Lode or Black Hills Gold
- it was the giant corporations
i. they bought up the claims and made big $
ii. in the end the guys who got rich never got their hands dirty
- it took money to get rich – you needed
i. capital investment
] things only the
ii. heavy machinery
]
corporations
iii. access to the railroad ]
could get together
iv. lots of labor
]
Impact of mining on the Frontier
1) gold itself – government got $
i. paid for the debt caused by the war
ii. paid for economic expansion
2) gold and silver created interest in the west
a. permanent settlers moved into the area
b. many believed the way to make $ was to serve the miners – not to be one
c. these people set up stores and saloon, schools and churches
3) these permanent settlers allowed many territories to become states
- 1864 – Nevada
- 1876 – Montana
- 1889 – Idaho
- 1890 – Wyoming
4) west provided opportunity for investment and speculation
5) opportunity for investment led to a new type of investment
a. development of the corporation
6) gave more people a chance to get involved in government
a. new states with new Senators and members of the House
b. new state governments
c. women begin to get the right to vote – Wyoming
7) push for improved transportation
a. railroad
b. stage coach
2nd Group to move west – Cattlemen
- treeless grasslands great for cattle
- cattle would start in Texas
- be “driven” to
i. Kansas
ii. Missouri
iii. Wyoming
- then go by railroad to Chicago for packing or off to NYC by ship
- Cowboys gained fame during this time
i. Protect cattle
ii. Work the ranch and then work the round up
iii. Work the long drives
1. move hundreds and thousands of cattle hundreds of miles to “cow towns”
- 4 main trails used to get the cattle to the “cow towns”
i. Goodnight-Loving
1. Texas to Wyoming
ii. Western
1. Texas to Dodge City, Kansas
iii. Chisholm
1. Texas to Kansas
iv. Sedalia
1. Texas to Missouri
1875-1885 – the long drive was a major happening
- in the first 10 years profits rose 40%
Late 1880s – a major decline took place
1) the advance of the farmers
i. thanks to barbed wire – they could fence off the grazing land
2) legislation that increased inspections and made it more difficult to take
cattle across state lines
3) competition from livestock/cattle raisers in the Midwest
4) the ability of buyers in cow towns to determine prices and railroad owners
to set freight rates
5) over expansion and over speculation
Next came the farmers
3 major factors that allowed farmers to move west
1) govt. benefits – new land policies
a. Homestead Acts
2) new inventions
a. steel plow
b. barbed wire
c. mowers
3) rail facilities
a. Transcontinental Railroad
New Land Policies – the “giving” of the public land to the private citizen
1) Homestead Act – 1862
a. Any head of a family – citizen or wanna be – could get 160 acres of surveyed land
b. Pay a small fee – paperwork $- commit to stay on the land for 5 year
c. Improve the land
d. It becomes yours
- 20 million acres became occupied between 1862 – 1880
i. act worked well in forested humid areas – not so great on the semi-arid Great Plains
2) Timber Culture Act – 1873
a. Additional land to persons who would use part of the original land to plant trees
3) Desert Land Act – 1877
a. Additional land in semi-arid area sold at $1.25 an acre if you agreed to irrigate it
-
-
neither of the acts all that successful at getting people on the Plains – but…
1) states that had gotten land with the Morrill Land Grant Act in 1862 sold
some of it to settlers
2) the Railroad sold some of their land grant land to the settlers
total settlement came with lots of stuff
i. New Tools and Methods
1. barbed wire – 1874 – helped to close the cattle country
2. plows and mowers suitable for the Plains were developed
3. irrigation systems were developed
ii. the fight between the cattle men and the farmers was won by the farmers
iii. new immigration – foreign and domestic
1. people living in the east who wanted to move to the Mississippi Valley and Great
Plains
2. they were attracted by
1) availability of cheap land
2) improved transportation
3) availability of machinery necessary to make a profit
3. foreign immigrants
1) German and Scandinavian moved into
a. Wisconsin
b. Iowa
c. Nebraska
d. Kansas
e. Dakotas
Closing of the Frontier
1870-1880 – most of the farmland had been claimed
- an area = the size of Great Britain came under cultivation
1890 – U.S. Bureau of the Census
- announced the end of the frontier
- Frontier is defined as a large inhabitable area with fewer than 2 people per square mile
Frederick Jackson Turner – Frontier Thesis
- a historian
- wrote a paper – The Significance of the Frontier
- he called the frontier “ the greatest force in the shaping of American democracy”
- he argued that the existence of free, open territory with abundant natural resources was perhaps the
most important factor in forming tendencies to individualism, inventiveness and expansion
- with the closing of the Frontier – America’s character would change
Post- Reconstruction South
Reconstruction govts. Had been under attack for corruption, incompetence and extravagance
- public debt rose dramatically
i. SC – from $7 mill in 1865 to $29 mill in 1873
ii. Ark. From $3.5 mill to $17.7 mill
iii. Louisiana from $11 mill to $50 mill
- taxes rose
- property values decreased
it is true that lots of money was needed to get the south going
- social services for ex-slaves
- new hospitals and asylums
- new schools
Black American and the Collapse of Reconstruction
- movement to the west
- loss of civil rights
i. violence
ii. subtle economic pressure
iii. legislation
- supreme court action
i. Plessy v Ferguson
ii. Said separate but equal facilities were OK
Black Spokesmen
- Booker T Washington
i. Educator – founder of the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute
-
ii. 1895 – Atlanta Compromise
1. laid out a policy for Negro advancement
1) Blacks couldn’t agitate for practical and social equality until acquiring
sufficient skills through vocational training
i. Which would provide economic security
2) “better your position not by fighting segregation, but by learning useful
skills and demonstrating your ability
his theories are known as “accomidationism or gradualism”
William Edward Burghart Du Bois – WEB Du Bois
i. Massachusetts born
ii. Harvard Phd.
iii. Professor at Atlanta University
iv. He agreed that blacks needed an education
v. He opposed Washington’s attitude of submission to the notion of Black inferiority
vi. His view – Confrontationalism or Interracialism
1. 1903 – wrote In Souls of Black Folks
1) he argued that Negroes must constantly insist on voting rights as necessary
2) point out when they are confronted by it
3) discrimination was barbarism
Agrarian Revolt and the Rise of the Populists
Post Civil War Agricultural Changes
1) favorable prices led to a concentration in a single cash crop
2) purchase of more manufactured goods led to the use of more profits
a. “in town”
b. mail order catalogs
i. Sears
ii. Montgomery Wards
3) new inventions and innovations led to bigger and better equipment
a. made it easier to plant
b. made it quicker to harvest
4) farming was becoming a business and most farmers had no business experiences and no business skills
Farmers saw
1) government go from favoring them to favoring the industrial class
2) saw large corporations
a. form
b. eliminate competition
c. charge monopolistic prices
3) felt the railroad discriminated against the small farmers
4) national banking system favor big business and industrialists
Farmers believed
1) they weren’t getting their fair share of the national income considering how important they were to the nation
2) they didn’t have the same advantages and conveniences their counterparts in the city had
Specific Problems
1) rely on mother nature
a. unreliable irrigation
b. bug infestations
c. drought and flood
d. erosion
2) lack of currency in circulation
a. rise in big business in the northeast created a shortage in currency
b. leads to high interest rates – up to 40%
3) high taxes
a. can’t hide land and property the way you can hide stocks and bonds
b. property taxes were high
4) Tariff
a. Set up to protect our American industries but not to protect farmers
5) Single Cash Crop
a. Great when prices are high
b. Disaster when prices are low
i. Can lead to bankruptcy
6) storage and shipping fees
a. farmers had to store crops prior to shipping
b. railroads owned the grain elevators
c. they charged very high prices
d. in some cases it will cost more to store and ship the grain then the crop is worth
i. some farmers would burn their crop as fuel due to the high cost
unlike the workers in the east – there were no “unions” to look after the interest of the farmers – so they got together
and decided to make one
1867- Oliver Kelley started the first National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry AKA the Grange
- it began as a non-political group whose goals were to stimulate farm families
i. social
ii. educational
iii. fraternal
1870 – 700,000 members – mainly in the Midwest
1871 – introduced in South Carolina
it will spread through the South
1874 – 858,000 members total
it will reach 1.5 million at its peak
Organization of Cooperatives
Objectives:
1) decrease cost of things they needed to purchase
2) increase the cost of their crops
Goals:
1) operate plow and harvester factories
2) purchase and maintain grain silos
3) set up loan companies and retail stores
4) obtain rural delivery and parcel post service
While they were great goals…
1) mismanagement
2) dissent in the ranks
3) lack of permanent solutions
led to a decline in the 1880s
Some Success
1) did see some political victories in upper Mississippi Valley states
2) Dept. of Agriculture set up
3) Some laws passed – Grange Laws
a. Most will be overturned by the Supreme Court
Farmers and the Greenback Movement
Farmers wanted inflation
- inflation = general or gradual increase in prices
- an increase in prices is good for
i. farmers
ii. anyone in a debtor class
In order to get inflation the government needs to increase the amount of $ in circulation
- either paper $ (not backed by gold)
- silver coins
Greenbacks were first issued during the Civil War – more than $400 million still in circulation
After the war
- creditor class/ eastern business class
- want the govt. to create a “sound” base for our $
- want “sound $” money backed by gold
- want greenbacks taken out of circulation
Two sides – Farmers want more greenbacks
- business wants less
- Congress goes with business
Jan. 1875 – Resumption Act
- $130 million in greenbacks taken out of circulation immediately
- in Jan 1879 the rest would be turned in for gold
- congress set aside $100 million in gold to take care of it
-
Effect: Deflation
i. Leads to the creation of the Greenback Party
1. led by Peter Cooper
1878 – Greenback Party merged with the National Labor Reform Party
- Greenback-Labor Party
- Goals:
i. More greenbacks in circulation
ii. Free coinage of silver
iii. Less working hrs.
iv. Restrictions on Chinese immigration
1878 – 14 members from the Greenback-Labor party elected to Congress
1880 – began to advocate
- women’s suffrage
- graduated income tax
- federal regulation of interstate commerce
Silver Movement – Movement to solve the inflation situation by free and unlimited coinage of silver at a ratio of
16 silver coins to 1 gold coin
- free and unlimited coinage of silver received more support than the greenback movement did
- in both parties the issue caused a split
i. western farmers and miners in favor
ii. easterners and business opposed
1873 – Congress passed the Coinage Act
- ended the coinage of Silver
- brought an end to bi-metalism
- Act caused deflation
- Called the “Crime of ‘73”
1878 – Congress will bend under the pressure and pass the Bland-Allison Act
- ordered the purchase of $2-4 million worth of silver a month
- supported by Western Republicans and Southern Democrats
- Rutherford B Hayes will veto the bill
- Congress will override
But the act had little effect
- the money supply didn’t change that much
- very little relief for the debtors and the miners
Farmers and miners wanted more
1890 – Sherman Silver Purchase Act
- required the government purchase 4.5 million ounces of silver each month
- the silver would be purchased at market value
- the silver would be used for payment of silver certificates
Cleveland objected
- said that the government was replacing gold with silver
- will blame the Panic of 1893 on the silver situation
- the act will be repealed
again no significant change
the solution – the greenback people and the silver people need to work together
thus a new party is formed – The Populists
As the silver movement hits its snag, the greenback party is going no where, the grange is in its decline – alliances begin to
form
1877 – Knights of Reliance – cotton states
1890 – various alliances – 1 million members
stressed: co-ops to buy fertilizer and stuff
They all believed that
- prices were low
- costs were too high
- American had problems with its financial system
3 Major Alliances will develop
1) Northern Alliance – National Farmers’ Alliance
a. Voted Republican
b. Favored the tariff
c. Focused on railroad regulation and federal land policies
2) Southern Alliance – National Farmers’ Alliance and Industrial Union
a. Voted Democratic
b. Opposed the tariff
c. Focused on financial reforms
3) Colored Farmers’ Alliance
a. Had their own organization because they weren’t allowed in the Southern Alliance
b. Northern Alliance would have let them in – but they didn’t agree with the north
1890 – Unity begins
Leaders – Ignatius Donnelly – Minn
- Mary Elizabeth Lease – “raise less corn and more hell”
- Tom Watson – Georgia
- Jerry Simpson – Kansas
Labor + Greenbacks + Grangers = People’s Party – met St. Louis 1889
Southern Alliance + Farmers’ Mutual Benefit Assoc. + Colored Farmers’ Alliance – met in Florida
1892 – All got together = Populist Party
Economic Platform
1) free and unlimited coinage of silver
a. 16 to 1 16 ounces of silver coins for every one ounce of gold cions
2) increase in the $ in circulation
a. from $20 per person to $50 per person
3) govt gets excess land held by corporations
4) graduated income tax
5) tax reduction
6) govt. ownership of Telegraph, telephone and railroad
7) prohibit alien landownership
8) rural postal system
9) use of govt. funds to
a. assist farm marketing
b. extend short-term loans to rural farmers
to draw in eastern factory workers
10) reduction of immigration
11) 8 hr. work day
12) abolition of Pinkertons
Political Planks
13) single term for Pres and VP
14) direct election of Senators
15) use of initiative, referendum on the state level
1892 – Populist nominate their first presidential candidate for President
- James Weaver
- Running mate – James Field
- Got 1.04 million votes
- Carried 4 states
- Got electoral votes from 2 other states
- Total of 22 electoral votes
1896 – Populists and Labor got together as the election neared
Democrats – at their convention
- Cleveland had made the South and the West mad
- William Jennings Bryan gave a great speech
i. “Cross of Gold Speech”
“you shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns.
You shall not crucify mankind upon your cross of gold.”
- Bryan won over the democrats and got the nomination
Pushed for
- free coinage of silver
- criticism of the Supreme Court on tax policies
i. Pollock v Farmers’ Loan and Trust Co.
ii. Ruled income tax unconstitutional
- denunciation of govt. use of injunctions in mgmt-labor disputes
- enlargement of Interstate Commerce Commission powers to control the railroad
Bryan and the Democrats chose – Arthur Sewall
Republicans
- William McKinley for Pres.
i. Former member of the house
ii. Gov. of Ohio
- VP – Garret Hobart
Pushed for
- maintaining the gold standard
- a protective tariff
- pensions for civil war vets
- federal arbitration of mgmt-labor disputes
Populists
- Also chose William Jennings Bryan
- But wanted to choose a different VP – Tom Watson
- They wanted to stay true to themselves – so didn’t go with same VP as the democrats
Campaign
- Businesses vs Agriculture and Labor
- Creditors vs debtors
- West + south vs east
- Silver vs gold
On some ballots you could vote for Bryan + Watson or Bryan + Sewall
Candidate
McKinley
Bryan
Popular
7.1 mill
6.5 mill
Electoral
271
176
After 1896 – Populist dissolved as a 3rd Party –
- the Democrats adopted most of their issues
- 1897-1900 – farm economy improved
Did see some success in the next 20 years
- initiative, referendum adopted by most states
- direct election of senators – 17th amendment
- secret ballot is adopted
- graduated income tax – 16th amendment
- 8 hr. work day
Popular Culture and Politics in the Gilded Age
Late 19th Century
a unique middle class, with its own culture began to influence American life
its growth and increasing prosperity resulted from the rise of American industry
the middle class constituted the primary market for consumer goods
Mass Consumption
the new consumer market resulted in the development of affordable products and new merchandising techniques
the ready-made garment industry expanded to clothe almost all Americans
1900 – Americans learned to buy and prepare food differently because canned foods and refrigeration were
available
chain stores such as the A&P and F.W. Woolworth made their debut
the growth of mail-order business also began with Montgomery Ward and Sears-Roebuck catalogs
Improved Quality of Life
because of increased purchasing power and better diet, middle class America began to enjoy a higher quality
of life
their general health improved, and they had long life expectancies
leisure time increased, particularly for members of the urban professional and middle classes
new forms of recreation and entertainment became available
Sports
there was an interest in sports, and organized spectator sports became popular
by early 1900s baseball had become a business and America’s national pastime
other sports also became popular – golf, tennis, boxing, biking, football and basketball
Popular Culture
aside from sports, other types of entertainment arose to satisfy American tastes
musical comedy, vaudeville, circuses, wild west shows and most important – movies
motion pictures attracted audiences in all areas of the country
reading will also become a popular pastime – we have a better educated middle class and more time
“dime novels” were popular – they were about adventure and romance
newspaper circulation increased 9 times between 1870-1900
newspaper chains and the national press services emerged which standardized the presentation
of the news across the country
“yellow journalism” was introduced by two publishers – William Randolph Hearst and Joseph
Pulitzer
these newspapers reported sensationalized stories, emphasized scandal, did exposes, talked about
sports, fashion and entertainment – all with one goal in mind – SELL PAPERS – make $
popular magazines also began to appear – McClure’s Magazine, Ladies Home Journal and Harper’s Weekly – were inexpensive and
geared to the mass audience
Art and Literature
Realism and Naturalism were the major influences on American writers
Realists
Naturalists
Local/Regional
Hamlin Garland
Stephen Crane
Mark Twain
Frank Norris
Theodore Dreiser
Edward Eggleston
Willa Cather
Non – Fiction writers included Edward Bellamy and Oliver Wendel Holmes
Also had those writers who transcended the labels – like Emily Dickinson, Henry James and
Edith Wharton
Writers were influenced by the growth of industry and the rise of the city – wrote about industrial society
ART
most major cities had art museums
galleries contained both European and American art
a number of truly American artists emerged
Mary Cassatt and James McNeil Whistler both studied in Europe
Whistler painted about American life
Winslow Homer painted the New England Maritime life
John Singer Sargent and Thomas Eakins were realists. Sargent also did portraits
The Ashcan school developed – paintings depicting the urban industrial society – social realities
of the time
John Sloan painted American slums and Edward Hopper focused on other aspects of the modern city
Sculptors of the period included Frederic Remington and Daniel Chester
Darwinism
the theory of evolution had a profound intellectual impact
the theory was widely accepted by most urban professionals and the educated class
it won acceptance in most colleges and schools
strong opposition still existed among rural America where a majority of the people were wedded to
fundamentalist religious beliefs and older values
Darwin’s ideas created a split between the cosmopolitan culture of the city and the provincial culture of rural
areas
Pragmatism
this philosophical movement accepted the idea of organic revolution, but asserted that modern society should
be guided by scientific inquiry, not by inherited ideas and moral principles
in other words, an idea or institution is valid if it can be demonstrated to work
exponents of pragmatism were William James, Charles Pierce and John Dewey
Dewey for instance advocated an education in which students would acquire knowledge that would help
them deal with life
Scientific Inquiry
the spirit permeated intellectual thought
economists such as Richard Ely argued for more pragmatic use of the discipline
sociologists – Edward Ross and Lester Ward – advocated the use of scientific method in tackling social and
political problems
progressive historian – Charles Beard – asserted that economic factors had been influential in historic
development. Beard wrote Economic Interpretation of the Constitution where he stated that the
economic standing of the founding fathers caused them to create a document which would serve
people like them
Education
urban-industrial society emphasized specialized skills and scientific knowledge to prepare American workers
the education system responded
free public education spread; by 1900 – 31 states had compulsory attendance laws
Morrill Land Grant Act of 1862 enabled 69 Land Grant institutions of higher learning to be established
in addition to the federal government’s efforts, business titans endowed private colleges and universities
following Harvard’s lead, other colleges and universities adopted the elective system of course selection and
began to offer modern language, fine arts and physical and social science courses
improved technical training became available in law, medicine, architecture, engineering, journalism, business
and education
graduate education grew and educational opportunities for women expanded as well with the growing number
of women’s colleges
Politics of the Gilded Age
Election of 1880
-
Hayes refused to seek re-election, giving the Stalwarts (regular and conservative branch of the
Republican party – led by Roscoe Conkling) a chance to push Grant for another term
Democrats: Nominated Winfield Hancock of Penn. – a former Civil War general
Republicans: the convention was locked with Stalwarts going for Grant and Half-Breeds (the liberal branch of
the Republican party) going with James Blaine
On the 36th ballot the Half-Breeds led a group of delegates in support of a compromise candidate – James
Garfield of Ohio
Garfield was a Half-Breed and he chose as his running mate the #2 Stalwart – behind Conkling – Chester
Arthur
The Campaign
Grant and Conkling got behind Garfield and projected a united front to the Republicans
both candidates stayed away from the prominent economic and social issues of the day
for the most part both candidates were the same and partisanship and personal rivalries were the issue of
the election
Garfield will get only 9000 more popular votes than Hancock – but will win the electoral 369-155
The Assassination
right after the election Garfield indicated that James Blaine would be appointed Sec. of State and would
have a great say in his administration
this caused a lot of tension between Garfield and Conkling – and the factions got more intense
lots of people went to Washington looking for a job – one who didn’t get one was Charles J Guiteau –
Guiteau caught up with Garfield at the DC train station and shot him – “I am a Stalwart and Arthur will
be President”
Garfield didn’t die immediately; he suffered for 80 days with a 44-caliber bullet in his back
he will die Sept 19, 1881
Guiteau will be tried, convicted and then executed on June 30, 1882
The Arthur Administration
from the start Conkling believed that Arthur would appoint a lot of his guys to govt. positions
but Arthur refused to use his presidency to reward loyal Conkling followers “Conkling made me vicepresident, but God made me President”
he did try to reduce and relieve the party factional strife – though he did everything he could to insure
that Blaine and his followers didn’t have the most influence
Surplus Funds
due to various tariffs and taxes a surplus in govt. money had developed
members of Congress took this opportunity to support one another’s pet projects
known as Pork-Barrel Appropriations or Pork Barrel Legislation – members of Congress
propose to spend money on pet projects in their home states and areas to look good with the folks back home. These
include public works projects like roads, bridges, deepening of rivers or harbors and establishing military
instillations most of these projects should not be created at the expense of the federal government and are more for
political patronage than for needed improvements
Arthur criticized what he considered to be wasteful spending of govt. money
when a bill authorizing the use of $18 million for river and harbor improvements was sent to
Arthur – he vetoed it – the veto was overridden, but Arthur gained a lot of respect
Reform of the Civil Service System
Public reaction to Garfield’s assassination – caused by party strife over appointments - and Democratic victories in the 1882
elections forced the Republicans to look at the civil service system and work for some reform
After the Civil War the idea of using a merit system for appointing and promoting civil service employees got going
1865 – Republican Rep. From RI – Thomas Jenckes – introduced a bill to set up competitive exams for specific
federal jobs
1871 – Grant appointed a commission to look at the exam idea
1878 – Hayes issued an executive order forbidding the extraction of political contributions from federal office
holders
Hayes also gave Sec. of the Interior – Carl Schurz – a free hand to institute the merit system in his dept.
Hayes also appointed pro-merit system guys and got rid of people who were breaking the rules
1881 – the national civil service league – founded by Harper’s Weekly editor – George William Curtis – united
those in favor of the merit system –
In his first message to Congress – Arthur indicated his willingness to work with the legislation
to develop a merit system and end appointments for political rewards
The result was the Pendleton Act – named after it’s sponsor – George Pendleton of Ohio – a democratic senator
1883 – in Jan. the act was passed by the Republican Congress – they had hoped it would prevent
Republicans from loosing jobs if Arthur lost in 1884
The act provided for the president to appoint a 3 member bipartisan commission to draft and
administer examinations to determine the qualifications of office holders
The act also prohibited the collection of election funds from any federal office holder
A list of federal positions obtainable through the merit system was established
It started at about 10% - but could be expanded by the president when he saw fit
This is the basis of the civil service system we have today
Other actions under Arthur
- corrupt Republicans were prosecuted
- pork barrel legislation was vetoed
- Sec. Of the Navy Whitney built a steel navy
- Commodore Stephen Bleecker opened the US Naval War College in 1884 in Newport RI to provide naval
officers with postgraduate training in advanced naval science and warfare, international law and history
- Chinese Exclusion Act 1882
- Bureau of Labor was created as part of the Dept. of the Interior in 1884
- Tariff Legislation
The Republicans wanted to see them increased – they advocated a higher “protective” tariff – to assist domestic manufacturers when
competing on the foreign market
The Democrats supported a revenue tariff – a tariff that provided an income for the federal govt.
Tinkering with the Rates
1870, 1872, 1875 – saw changes in rates due to protests from the non-industrial west and south
1883 – Congress looked at the need to revise the rates to meet the needs of new industries
Experts suggested the best thing would be significant reductions in the tariff
Congress ignored the experts and instituted a 2% reduction
Election of 1884
The democrats will win for the first time in 28 years
Since the scandals of the Grant administration, republicans had been on the defensive
They could win the election only if they carried the independent voters
But due to their own in fighting the Republicans will lose
The Democrats
Presidential nominee – gov. of New York – Stephen Grover Cleveland
He was a bachelor and very reform minded
He was seen as a competent and courageous administrator
He chose Thomas Hendricks – Tilden’s running mate in 1876 – as his running mate
The Republicans
Convention refused to give the nomination to Arthur – who wanted and deserved it
The nomination will go to James Blaine
The issue of civil service reform split the party
Stalwarts supported the party
Half-Breeds, led by Blaine, supported civil service reform, but went with the party
Mugwumps (Algonquin for “big chief”) led by George William Curtis and Sen. Carl Schurz
bolted the party and as liberal republicans, agreed to support the Democrat
The Campaign
One of the dirtiest in the history of politics
Blaine was linked to the Credit Mobilier
Cleveland was linked to an illegitimate son in Buffalo
Lots of mud slinging
The Election
Cleveland got 60,000 more votes than Blaine – why did he win
1. Support of the mugwumps
2. Stalwarts had campaigned unenthusiastically for Blaine
3. It was believed the Blaine had used his political position to further himself economically
4. Resentment of Catholic voters – especially in NY – over a statement made by Republicans
that the Democrats were the party of “Rum, Romans and Rebellion”
Cleveland will win by 1149 votes in NY
Cleveland will win 219-182 and only receive 60,000 more popular votes
The Cleveland Administration
Cleveland thought that public office was given through the public trust and should be treated as suchbut most believed he wasn’t serious
He is considered by historians as the best to hold the office since Lincoln
He was honest, efficient, had common sense and couldn’t be controlled by others
Cleveland set up a cabinet with guys with ability and didn’t care how much experience they did or didn’t
have
The Cleveland Actions
Most of Cleveland’s recommendations to Congress were ignored or blocked by Republican leaders
because Cleveland wouldn’t play political games
He did extend the Civil Service List – added 12000 positions to the list of jobs obtained through the
merit system
The Tenure of Office Act was repealed in 1887
The Pension Controversy
with lots of excess money in the govt.’s bank account – Congress became very generous when
granting pensions to the Union vets of the Civil War
1879 – Congress granted back payments to disabled vets
soon pension agents – who would get a cut – started to search for vets to file claims
if the pensions bureau didn’t approve – the agents would go to Congress to ask for a private
pension bill
many of these bills were frauds and Cleveland worked to research them all – he vetoed over
200 of them
1887 – Congress passed a bill that would give any vet who served 3 months and now couldn’t
make a living a pension
Cleveland vetoed that one too
Govt. Reorganization and Reform
The Presidential Succession Act
1885 – Nov. – Thomas Hendricks became the 5th VP to die in office
1886 – Congress passed the Presidential Succession Act which made it official that in the
case of removal, death, resignation or inability to serve of the President and VP –
members of the cabinet, in order of creation of their office, should succeed to
the duties of the President
The Electoral Count Act
set up to prevent 1876 from happening again, Congress passed the act in 1887
the act authorized each state
to decide contests over appointment of its electors
to report election returns
if opposing sets of returns were submitted the Senate and House – voting separately –
would decide which to approve
if Congress doesn’t agree – the returns certified by the state’s gov. would be accepted
Dept. of Agriculture set up in 1889
The Tariff and the Fiscal Policy
Surplus of Funds
1880- the surplus of funds was approximately $100 million a year
This had the effect of
- being embarrassing to govt. because it showed tax payers, they were paying too
much
- reduced the amount of money in circulation and thus available for business
- encouraged Congress to make pork-barrel appropriations
Cleveland’s Tariff Message
Cleveland opposed the using of surplus funds for large govt. expenditures
He wanted to lower taxes to reduce the surplus
1887 – State of the Union Address – Cleveland
- denounced the existing tariff duties as “vicious, inequitable and illogical
source of unnecessary taxation”
- spoke positively about the need for protection of the nation’s growing
industries
He wanted Congress to lower the tariff rates – but they couldn’t get it done
The Republican Revival
Election of 1888
both parties started out trying to gain the vote of the discontented farmer and laborer
the Republicans were more successful at convincing the nation that their party was the protector
equally of all three elements of our economic society
businessmen
factory workers
farmers
Democrats
They went with Cleveland despite the fact the he had angered many groups
- Texas farmers when he vetoed a bill to provide seed for drought stricken areas
- Cattle ranchers by nullifying their illegal leases of Indian grasslands
- He resented the press when they got into his personal life
- He tried to stop the free coinage of silver under the Bland Allison Act
- He had angered vets when he closely looked at the pension situation
- He had appointed 2 former confederates to his cabinet
Cleveland picked Allen G Thurmond as his running mate
Republicans
They went with Benjamin Harrison – grandson of William Henry Harrison – his running mate was
Levi P Morton
Campaign
The major issue was the tariff
Democrats wanted to lower and republicans wanted to maintain
Cleveland was accused of removing trade restrictions benefiting the British manufacturers
over Americans
The Republicans also appealed to the Union vets
Neither Cleveland nor Harrison addressed the issues of the farmers or laborers
Harrison came out on top 233-168
The Harrison Administration
No longer a deadlock in Congress – Republicans in both the House and the Senate – and the Presidency
McKinley Tariff
1890- tariff levels raised to a new high on the theory that prosperity flowed directly from protection
The ave. tariff rate was 50%
Among protected projects
Woolen and cotton goods
Steel products
Wheat, potatoes, butter and eggs
Sugar was out on the free list, but American producers got a 2 cent tax on a pound of sugar
Other products placed on the free list included molasses, coffee, tea and hides
This act produced a decrease in revenue and in the federal surplus
The act also included reciprocity provisions giving the president the right to place a tax on items on the
Free list if any country tried to place high tariffs on us
“Billion Dollar” Congress
Despite Harrison’s desire to see the surplus reduced with tax cuts – it was reduced with major spending
Extensive river and harbor improvements
Construction of steel ships for the navy
Implementation of the Dependent Pension Act – a bill similar to the one vetoed by Cleveland
The 51st Congress spent $1 Billion – more than ever during a peace time
A Democratic Reappearance
Election of 1892
First election to see the Populists as a strong minor party of protest
Democrats
Cleveland got the support of a group of Eastern businessmen and won the nomination
He picked Adlai E Stevenson of Illinois as VP
Republicans
Blaine was back in the race, but Harrison got the nomination
He picked Whitelaw Reid as his running mate
Populists
Party was made up of western and southern farmers + eastern laborers
It nominated an agrarian oriented politician – James B Weaver of Iowa
He chose James G Field of Virginia as VP – both were agrarian reformers
Their platform advocated reforms to help farmers and laborers
The Campaign
The two major parties still differed on the tariff issue
Democrats – advocated a general lowering of rates
Republicans – supported the continuance of high protective duties
For the most part the parties were similar in the other major areas
Harrison will lose – Cleveland will win – WHY ?
- the hostility of reformers to Harrison’s neglect of the merit system
- resentment over higher prices brought on by the McKinley tariff
- anger in the south over the republican attempt to force federal control of elections on southern states
- disgust with republican controlled congress for having used up the federal surplus at a time when it looked like
a depression was coming
Cleveland’s 2nd Administration
The first – and only – time a president served two nonconsecutive terms
The Panic of 1893
Not long after the inauguration the country went into a panic and then a depression
The depression lasted 4 years and had showed signs of coming
- the enormous increase in govt. expenditures while income remained stationary – the surplus became a deficit
- the hoarding of gold as investors in Europe began to sell their American stocks and bonds to get gold
- the uneasiness of the business community when the US gold reserves fell below $100 million
Business Failures
Business began to fail in May of 1893
By Nov. 1000s of businesses failed, hundreds of banks closed and some railroads went bankrupt
By the spring of 1894, 20% of the work force was unemployed
Coxey’s Army
Bands of jobless men – “armies” – roamed the country looking for relief
One army led by Jacob S Coxey marched to DC in April 1894 to petition for inflation of the
currency and a program of federal public works
Coxey and 2 aides were arrested for walking on the capital lawn and their followers quickly
disbanded
Tariff legislation
Wilson-Gorman Tariff
Early 1894 – the House passed the Wilson bill which provided for
- the inclusion of raw materials such as coal, iron ore, lumber and wool on the free list
- reduction of the rates on iron and steel wares, cotton and woolen goods and silk and linen articles
- repeal of the bounty granted under the McKinley Tariff to domestic producers of unprocessed sugar
- a tax of 2% on incomes of $4000 and over in order to make up for lost revenue
the senate added 634 amendments and the finished products looked a lot like the McKinley Tariff
it passed without Cleveland’s signature