Emotion Norms in Interpersonal Events
Author(s): David R. Heise and Cassandra Calhan
Source: Social Psychology Quarterly, Vol. 58, No. 4 (Dec., 1995), pp. 223-240
Published by: American Sociological Association
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SocialPsychology
Quarterly
1995,Vol. 58, No. 4, 223-240
EmotionNormsin InterpersonalEvents*
DAVID R. HEISE
CASSANDRA CALHAN
IndianaUniversity
A graphicallystructured
adjectivechecklistwas used to assess prescriptive
and reactive
normsof emotionin 128 social events.Bothprescriptive
and reactiveemotionnormsexist
forall 128 events.Normscenteron a specificemotionin aboutone-third
oftheevents,and
on a generalaffective
tone.Bothprescriptions
otherwise
and reactionsoccasionallycluster
normsregardingthe expectedemotionfor an event.Prescriptive
intoconflicting
norms
divergefromreactivenormsin almosthalfof theevents,thoughin onlya few eventsdo
prescriptions
requirethe oppositeof people's emotionalreactions.Feeling no emotion
occursfairlyoftenfor medical
occasionallyis the norm;prescribednonemotionality
but not in relationships
relationships,
based on rationalobjectivity.
of otherinstitutions
Prescriptive
normsare thesamefora womanand a man,exceptthata womanis expected
toemotemoreintensely
insomeinteractions.
Reactivenormsvarybysex,however,inabout
one-fifth
of theevents.On thewhole,femalesare disposedto emotewithsomewhatmore
thanmales.
displeasure,arousal, and vulnerability
Emotionsare supposedto fitthe circum- O'Brien 1993; Kemper 1993; Smith-Lovin
stances.At a funeral,forexample,griefand 1994; Thoits1989). "The moststudiedtopic
sorrow are warranted,and a norm of in the sociologyof emotionsis probablythe
joylessnessapplies. Happinessis inappropri- effectof emotionnormsuponexperienceand
ate; people regulatethemselvesso as to feel expression" (Gordon 1990:163). Almost
sorrow,and theycensuredisplaysof happi- every line of inquiryfocuses on emotion
ness by others.
norms.
The recognition
thatthereare social norms
One issue in the sociologyof emotionsis
foremotionsdepartsfromtheearlyscientific how emotions,withtheirobviousphysiologiframingof affectivedisplaysas biological cal concomitants,can be so normative.
phenomena(e.g., Darwin [1872] 1965). Kemper(1978) proposedthatemotionsare
People do not emote simplybecause the not simply socially controlledbut also
animalwithinrespondsinstinctively
to certain socially engendered,and that emotionsfit
predicaments.
Rather,theyintelligently
guide social circumstances
so oftenbecausepartictheirfeelingsandtheirdisplaysofemotionsto ular social circumstances
automatically
profitwhatis expected.At a funeral,sorrowfor duce specificemotions.In thatsense, emohumanloss is invokedat graveside;yetjoy at tionsare social automatisms.
Affect-control
withthelivingmaybe theory
renewing
relationships
(Heise 1979;MacKinnon1994; Smithreleased at the wake. Even deviancefrom Lovin 1990) offers a similar argument:
emotion norms can serve as intelligent emotions emerge automaticallyfrom the
rhetoric-forexample,a person'sirritabilitybehavioralconfirmation
and disconfirmation
at a funeralmay be a sign of ineffable of sociallydefinedsituations.
resentment
towardthedeceased.
Interactionists
focus on the paradox that
Emotionnorms,theirculturalreproduc- emotionsare social automatismsemerging
as meansto endsare fromparticular
tion,andtheiradaptation
circumstances
and yetsomeprimaryconcernsof the sociologyof emo- timescan be deviant.A keyto understanding
tions thathas emergedduringthe last two thisseemingcontradiction
is thatinfluential
decades (for summaries,see Heise and people can shape emotionnormsto reflect
theirideology and to create resourcesfor
* We are gratefulto participantsin the social personalgain. Then otherswith alternative
psychologytraining
seminar,Department
of Sociology, social understandings
may emotedifferently
Indiana University,for their helpful criticismand thannormsrequire.Hochschild(1983) anasuggestions.This work was initiatedwhile the first
in theairlineindustry
and
authorwas thedirector
andthesecondauthora traineein lyzedsucha pattern
theconceptof emotionallaborto
the Affectand AffectMeasurement
TrainingProgram, introduced
PHS T32 MH15789.
describehow flightattendants
resolve dis223
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224
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY
crepancies between their own emotional how an individual should feel in only
setbyemploy- relativelyfew consequentialhappenings,or
reactionsandtheprescriptions
ers. Emotion work-generatingprescribed are people's feelingssociallycontrolled
most
emotionsthatoverrideautomaticreactions- of the time? Clear emotionnorms might
has becomea key conceptforunderstandingregulatefeelingonlyin ritesof passage and
how people respondin social arrangementsother situationsnoted for theiremotional
with tone, leavinga vast arena for untrammeled
emotionnormsconflict
whereprescribed
personalfeeling.On the otherhand, preemotionalreactions(Thoits1990).
Thoits(1985) consideredthepsychological scribed emotion norms might accompany
as a primary
burdensof emotionreactionsthat violate nearlyeverysocial transaction
norms.Recurrentdeviantfeel- meansforthesocial controlof minds.
prescriptive
ings require explanation,and individuals Second, are therereactivenormsof emonorms?Conceivconcoct unauthenticemotion tionas well as prescriptive
resourcefully
stratagems.Emotion ably,emotionalresponsesto social situations
displaysas interaction
on idiosyncratic
normsprovideone basis for doing this, as mightdependso strongly
self
when someonedisplaysprescribedguiltfor processes (Denzin 1984) that there is no
to whatpeoplenaturally
feel
behavioraldevianceto forestalllabelingor centraltendency
(Heise 1989; Robinson,Smith- in social situations.On the otherhand, the
punishment
and view of emotions as social automatisms
Lovin, and Tsoudis 1994; Smith-Lovin
suggeststhata givenhappeningmightevoke
Tsoudis 1993).
certainfeelings largely uniformfeelingsfor most of the
Emotionnormsconcentrate
in particularsituations;consequentlysocial participants.
ambiences.
Third,what is the relationbetweenpretakeon characteristic
happenings
Collins (1991) linkedthisaspectof emotion scriptiveemotionnormsand emotionalreacof tions? People sometimesare disposed to
normsto the garneringand distribution
thannormsrequire;theresocial energies. Solidarityrituals produce emotedifferently
moods thatpeople carryaway with them, foretheymustworktobringtheirfeelingsinto
Thiscouldbe thecase
mobilizingother social enterprisesby the linewithexpectations.
of activatedstates.By thisprinci- if no reactivenormsexist,so thatveryfew
diffusion
ple, the normativeemotions at religious peoplehappento emoteas they"should."Or
rituals can diffuse goodwill to promote it could be the case because reactivenorms
fromtheprescripexistbutoftenaredifferent
efforts.
cooperative
Virtuallyeveryessay on the sociologyof tivenorms.On theotherhand,it maybe that
emotionnormsgenerallyare acemotionspresupposesthatthereare standard prescriptive
reactivenorms,which
bymatching
ways of emoting in particularcircum- companied
exceptinspestances-that normsexistto "specifythetype makeemotionworkunnecessary
of emotion,the extentof emotion,and the cial circumstances.
Fourth,are emotionaltemperaments
in a
and
durationof feelingthatare appropriate
1994:118). Yet very stylesregulatedby the normsof emotion
situation"(Smith-Lovin
aspectsof cultures?We approachthisissue, raisedby
littleis knownaboutthenormative
emotions.Instead, empiricalwork in the Gordon(1990), in termsof gendercomparisociologyof emotionshas focusedlargelyon sons. Brodyand Hall reviewedtheliterature
in emotionality
and
how a range of emotionalexperienceis on genderdifferences
or on thevariety found
shapedby social institutions
of social conditionsthatengendera specific
thatinthisculture,
females
arebothstereotyped
emotion(e.g., Cancian and Gordon 1988;
to be andin factaremoreintensely
expressive
Goffman1956; Hochschild1983; Scheffand
of bothpositive
and somenegative
emotions.
Retzinger1992; Scherer,Wallbott,and Sumfemaleshavebeenfound
... In somecontexts,
merfield
1986; Simon,Eder,andEvans 1992;
to be relatively
weakerthanaremalesin both
and recognizing
expressing
angerand other
Steamsand Stearns1986).
outer-directed
emotions
Males
(e.g.,contempt).
on emotion
This studyfocusesspecifically
toreport
havealsobeenfound
moreprideinthe
severalissuesin
norms.In hopesofclarifying
self than do women,and fewerof the
the sociology of emotions,we address a
affects
intropunitive
(e.g., shame,embarrassnumberof questionsabout how emotional
ment,
guilt,andanxiety)
(1993:452).
statesare linkedwithsocial happenings.
emotionnormsdefine Thustheresearchsuggeststhatthesexeshave
First,do prescriptive
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EMOTION NORMS
225
emotionculturesand different
emo- correlateswith social awareness of that
different
tional temperaments.
We will investigate expectationand withindividuals'tendencies
and that
whether
prescriptive
normsdivergeformales to regulatethemselvesaccordingly,
andforfemales;iftheydo so, andiffemales' pluralityalso correlateswiththe likelihood
and males' emotionalreactionsalign with that contraryemotions will be socially
prescriptions,
thenculturalnormscould be censured.We treatthemodalresponseto the
regulating
differentiation
in femaleand male "How do you feel?" questionas a reactive
On theotherhand,findingthat norm,inasmuchas a reactivenormintrinsiemotionality.
in emotionalreactionshave callyis a statistical
of convergent
sex differences
description
littlerelationto prescriptions
would imply responses.The assumption
in thiscase is that
thatdiffering
arisefromgender emotions felt while imaginingan event
temperaments
withemotionsthatwouldbe experiitselfratherthanfromnorma- correlate
differentiation
tiveshaping.
encedin thelivedevent.'
Fifth,whatkindsof relationships
The 128 happeningsthatwe studiedare
require
thatpeople shoulddisplayno emotionat all? stratified
withindifferent
social institutions
This questionarisesfromtheprominence
of (e.g., law, medicine,religion).Theyinvolve
"affectiveneutrality"
as a patternvariable a systematicrange of interactants-from
distinguishing
primaryfromsecondaryrela- good, powerful,and active people such as
tionshipsin Parsonian sociology (Parsons physiciansto bad, weak, and inactivepeople
1951). Theoretically,
people mightbe obli- suchas addicts.Behaviors,too,wereselected
to represent
gated to suppressemotionsin work and systematically
actions
supportive
a neutral suchas helpingandcongratulating,
professional
encounters,
presenting
as well as
demeanorand maintainingconditionsfor detrimental
actions such as seducing and
We assuredvariability
enhanced rationality.On the other hand, insulting.
of interactaHochschild's(1983) researchindicatesthat nts' identitiesand behaviorsby consulting
workerscan be requiredto emoteas partof dictionarieswith quantifiedmeasures of
theirjobs. Additionally,
affect-control
thathad been assembledorigitheory connotations
about institutionalnally for researchin affectcontroltheory
proposesthatinformation
roles is borne in affect and that much (Heise 1979; Smith-Lovin
and Heise 1988).
via affective
is generated
institutional
activity
processes(Heise 1979). This pointimplies
that diverse emotions will arise in both
PROCEDURES
and secondary
primary
relationships.
Instrumentation
We developed a recordinginstrument
graphicallyconfiguredas a spiral to let
We investigated
prescriptive
emotionnorms respondents
selectfrom25 specificemotional
how a participantstatessuch as
by askingcollege students
shame, anger,or depression
shouldfeelin a particular
event.Forexample, whileavoidingthetediumand frustrations
of
one itemin thequestionnaires
was "A funeral using classic mood-adjectivecheck lists
director
shushesa woman.The womanshould (Zuckermanand Lubin 1965). The spiral
feel. . . ." We investigated
reactivenormsby configuration derivedfrom
was
researchon
the same itemsin morepersonal, thestructure
rephrasing
ofemotions;we forgodiscussing
moreimmediate
terms-forexample,"Imag- thedetailshere.
inea funeral
director
is shushing
you.How do
The instruction
page fromthe studyof
for emotionalreactionsis shownin
youfeelat thatmoment?"Our instrument
Figure1. The
emotion
recording
allowedrespondents
tochoose
emotionalstates(24
quicklyfrom25 different
1
Our assessmentof prescriptive
normsemploysthe
emotionsplus "no emotion").These 25 oprespondentas an observerof others, whereas our
aboutone-fourth
tionsconstitute
oftheEnglish assessmentof reactivenormselicits the respondent's
emotionlexiconand are representative
of the personal reactions.This recenteringof respondents'
viewpointsin the two studies is appropriateto the
rest.
A modal responseto the "should feel" distinctionbetweenprescriptiveand reactivenorms.
Hedonisticfactors,however,could be moreprominent
emotionnorm when
questiondefinesa prescriptive
respondents
are askedto give theirown reactions;
in thisstudy.The assumption
is thatplurality such factorsshould be kept in mind in comparing
in specifyinghow a person should feel prescriptive
withreactivenorms.
Scope oftheStudy
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SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY
226
INSTRUCTIONS
situations.
Circletheone
You willchoose emotionsyouwouldfeelindifferent
emotion.Thenchecka box
emotionon thediagramthatis closesttotheappropriate
theemotionwouldbe. Ifyouthink
youwouldfeelno
to indicatehowintenseyouthink
and checkthe"Noemotion"
box. Ifyoudo not
thencirclenothing
emotion,
thesituation,
thendrawan X overthediagram.Hereis an example.
understand
eatinga good meal.
Youfinish
Howdo youfeelat thatmoment?
/@A
/
I
I
X~~~pru
Nbte
Low
/dExtreme
Average
~~intensityintensity intensity
emotion
I
Anoyed,a
one emotion, and
~~~~Circle
lJ
\ ~check
\~~~<*
i
one Intensity box
t
j
/;bf
/
n
Annoyo~~d,
bXtte
ifyouremember
howtheyare arrangedon thediagram.
You can findemotionsquickly
Top: pleasantfeelings
unpleasantfeelings
Bottom:
Left:
quietfeelings
Right:
arousedfeelings
Inside:
vulnerable
feelings
Outside:
dominant
feelings
Questionnaire
Page foran Emotion-Spiral
Figure1. SampleInstruction
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EMOTION NORMS
227
is theemotionspiral.The bottom events,we also systematically
variedAlter's
centerpiece
graphicshowstheunderlying
structure
of the institutional
affiliation
by assigningan idendimensionrepresents tity associated with academic, business,
spiral:the top-bottom
Pleasure,withpleasantfeelingsat the top. justice, medicine,religion,laity,family,or
relations.
The left-right
dimensionrepresents
Arousal, intimacy
We used an 8 x 8 Graeco-Latinsquareto
withfeelingsof activationon theright.The
ofbehaviordefined
overlappingsectorsin the spiral represent construct
stimuli:patterns
Dominance,withimpotent,
vulnerablefeel- rows, patternsof alter identitydefined
were the diagonal
ings on the inside. The check boxes in the columns,and institutions
64
centerof the spiral allow respondentsto factor.The Graeco-Latin
squaregenerated
or to select "no scenariosin which Ego was the object of
recordemotionalintensity
Alter's action. To illustrate,we needed to
emotion"as an answer.
Our questionnaires
presenteddescriptions createan eventin a businesssettingwitha
of social eventsand asked how one of the good, potent,active(+ + +) actor(such as
in each situationshouldor does "flight attendant")engaging in a good,
interactants
feel. An emotionspiral was includedwith potent,active (+ + +) behavior(such as
com- "assists") towarda man. Thus one of our
each stimulus,and fourstimulus-spiral
binationsappeared on each page. On the scenariosis "A flightattendant
assistsa man.
average, respondentsin our studies took The manshouldfeel...." We usedthesame
about 20 seconds to read each one-line design to generateanother64 scenariosin
vignette,circle an appropriateemotional whichEgo actedon Alter.For example,we
in whicha woman
response, and check a level of emotion requireda lay relationship
intensity.
active(+ + +)
engagesin a good,powerful,
behavior(such as "rescuing")on a + + +
objectperson(suchas "hero"), so one of our
stimuliis "A woman rescues a hero. The
Stimuli
womanshouldfeel...." The 64 stimuliwith
For the studyof prescriptive
norms,each Ego as objectplusthe64 stimuliwithEgo as
eventdescription
presented
Ego (namedas "a actorconstitute
the basic 128 eventsstudied
man" or "a woman")and Alter(namedby a in thisproject.
social identity),with eitherEgo or Alter
To examinegenderdifferences
in prescripa social behavioron the other. tivenorms,we createdadditionalsetsof the
performing
The respondents
were asked to specifythe same events with "man" and "woman"
emotionthatEgo shouldfeel.
fora grandtotalof 256 stimuli.
interchanged,
We generated
stimuluseventsby systemat- These stimuliweredistributed
equallyacross
icallycombining
Evaluation-Potency-Activity
fourdifferent
forms,such thatno identityfor behaviorand for behaviorcombinationappeared more than
(EPA) configurations
Alter identity.(Evaluation, Potency, and once in a form.Eventsin each formfeatured
are universaldimensions
of affective menand womenequally,and object-egosand
Activity
meaning; see Osgood, May, and Miron actor-egosequally.
1975). Dichotomizingeach EPA dimension The studyof reactivenormsused thesame
as positive versus negative yields eight 128 events. In this case, however, the
configurations(good-potent-active,good- respondent
becameEgo in the stimulus.For
potent-inactive,
etc.) of behavioror identity, example,the stimulimentionedabove were
and 64 behavior-identity
EPA rephrasedas "Imaginea flightattendant
combinations.
is
ofidentities
andbehaviorsweredrawn assistingyou. How do you feel at that
ratings
froman availabledictionary
(Heise andLewis moment?"and "Imagineyou're rescuinga
1988).2 To increase the diversityof our hero.How do youfeelat thatmoment?"(We
used a slightlydifferent
phrasingwithnine
2
instances
of
insinuated
behaviors-for
examWhenonlyone or twobehaviorsfittheEPA profile
for a category,we used behaviorsthatcame close to ple, "You realize yourlandlordis evading
fitting
theprofile.For example,"idolize" was theonly you. How do you feel at thatmoment?")
wordin theHeise andLewis (1988) dictionary
thatfitthe Gendercomparisonis based on the respon-
+ + EPA profile(good, powerless,active)so we used
"sweettalk"as a + - + behavioralthough
itsEPA rating
is .22, .13, .51 (or + + +). The demandsof our identities that turned out to be unfamiliar to some
stratified
eventsamplingsystemalso led us to use some respondents(see Table 1, note c).
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228
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY
I give thisa lot of efdents'sex. The 128 stimuliwere distributedgive thissome effort;
"
followingthe same fort.)
intotwo questionnaires,
The genderideologyresponseswerecoded
study.
as in theprescriptive-norm
principles
Respondentswere encouraged to skip 1 forthefirstoption(agreeor approve),2 for
stimuli they did not understand.Events thethirdoption,and 3 forthesecondoption.
involving"grind," "teetotaler,""quack," A component
analysisshowedthatresponses
"goody," "neurotic,"and "killjoy" were to the genderideologyitemswere unifactoskippedby unusualnumbersof respondents rial; we also found that the responses
(thoughmorethan75 percentrespondedin correlatedwith religiouscommitment.
We
a singlescale bydoublingtherangeof
every case). We included such offbeat formed
charactersin stimuliin orderto presenta the ideology items, then adding religious
in different
social institu- commitment
and the "money" item, and
rangeof characters
the "homes" and the "politics"
tions and to sample diverse perspectives subtracting
withinAmericanculture. Some rare but items. These scores, dichotomizedat the
respondents
withtraditional
familiareventswere includedfor the same median,identify
reason.For example,"A maniacworshipsa genderideology.Fortypercentof our "tradidoes not referto an everyday tional" respondentsaccepted one or more
woman/man"
of traditional
genderideology,and
occurrence,but such a phenomenonis a statements
familiarpartof Americanculturebecause of 30 percentmore were unsureabout one or
massivemediacoverage.Forexample,movie more of the positions.Thirtypercentwere
by John "traditional"
simplyby virtueof theirreligiactressJodieFosterwas worshipped
via osity.
W. HinckleyJr.,whosoughtherattention
the attemptedassassination of President
RonaldReaganin 1981.
Data Collection
The prescriptive-norm
questionnaires
were
in threesociologyclasses at a
distributed
and
One hundred
university.
elicitedtherespondent's largemidwestern
The questionnaire
personswereapproached,and 152
age, race,citizenship, fifty-four
sex, sexualorientation,
volunteered
to fill out a questionnaire;149
and parentalincome.3
includedthreeitemsre- provideddata adequateforall phases of the
The questionnaire
foreach
ideologies:"Womenshouldtake study,yieldingabout37 respondents
latedtogender
questheirhomesandleaverunning of the fourforms.The reactive-norm
careofrunning
thecountry
up to men" (agree,disagree,not tionnaireswere distributedin two other
ofa mar- sociologyclasses,and 132 ofthe133 students
sure);"Do youapproveordisapprove
riedwomanearningmoneyin businessor in- approachedagreedto fillin thequestionnaire;
ifshehas a husbandcapableofsupport- usabledataforall analyseswereprovidedby
dustry
or about62 foreach of the
don'tknow); 125 respondents,
ingher?"(approve,disapprove,
administrator
for two forms.The questionnaire
"Most men are bettersuitedemotionally
the
interpreted
instruction
sheet
orally,and
dismost
women"
than
are
(agree,
politics
thenspentabout 25 minutesof
alsocollect- participants
agree,notsure).Thequestionnaire
thequestionnaires.
commit- class timecompleting
abouttherespondent's
ed information
menttobeing"healthconscious,""financially
"family"law-abiding,"
"religious,"
practical,"
RESULTS FOR PRESCRIPTIVE NORMS
minded,""educated,""normal,"and"loving,
In thissectionwe reportresultsforstimuli
used this
caring."Questionson commitment
an eventinvolvinga manor a
that
presented
a
to you is actingas
frame:"How important
person?(I'm notconcernedwiththis;I womanand asked how the man or woman
shouldfeel.
ofRespondents
Measurements
3Our sampleconsistedmainlyof white(81 percent)
orientation
(99
U.S. citizens(97 percent)ofheterosexual
percent). Parental income ranged from "less than
$20,000" to "over $100,000," with 19 percentof the
themediancategoryof $61,000 to
reporting
respondents
of$41,000
$80,000and23 percentin themodalcategory
to $60,000. Age rangedfrom18 to 45, witha medianof
20.
Gender
We conducteda multivariate
analysisof
variance for frequencyof use of all 24
ofsex andofthe
emotionwords,as a function
formthatthe respondentanquestionnaire
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EMOTION NORMS
229
halvedour samplesize.
swered.Respondents'sex had no significant tional" respondents
effecton how often they used differentThus we ignored respondent'ssex and
examined only whethermore traditional
emotionwords.
had distinctive
The events were presentedtwice-once respondents
emotionexpectawitha femaleas thefocalcharacter,
andonce tionsformenas opposedto women,employwith a male-to male and femalerespon- inga 2 x 9 tableforeach event.We found13
we can examinewhether instancesof gender-emotion
interaction
dents.Consequently
by
of significance;
males and femalesprescribedifferent
emo- our firstcriterion
fiveevents
and also metoursecondcriterion.
tionsforpeople in social situations
Again,thenumbers
resultscould be due to chance.
whether
emotionprescriptions
dependon the of significant
In addition,thedifferences
thatarosehardly
focalcharacter'ssex.
For each event separately,we cross- conformedto stereotypesspecifyinghow
menandwomenshouldemote.For
tabulatedrespondent'sand focal character's traditional
sex withcategoriesof emotionalresponse. example,in "A vigilantesentencesa man/
Tabulationsusingall 24 emotionoptionsplus woman,"a man'semotionwas expectedtobe
"no emotion" were beyond our resources in theEmbarrassed
sector;a woman's,in the
because populatinga 2 x 2 x 25 table would Furioussector.Thus our resultsindicateno
have requireda respondentsample much significant
relationship
betweenemotionprelarger than ours. Instead the tabulations scriptionsand the emotingcharacter'ssex,
with more traditional
employedthe eightsectorson the emotion even for respondents
spiralplus "no emotion,"fora 2 x 2 x 9 table genderideology.
We also constructed
thatretainspartof thequalitativerichnessof
quantitative
measures
the data. Even the 2 x 2 x 9 tables were of Pleasure, Dominance, and Arousal to
underpopulated,
however,so we exercised analyzegendervariationsacrossevents.The
the followingcautions.We talliedstatistical Pleasurevariablewas + 1 foranyresponsein
associ- theCalm,Pleased,orExcitedsectors,- 1 for
significance
onlywhentheprobability
ated withthe likelihood-ratio
chi-squareand any responsein the othersectors,and 0 for
the probabilityassociated with Pearson's "no emotion"choices.The Dominancevarichi-squarewerebothless than.10 and when able rangedfrom1 fortheEmbarrassed
sector
the probability
associatedwithone statistic through8 for the Furious sector; "no
was less than.05. Instanceswereconsidered emotion"was coded as 4.5. The Arousal
in detail only when both statisticswere variablewas + 1 forresponsesin theExcited,
less than.04.
associatedwithprobabilities
Nervous,and Furious sectors, - 1 for the
Data for10 eventsmetthefirstcriterion
of Calm, and Unhappysectors,and 0 forother
significance;five met the second criterion. sectorsand for"no emotion."We computed
Thisoutcomewouldbe expectedbychanceif analysesof varianceforthesethreedependent
thedatacontainedno significant
interactions.variables, using the mean scores on 128
Thatis, in 128 analyseswe shouldexpectto eventsas observations,
in a factorialdesign
obtainfivesignificant
tableswhenusingthe thatvariedas to whetherthe subsampleof
.04 cutoff,
and we shouldexpectbetweensix respondents
forcomputingmeans was male
and 13 tables to be significant
at a level or female,whether
thefocalcharacter
in the
between.05 and .10. Moreover,themedian eventwas male or female,and whetherthe
over all tables is .44 (based on character
probability
was theactorortheobjectofaction.
Pearson'schi-square);thisvalue is close to No sex factorwas significant
in a maineffect
the.50 thatwouldbe expectedif interactionsor an interaction.
were absent in the tables. These analyses
Finally,we coded each eventaccordingto
indicatethat emotionprescriptions
are not whether
or notrespondents
chosetheextrapuconditioned
by thegenderof theobserveror nitiveemotionsin the Annoyedand Furious
of thecharacter
observed.
sectors.Each eventwas codedfourtimes:for
and the feminist
Secularization
movement femalerespondents
assessinga woman'sfeelmay have eliminateddisparateemotionpre- ings,forfemalesassessinga man's feelings,
formales and forfemalesamong formalerespondents
scriptions
assessinga woman'sfeelmanyeducatedpeople. Gendereffectsmight ings,andformalerespondents
a man's
assessing
remain, however, among those who still feelings.If morethan33 percentof the reoftraditional
maintain
remnants
genderideol- sponseswerein theAnnoyedor Furioussecogy. Analysesrestricted
to the 73 "tradi- tors,we coded the case as characterized
by
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230
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY
otherwise
thecase wascoded whetherthe 24 emotiontermsplus the "no
"male"emotions;
Chi- emotion"categorywereequallylikelyto be
as characterized
by"non-male"emotions.
of respondent's chosenas theway a womanor a manshould
squareforthecross-tabulation
sex by male emotionalre- feelforeach event.The nullhypothesis,
sex by character's
that
Thenwe repeated each emotionwordwas chosenby about1/25
sponsewas notsignificant.
thistimecodingcases in of therespondents,
thewholeprocedure,
is rejectedat thep ' .04
or notrespondents
selected levelof significance
foreveryone of the 128
termsof whether
"female" emotionsmentionedexplicitlyby events(theprobabilities
are less than.01 for
shame all but two of the events). Thus pervasive
BrodyandHall (1993): embarrassment,
happiness,and prescriptive
normsof emotionexist in the
(ashamed),fear,nervousness,
forthecross- sensethatpeopleagreeat above-chance
Thechi-square
sadness(unhappy).
levels
sex by character's about what emotions should be felt in
of respondent's
tabulation
responsewas notsig- responseto anyevent.
sex byfemaleemotional
Highlightsof the data are summarized
in
nificant.Thus "male" emotionswere prescribedfora womanas oftenas fora man,and Table 1. The stimuluseventis displayedin
fora man theleft-hand
column;an ellipsisindicatesthat
"female"emotionswereprescribed
theeventappearedtwicein ourprescriptiveno less oftenthanfora women.
We examinedwhether
gendereffectsarose normquestionnaires,
once with"woman" as
and once with"man" as
intheprescribed
intensities
ofemotionsrather thefocalcharacter,
thaninthequalityoftheemotions(Brodyand thefocalcharacter.
The middlecolumnof Table 1 showsthe
Hall 1993). For each event, we crosssex prescriptive
sex andcharacter's
emotionnormfor each event.
tabulated
respondent's
("no emotion" The givenemotionis themodalresponseor
withfourlevels of intensity
qualityofemotion theresponsethatis mostcentralin a set of
beingthelowest),ignoring
fortheseanalyses.Applyingthesameproba- congruouschoices, as definedbelow. The
as describedabove,we obtained numberin parentheses
is themeanprescribed
bilitycriteria
the followingresults. Sixteen tables were intensityfor the emotionon an assumedData foreight intervalscale rangingfrom 1.0 for low
bythefirstcriterion.
significant
to 3.0 forextremeintensity.
by the second crite- intensity
eventswere significant
Bold highlighting
of the modal emotion
resultswas
rion. The numberof significant
chose
beyondthatexpectedby chance, by either meansthata majorityof respondents
emocriterion.This findingsuggeststhat some themodalcategory.These well-defined
exist in the prescribed tionnormsforwhichmorethan50 percentof
gender differences
selectedthe same categoryapintensities
of emotions.On the otherhand, respondents
gender pearedfor19 events,or 15 percentof all the
sucheffectsare farfromomnipresent;
A focal
intensities
inprescribed
ofemotiondid eventswe presentedto respondents.
effects
shouldfeel ashamedin 10 of these
not arise for 87 percent of the events character
considered.Examinationof the significant events,and five shouldproducepride. The
analysissuggestedthat prominenceof thesetwo emotionssupports
itemsin theintensity
of shame versus
withdisvaluedothersaresupposed Scheff's (1990) treatment
encounters
responseto
to be more emotional for women. We prideas a criticalaxis in affective
nervouscheckedthis possibilitywith a quantitative social situations.Embarrassment,
analysisand foundthatin factbothmale and ness, annoyance,and happinessalso were
modalforsomeevents.
unusuallyhigh strongly
femalerespondents
prescribed
The modalfrequency
was morethantwice
forfemalesinvolvedwith
emotionalintensity
the frequencyof any otherchoice for an
disvaluedothers.
additional30 events-thecases in whichthe
emotionis displayedwithsingleunderlining.
EmotionNorms
Prescriptive
Shame,pride,and annoyanceeach occurred
to fivetimesin thisset; "no emotion"occurred
Withevidencethatgenderis irrelevant
qualitativechoices of emotions,we pooled six times.Addingtheseeventsto theprevious
and 19, we find49 events-38 percentof the
data frommale and femalerespondents
normof
for male and femalecharactersin orderto total-involving a modalprescriptive
tabulatethe numberof timeseach specific emotion.
Emotionchoices were congruousfor anemotionwas selectedfor each of the 128
to test other 63 events (the cases in which the
events.Thenwe computedchi-squares
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EMOTION NORMS
231
Table 1. Normative Emotions in 128 Events and Mean Intensity(1.0-3.0) of the Emotions
Event
(. . . = woman/man)
An auditorjests a ...
.
A bailsmanexploitsa ...
.
A bellhopdisrespects
a ...
.
A bigamistencouragesa ...
.
A bisexualmale embracesa ...
A boarderasks a ...
.
. aboutsomething.
A bouncerevictsa ...
.
A bratimploresa ...
Reactive:b
You feel ...
Prescriptive:'
Woman/man
shouldfeel . . .
. forsomething.
A chaperonobservesa ...
.
annoyed(1.9), at ease (1.8)
annoyed(2.0)
furious(2.7)
furious(2.7)
annoyed(1.8)
F: annoyed(1.9). M: disgusted(2.5)
annoyed(2.2)
annoyed(1.8)
nervous(2.10, at ease (1.9)
F: nervous(2.1) at ease (2.2). M: nervous(3.0)
no emotion
no emotion
embarrassed
(2.5)
embarrassed
(2.6)
annoyed(2.1)
annoyed(2.3)
nervous(1.6)
F: nervous(1.4). M: nervous(2.0)
A churchdeaconstudiesa . . . .
nervous(1.9)
nervous(2.0)
A . . .'s classmatenudgesher/him.
no emotion
F: annoyed(1.7). M: annoyed(2.2)
calm (1.9) nervous(2.3)
A clownhypnotizes
a. . .
no emotion
A coronerdistresses
a.. . .
depressed(2.2)
flustered
(1.9)
A criticridiculesa . . . .
embarrassed
(2.4)
F: embarrassed
(2.6). M: annoyed(2.0).
A desperadoidealizesa .
. . .
The devilinspiresa . . . .
proud(1.9)
no emotion
ashamed(2.4)
F: scared(2.9). M: nervous(2.3)
A disciplinarian
doubtsa. . . .
annoyed(2.0)
furious(2.4)
A dropoutmanipulates
a .. . .
embarrassed
(1.9)
annoyed(2.1)
A . . .'s employer
distrusts
her/him.C
ashamed(1.8)
F: ashamed(2.3). M: bitter(2.5)
An evangelistcondemnsa. . . .
ashamed(2.4)
F: annoyed(2.0). M: annoyed(2.5)
A fileclerkenviesa .
proud(1.9)
proud(2.0)
pleased(1.9)
contented
(1.6)
. . .
A flightattendant
assistsa . . . .
A . . .'s friendforgets
her/him.
annoyed(2.2)
depressed(2.8)
A funeraldirector
shushesa . . . .
embarrassed(2.3)
embarrassed(2.5)
A gamblersweettalksa .
annoyed(2.4)
annoyed(2.1)
. . .
A girlrebelsagainsta. . . .
annoyed(2.0)
F: mad (2.0). M: unhappy(2.3), mad (2.0)
A . . .'s grandchild
followsher/him.
proud (2.5)
proud(2.7)
A handicapped
personhelpsa. . . .
pleased(2.3)
embarrassed(1.8), happy(2.0)
A has-beencongratulates
a. . . .
proud(2.0)
proud(2.2)
A housekeeper
blackmailsa . . . .
furious(2.7)
furious(2.8)
A hypochondriac
deludesa. . . .
annoyed(2.1)
annoyed(1.9)
annoyed(2.3)
An imbeciletapsa. . . .
annoyed(1.7)
An intern
observesa . . . .
nervous(1.7), at ease (2.2)
nervous(1.9)
A janitorfinesa .
embarrassed
(1.8)
mad (2.2)
. . .
A . . .'s landlordevadeshim.
annoyed(2.1)
F furious(2.8). M: bitter(2.7)
A lawyertrustsa .
pleased(2.1)
pleased(2.3)
. . .
A libraryassistantneglectsa . . . .
annoyed(2. 1)
annoyed(2.2)
A lonermissesa . . . .
depressed(1.8), pleased (1 8)
contented
(1.8)
A maniacworshipsa . . . .
A neurotic
admonishes
a. . . .c
scared(2.5)
F: scared (2.6). M: nervous(2.1)
annoyed(1.6)
annoyed(2.0)
nervous(2.2)
A nightwatchman
questionsa . . . .
nervous(2.0)
A noviceidolizesa. . . .
proud (2.2)
proud (2.4)
A . . .'s parentdenouncesher/him.
ashamed(2.6)
ashamed(2.7)
A phonyrespectsa. . . .
A physicianlooksat a .
A pickpocketfollowsa .
.
. . .
no emotion
F: annoyed(1.6), proud(1.5). M- no emotion.
nervous(1.8), at ease (1.8)
F: nervous(2.0). M. nervous(2.2).
nervous(2.5)
nervous(2.7)
A proctorinspectsa. . . .
A prudebeseechesa. . . .for something.
nervous(2.0)
nervous(2.2)
annoyed(2.0)
annoyed(2.2)
A puritanadmonishesa . . . .
annoyed(1.7)
annoyed(2.1)
(continued)
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SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY
232
Table 1. (continued)
(. ..
:b
Reactive
Prescriptive:'
Event
You feel ...
Woman/man should feel . . .
= woman/man)
A pusheraddressesa ...
nervous(2.1)
.
F: nervous(2.8). M: annoyed(2.2)
pleased(2.0)
(1.8)
contented
proud (2.1)
proud (2.5)
A . . .'s siblinggovernsher/him
annoyed(1.9)
mad (2.3)
A sinner taunts a ...
annoyed (1.8)
annoyed (1.6)
A spinster
laughsat a . . . .
(1.8)
embarrassed
(2.3)
embarrassed
A . . .'s spouseogles her/him.
excited(2.7), furious(2.6)
a ...
A receptionist
accommodates
A scholar consults a ...
.
.
.
A stenographer
a.. . .
misunderstands
annoyed(1.6)
F: excited(2.7). M: excited(1.5),
contented
(2.0), mad (3.0).
(2.8)
F: annoyed(1.8). M: impatient
A . . .'s stepfather
quizzes her/him.
annoyed(2.1)
annoyed(2.5)
A stuffed
to a . . . .
shirtexplainssomething
annoyed(1.9)
(2.2)
impatient
A subordinate debates with a .
annoyed(1.7), calm
(2.0) excited(2.2)
annoyed(2.1)
nervous (1.8)
no emotion
A teetotalerwatches a .
. .
.
. . .c
A tightwad agrees with a .
. .
.
A vagrantidolizesa. . . .
A vigilante sentences a .
no emotion
no emotion
proud(1.8)
proud(2.0)
furious (2.7)
scared (2.6)
A . . . temptsan addict.
ashamed (2.7)
ashamed(2.4)
. .
.
A . . . dressesan alcoholic.
proud(2.1), ashamed(2.0)
F annoyed(2.1). M annoyed.
A . . . pampersher/his
apprentice.
pleased(1.9)
pleased(1.6)
A . . . consolesa beggar.
pleased(2.2)
unhappy(1.8)
A .. . cuddlesher/his
blind-date.
happy(2.2)
(2.4)
excited(2.7), contented
A . . . suspectsa bookkeeper.
annoyed(2.2)
nervous(2.2)
A . . . outwitsa bookworm.
proud(2.2)
proud(2.6)
A . . . compliments
her/his
boss.
contented
(2.0)
pleased(2 0)
A . . . parodiesa chaperon.
ashamed(1.8)
no emotion
her/her
A . . . intimidates
child.
ashamed (2.5)
ashamed(2.7)
A . . . shunsa coroner.
ashamed(2.0)
no emotion
a co-worker.
A . . . comforts
proud(2.1)
calm (2.2)
A . . . convictsa crook.
proud(2.5)
proud(2.5)
A . . . underestimates
a cutthroat.
scared(2.4)
nervous(2.1)
A . . . insultsa dimwit.
ashamed (2.3)
ashamed(1.7)
A . . . praysforan evildoer.
ashamed(2.6), proud(2.3)
ashamed(2 8), at ease (2 0)
A . . . silencesan expert.
proud(2.5)
F: embarrassed
(2 0). M proud(2.3)
A . . . avoidsa fanatic.
nervous(2.1), contented
(1.4)
annoyed(2.2)
A . . . desertsher/his
firstborn.
ashamed (2.8)
ashamed (2.8)
proud(2.2)
A . . . reveresa genius.
pleased(1.6)
A . . . fleesa gold-digger.
pleased(1.9)
no emotion
A. . . joshes a goody.c
happy(1.7), ashamed(1.8)
F: no emotion.M: happy(2 0)
A .. . hushesher/his
grandparent.
ashamed(2.1)
ashamed(2.2)
A . . . pestersa grind.c
ashamed(2. 1)
no emotion
A . . . rescuesa hero.
proud (2.6)
proud(2.8)
A . . . imitatesa hippie.
embarrassed(1.8), happy(1.6)
happy(1.8)
A . . . servesa houseguest.
at ease (1.5)
nervous(1.7), happy(1.7)
A . . . singsto an infant.c
happy (2.3)
happy(2.6)
A . . . seducesan innocent.
ashamed (2.7)
nervous(2.3)
A . . . discouragesan invalid.
ashamed (2.5)
ashamed(2.0)
A . . . apologizesto a judge.
ashamed(2. 1)
ashamed(2.7)
A . . . sitsnextto a killjoy.c
nervous(2.4)
annoyed(2.4)
A . . . submitsto her/his
lover.
happy(2 4)
excited(2 9)
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(continued)
EMOTION NORMS
233
Table 1. (continued)
Event
(.
Reactive:b
Prescriptive:'
= woman/man)
..
Woman/man should feel . . .
You feel ...
A . . . corrupts
a minister.
ashamed (2.6)
A . . . abandonsa mourner.
ashamed (2.4)
ashamed(2.3)
A . .. lies to a nursemaid.
ashamed (2.1)
ashamed(1.9)
A . .. ignoresan old fogy.
ashamed(1.6)
ashamed(1.8)
A . . . grievesforan orphan.
depressed(2.4)
unhappy(2.5)
A.
.
. chatters
to a palmreader.
A . . . reassuresa patient.
F: ashamed (2.6). M: ashamed(2.7)
nervous(1.8), at ease (1.4)
nervous(1.8)
pleased(2.1)
calm (2.0)
A . .. swindlesa pawnbroker.
ashamed(2.1)
nervous(2.2)
A . . . nuzzlesa porno-star.
excited(2.5)
F: nervous(2.6). M: excited(2.8).
A.
her/his
. flatters
professor.
pleased (1.9), ashamed(1.6)
pleased (1.9), nervous(1.9)
A . . . rehabilitates
a psychopath.
proud (2.4)
proud(2.7)
A . . . cautionsa pupil.
contented
(1.9), annoyed(1.6)
calm (1.6)
A . . . deridesa quack.c
proud(2.3), ashamed(2.0)
no emotion
A . . . bawlsouta registered
nurse.
ashamed(2.1)
furious(2.8)
A . . . contemplates
a rival.
nervous(2.0)
nervous(2.1)
A . . . challengesa rookiecop.
excited(2.0)
nervous(2.0)
A. . . saves a runaway.
proud (2.6)
proud(2.5)
A . . . monitors
a servant.
at ease (1.9)
no emotion
A . . . calmsa shrew.
calm (1.6)
calm (1.5), impatient
(1.8)
A . . . poisonsa spy.
ashamed(2.4)
F: nervous(2.6). M: nervous(2.8),
proud(2.3), joyless(2.0).
A . . . appealsto a statetrooper.
nervous(2.0)
nervous(2.4)
A . . . hecklesa streetmusician.
ashamed(2.3)
ashamed(2.0)
A . . . begs a supervisor
forsomething
embarrassed
(2.0)
embarrassed
(2.0)
A . . . studiesa surgeon
no emotion
excited(2.3)
A . . . nagsher/his
tenant.
annoyed(2.0)
impatient
(1.8)
A . . . enragesa thug.
scared(2,5)
scared(2.5)
A . . . defendsa tramp.
proud(2.0)
proud(1.8), ashamed(1.8)
A
unhappy(2.0)
F: unhappy(1.9) M- unhappy(1.7).
.
. . flunksa truant.
A . . . judgesa virgin
ashamed (2.2)
no emotion
A
proud(2.2)
F no emotion.M- no emotion.
proud(2.3)
nervous(2.0)
. . humblesa warden.
A . . . convertsa witch.
Notes: Bold = majoritynorm; underline = modal norm; plain text = diffusenorm; italics = conflictingnorms. F,
M precede female and male modes where distributionsdifferby sex.
a Ns: 88 females, 61 males.
b
Ns: 81 females, 44 males.
c Missing data for 15-23 percentof the subjects due to typographicalerrorson a prescription-norm
formin the case
of "sings to an infant"and "employer distrusts." The otheritems presumablywere skipped because some subjects did
not know the meanings of constituentwords.
emotionis listed with no underlining).In and Furious sectors.)Adding the cases of
thesecases, secondary
modes-emotionsthat congruousexpectationsto the modal cases,
werechosenat leasthalfas oftenas themodal we find 112 events-88 percent of the
choice-were in the same sector as the total-in whichan emotionnormprescribed
primary
mode,or else all modeswerein a set at least a diffuseaffective
tone.None of the
of sectorswithone sectoradjacentto therest.
modalnormsinvolvedlow arousal,butseven
(We treated"no emotion"as occupyingthe
middle of the affectivespace and thereby of thediffusenormscenteredon emotionsin
adjacentto all sectors;theEmbarrassed
sector theCalm or Unhappysectors.
Competing and incompatible emotion
as verticallyadjacentto the Unhappy,Annorms
arose in 16 events (12%). Some
noyed,and Furioussectors;and theNervous
sectoras vertically
adjacentto theAnnoyed examples show that these involve major
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234
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY
"How do you
variationsboth in hedonic tone and in eventand askedtherespondent
feelat thatmoment?"
activation:
shouldfeel
a subordinate
A persondebating
an Gender
dressing
A person
calm,orexcited;
annoyed,
Someshouldfeelproudorashamed;
alcoholic
effectforsex was produced
feelnervous A significant
should
bya physician
oneobserved
by a multivariate
analysis of variancefor
oratease.
frequency
of
use
of
the24 emotionwords,as
The promptelicitingprescriptionswas
"The woman/manshould feel . . .," and the a functionof sex and of the questionnaire
It formthatthe respondentanswered.Across
word "should" containssome ambiguity.
considwas supposed to be read in the sense of the 64 eventsthateach respondent
females
ered,
more
often
said
they
would
feel
been
read
as
"ought,"but also could have
"embarrassed,"
"scared,"
or
"ashamed,"
"would." Thus some of the incompatible
normsmay contrastwhat some respondents whilemalesmoreoftensaid theywouldfeel
thought
people oughtto feelwithwhatother "calm," "happy,"or "joyless."
For each event,we cross-tabulated
responpeopleprobablydo feel.
thought
respondents
dent's
with
the
sex
eight
sectors
on the
impliesthatone amonga
This interpretation
emotion
"no
A
spiral
plus
emotion."
lenient
to a
normswill correspond
set of conflicting
criterion
of
statistical
was
significance
fulreactivenorm.This is not always the case,
of thelikelihoodhowever (as one can see in Table 1 by filledwhentheprobability
of Pearthesecondcolumnwiththethird; ratiochi-squareand the probability
comparing
than
were
both
less
and
son's
chi-square
.10,
thethirdcolumnshowsreactivenorms).Thus
it is likelythatsome cases of incompatible when the probabilityassociated with one
in prescriptions. statisticwas less than.05. A morestringent
real conflicts
normsidentify
to be associrequiredbothstatistics
To summarize,we founda centralten- criterion
ated
with
less
than
.04.
probabilities
formostofthe
dencyinemotionprescriptions
difference
for81
events that we considered,but conflicting We foundno significant
the
data
24
of
for
events
percent
events,
but
normsappearedwithsomeevents.Prescribed
(19%)
met
the
first
criterion
of
significance,
included
circumstances
emotionsin various
emotions,states and datafor13 events(10%) metthesecond.
bothpleasantand unpleasant
are aboutdoublewhatmight
andemotionsof The percentages
ofarousalandof nonarousal,
be
expected
by
chance, an indicationthat
as well as emotionsof domivulnerability
differby sex for some
emotional
reactions
nance.
events.
Table
2
shows
eventsin whichsex
affective
"No emotion"was theprescribed
meet
the
differences
criterionof
stringent
statein six cases, 5 percentof thetotal.Yet
significance.
to
we absorbed"no emotion"as adjacent
in
otheremotionalstateswhendefiningdiffuse The firstthreeevents Table 2 suggest
that
females
more
than
males
are disposedto
norms,so the prevalenceof "no emotion"
when
a
trusted
otherrejects
or
rage
significant
choices is somewhathiddenin Table 1. In
mode,or them.The same patternemergesin "parent
fact,"no emotion"was theprimary
is not
thoughthesex difference
was chosen as least half as oftenas the denouncing,"
the
of
females
significant.
Similarly,
majority
mode in 18 percentof the events.
primnary
These "no-emotionevents" are affectivelyrespondedin theFurioussectorto a "housethoughin thiscase the
neutralas comparedwithotherevents,in part keeperblackmailing,"
did
so
as well.
of
males
majority
because some respondentsprescribedno
The
five
events
in Table 2 can be
next
affective
stateand
emotionas theappropriate
the
in social
viewed
as
implicating
respondent
of
the
in partbecause the rest
respondents
In
of
another
or
of
self.
these
ruination
cases,
tendedto prescribelow emotionalintensity.
more
than
females
are
males
to
likely
report
The numberof "no-emotion"choicescorrein
the
A
emotions
Embarrassed
sector.
similar
lates with the average intensityfor other
patternfor "humblinga warden" also is
choices, r= - .63.
significant
by our less stringent
significance
criterion.
RESULTS FOR REACTIVE NORMS
The eventsin Table 2 involving"critic,"
This sectionreportsresultsforstimulithat "bellhop,"and "bisexualmale" suggestthat
in an malesmorethanfemalesmaybe disposedto
involvedtherespondent
hypothetically
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EMOTION NORMS
235
in EmotionalReactions
Sex Differences
Table 2. EventswithSignificant
SectorsSelectedMoreOftenby
Event
Females
Males
Your employer
distrusts
you.
Furious. ..
Annoyed. . .; Nervous...
Your landlordis evadingyou.
Furious. . .; Nervous...
Unhappy...
A girlis rebellingagainstyou.
Furious. . ; Annoyed. . .
Unhappy. . .; Embarrassesed
. . .; Calm ...
You're corrupting
a minister.
.. .
Embarrassed
Unhappy. . .; No emotion
You're silencingan expert.
. . .; Nervous. . .; No emotion
Embarrassed
Pleased .
You're poisoninga spy.
Embarrassed
...
Pleased . . .; Calm ...
Furious. . .
.; Excited...
The devilis inspiring
you.
Embarrassed
...
A criticis ridiculing
you.
.. .
Embarrassed
A bellhopdisrespects
you.
No emotion;Nervous. ..
Furious. . .; Annoyed. . ; Unhappy. ..
A bisexualmale embracesyou.
Calm . . .
Furious. . .
Nervous...
Annoyed. . .; Unhappy. ..
Your spouseis oglingyou.
Excited. . .; Annoyed. . .
Nervous. . .; Calm . . .
You're nuzzlinga porno-star.
Annoyed. . .; Nervous. . .
Excited. . .
A phonyrespectsyou.
Pleased . . .
No emotion
dominanceemotionswhen threatened
by a object of the hypothetical
action. No sex
socially distantcharacter."Evangelistcon- factorwas significant
in a maineffector an
demning"showsthepattern
andis significant interaction.However, we also averaged
criterion."Vigilante respondents'Pleasure,Arousal, and Domiby our less stringent
sentencing"also shows the pattern,though nance over the 64 events to which they
the sex difference
is not significant.
On the responded,and thenconductedan analysisof
other hand, the sexes do not differin varianceof individualswithrespondents'
sex
dominanceemotionsfor "bailsmanexploit- and questionnaireformas factors.In this
ing," "bouncerevicting,"and "disciplinarian case, respondent'ssex significantly
infludoubting."Moreover,femalesshow signifi- enced Pleasure, Arousal, and Dominance.
cantlymoredominanceemotionsfor "spin- Overall,femalesemotedmorenegatively
than
sterlaughingat," by ourlessercriterion.
males, with more arousal, and with more
The items"spouseogling"and "nuzzlinga vulnerability.
The differencebetween the
porno-star"
suggestthatmales' and females' resultsof these two analyses implies that
emotional reactions are differentiated
in differences
in emotional
responsebetweenthe
sexualevents.Sexual matters,
however,also sexes are smallerthanvariationsin emotion
areintimated
in eventsinvolving"bigamist," inducedby different
events,but thatthese
"blind-date,""innocent,""lover," "prude," differences
betweenthe sexes are an impor"puritan,""virgin," and "chaperon," but tantcomponentof individualdifferences
in
onlythe last revealsgenderdifferences
that emotionality.
are significant
by ourless stringent
criterion. We foundno evidencethatmalesare more
Lackinga generalization,
we simplynotethat disposed to "outer-directed"
emotions of
manymaleswereflabbergasted
at thethought angerand contempt.For males and females
of beingogled (aboutone-third
of themales separately,
we dichotomized
eventsintothose
skippedthe item), and manyfemaleswere for which the modal responsewas in the
of nuzzlinga porno Annoyedor Furioussectorversuselsewhere,
disgustedby thethought
star.
and thencross-tabulated
thisdichotomy
with
We quantifiedPleasure, Arousal, and sex and with whetherthe respondentwas
Dominanceas describedin the sectionon actoror objectin thehypothetical
events.No
prescriptive
normsand conductedan analysis significant
interaction
appearedin thetable.
of varianceof the mean scores for all 128
The intensity
ofemotionalreactions
didnot
events, in a factorialdesign that varied differby sex. For each event, we crosswhetherthe subsampleof respondentsfor tabulatedrespondent'ssex with our four
computingmeans was male or female,and levels of intensity,
ignoringqualityof emowhethertherespondent
was the actoror the tion.A sex difference
was significant
in eight
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SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY
236
tables by our lenientcriterionand in five
tables by our stringentcriterion.These
resultsare no more
numbersof significant
thanwouldbe expectedby chance.We also
over the64 events
computedmean intensity
andthenconducted
to a respondent,
presented
an analysisof varianceof individuals,with
formas
respondent'ssex and questionnaire
sex was notrelated
factors.The respondent's
to the average intensityof
significantly
emotionalresponses.
emotionalreactionoccurredwith19 percent
oftheevents.Sex differences
wereimplicated
in two-thirds
of theconflicting
norms;eight
events(6%) involveddifferences
in emotional
reactionthatwere not associatedwith sex
differences.
Respondentsconvergedon a responseof
"no emotion"for12 events,or 9 percentof
thetotal.
DISCUSSION
Our student-based
questionnaire
studywas
an economicalformof researchsuitedto the
natureof this work. Studiesof
Combiningfemalewithmale respondents, exploratory
we tabulatedthe numberof times each diversepopulations,
however,based on both
specificemotionwas selectedforeach of the questionnairesand systematicobservations
128 eventsand computedchi-squaresto test willbe neededto deepenthestudyofemotion
whetherthe 24 emotiontermsplus the "no norms. Some studies should explore the
emotion"categorywereequallylikelyto be consequences of presentingevents with
populachosenas a wayoffeelingin each event.The knownrelevanceto the respondent
thateach emotionstatewas tion,and of describingthe eventsin greater
nullhypothesis,
was detail than we did so as to narrowthe
chosenby about1/25of therespondents,
The invocationof prescriprejectedat thep ' .04 level of significance interpretations.
foreveryone of the 128 events(actuallythe tions and emotional reactions should be
wordingof questionis less than.01 foreveryevent). examinedwithdifferent
probability
Thus reactivenormsof emotiondo exist. naireprompts(e.g., usingoughtratherthan
OtheremoRespondents'emotionalreactionsconverged should to evoke prescriptions).
instruments
also should be
at above-chancelevels,despitesome signifi- tion-recording
employed-such as the Affect Grid of
differences.
cantfemale-male
ofthedataon reactivenormsare Russell,Weiss,andMendelsohn(1989) or,in
Highlights
studies,theFacial ActionCodsummarizedin the right-handcolumn of observational
Table 1. Majoritynorms, modal norms, ingsystemof Ekmanand Friesen(1978).
Respondentsin bothof our studieschose
diffusenorms, and conflictingnorms are
definedin the same manneras prescriptivediverseemotionsin responseto manystimuli.
for
coefficients
italics,and We computedco-occurrence
norms,and theuse of underline,
boldfaceare thesame as definedpreviously. theemotionchoicesacrossall stimuli,applied
multidimensional
scaling,and esIn addition, the norm for each sex is nonmetric
presentedseparatelywhereverfemales' and sentiallyreproducedtheemotioncircumplex
differ
(Fisheret al. 1985; MacKinnonand Keating
males' distributions
significantly.
In 11 events,a majorityof respondents 1989; Morganand Heise 1988; Russell1980;
convergedon a singleoption.In another29, 1983) in each study.This outcomemightbe
was used to
was morethantwicethe expectedbecausethecircumplex
themodalfrequency
ourdatacollectioninstrument,
butthe
frequencyof any otherchoice. These un- format
demonstrated
thatalterequivocal reactivenorms occurredfor 31 analysesnonetheless
percentof all events.In another56 events, native choices of emotionconnotesimilar
in our studiesas in
modesand secondarymodeswerecongruous Pleasureand Activation,
in affective
tone. Addingtheseto themodal others(Russell1989). The varietyof emotion
norms,we find 75 percentof the events specificationsspreading from the modal
Gordon's (1990:164)
producingemotionreactionswithat least a categorycorroborated
diffuselydefinedaffectivetone. Moreover, observation:"Emotion norms prescribea
the normsfor both sexes were identicalin range of permissiblefeeling,not a precise
eightof the 24 eventsinvolvingsignificant point."
so a
The scaling analyses showed that the
gender differencesin distributions,
depictedin Figure 1
sharedreactionnormactuallyoccurredfor81 measuringinstrument
normsof can be improvedin futurestudies. The
percentof all events.Conflicting
ReactiveEmotionNorms
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EMOTION NORMS
237
emotion "scared" actually belongs in the the eventsthe reactivenormis the same as
Nervoussectorbecause"scared"is employed one of the options in a prescriptive-norm
congruouslywith "nervous." ("Scared" conflict;thuspeople's reactionsagree with
could replace "impatient,"whichwas used what some people thinkis appropriate.In
in the prescrip- another12 percent,one of several modal
infrequently
by respondents
tive norms study and which was used reactionsagreeswitha prescriptive
norm.On
with"annoyed"in thereactive theotherhand,in 45 percentof theeventswe
congruously
normsstudy."Crushed"wouldbe an appro- finda discrepancy
betweenemotionprescripfor"scared"in theEmbar- tionsand emotionalreactions.
priatereplacement
rassedsector.)
These resultscan be viewed fromtwo
thatthereis muchto learnfrom perspectives.First,people do not need to
Granting
infor- workto bringtheiremotionsintoline with
subsequent
studies,we now summarize
in everysocial situation;somemationgainedfromthisone.
expectations
timestheyare disposedto feelwhattheyare
supposedto feel. Thus theneed foremotion
TheExistenceofEmotionNorms
workis bounded.
Second,people sometimes
have emotional
Prescriptive
emotionnormsexistforall of
the social events we sampled. The norms reactionsthatmustbe maskedand overidden
emotionnorms.
on a specificemotion in deferenceto prescriptive
focus formulaically
arisein a varietyof social
the
time and on diffuse Such predicaments
about one-third
of
so demandsforemotionworkgo
conflict situations,
affective
statesotherwise.Normative
ratherthan normlessnesscharacterizesthe far beyond the commercializedemotional
relativelyfew events showing a lack of labor that has been the focus of research
centraltendencyin emotion expectations. literature.
Because our sampleof eventssystematically Many of the discrepanciesbetweenpreandreactionsthatappearin Table 1
variedkindsof interactants,
kindsof interper- scriptions
thatemotionwork
sonalbehaviors,and institutional
affiliations,arenotlarge,an indication
we concludethatemotionality
is normativelyoften is not arduous. Consider a person
regulatedin virtuallyall social encounters assistedby a flightattendant.The reactive
normin thiscase is to feelcontented,
butthe
withinAmericanmiddle-class
culture.
Reactiveemotionnormsalso existforall of prescribednorm is to feel pleased. The
the social events we sampled. That is, passengerwould like to sighand settleback
respondents'emotionsconvergedon modal in her seat witha faintsmile,but she feels
alertlywitha
responsesas therespondents
imaginedthem- obligatedto face theattendant
selves in particularencounters.Even when broadsmileor a grinand somesparklein her
the responsesdid not convergeon a single eyes-a little extra activation until the
moveson.
emotionalstate,theyconcentrated
on several attendant
Six eventsin oursampleinvolvediscrepandifferent
modes ratherthan being random.
fromone pole of
Consequentlywe conclude that particular cies thatrequirewrenching
social circumstances
tendto producespecific an emotionalstateto another.Four of these
emotions,as postulated
by social automatism involvetakingan attitudeof dominanceor
theorieswithinthesociologyof emotions.4 submissionwhen one feels the opposite
("dropout manipulates," "evangelist condemns,""vigilantesentences,"and "bawling
Prescriptive-Reactive
Discrepancies
out a registerednurse"). "Consoling a
Prescriptive
emotionnormsand reactive beggar" in the presence of an observer
emotionnormsare identicalin 38 percentof requiresforgoingempathicunhappinessin
theeventsin Table 1. In another5 percentof orderto seempleasedwithone's opportunity
to be magnanimous.
"Servinga houseguest"
4 A reviewerraisedthe possibility
thatnormsmight requirespeoplewho are disposedto nervoushave emergedbecause respondents
triedto be helpful. ness in such a situationto suppresstheir
The clarityof the normativestructures
in bothstudies feelingsin orderto give the impression
of
suggeststhateven if respondents
weremakingan effort beingatease. The lowproportion
ofsituations
to giveanswersa sociologistwouldwant,theymusthave
been relyingon normativeinformation
when they requiringstrenuousemotionwork suggests
are organized
generally
guessed the "right" answers. Thus the conclusion thatsocial definitions
remains:ubiquitousemotionnormsexist.
so as to precludesuch work. Demands for
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238
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY
strenuous
emotionworkarise,however;they
may arise morefrequently
thanis suggested
by our study,because we sampledeventsto
represent
a broadrangeof thingsthatcould
occurratherthanto reflectthefrequencies
of
everyday
happenings.
The sex differences
in emotionalreactions
could be due to femaleand male differences
in emotionality,
conceivablywitha chromosomal basis. Yet if one assumesthatemotionalreactionsemergewhileone participates
in social events, as proposed by social
automatismtheoriesof emotion (Kemper
1978; Smith-Lovin1990), then the differGenderDifferences
ences in emotionalreactionswouldoriginate
Prescribed
emotionswerenota function
of in the differencesbetween females' and
whether
thefocalcharacter
was a womanor a males' social structuralpositions within
man, or whetherrespondents
were male or events, or in differencesin socialization
female. Our respondents-bothmale and backgrounds
thatlead to different
interpretafemale-prescribedstereotypically
"female" tionsof events.We offeredseveralconjecemotionsfor a man just as oftenas for a turesaboutthekindsof eventsthatgenerate
woman,and theyprescribedstereotypicallysex differences:
1) femalesmorethanmales
"male" emotionsfora womanjustas oftenas are disposedto rage when a significant
or
fora man.We obtainedthesameresultswhen trustedotherrejectsthem;2) in ruination
of
we selectedthe mosttraditional
respondents selfor of other,femalesmorethanmalesare
and analyzedonly theirdata. Because the prone to intropunitive
emotions;3) males
in thisstudy,mostlyage 20 or more than females may be disposed to
respondents
more, are representative
of people who dominanceemotionswhen threatened
by a
promulgate
normsin our society,theresults sociallydistantother.
verylikelydescribetheprescriptive
normsof
Ourrespondents
expectedmoreintensity
of
emotionthatregulatethefeelingsof Ameri- emotionfromfemales,especiallyin interaccan middle-class
youngadults.
tionwithdisvaluedothers,butthatprescripThus we foundno evidencethatemotion tiondid not correspond
to reactions.On the
culturesseparatemen'sand women'squalita- average,femalesand males recordingtheir
tivefeelingsbyprescribing
different
emotions ownfeelingsdidnotdiffer
in intensity.
Brody
for the sexes. In fact, prescriptive
norms and Hall (1993:449) reportedthat "the
inhibitgender differencesin emotionsby finding
of generally
greateraffectintensity
in
callingforthesamefeelingsfrombothsexes. femalesis well established,"but our results
A different
storyabout genderdeveloped suggestthatfuturestudiesshoulddistinguish
fromthe analyses of emotionalreactions, carefullybetween expectationsand actual
wheresignificant
sex differences
occurredfor experience.
19 percentof the events in our sample.
Females more than males describedtheir
PrescribedEmotionalNeutrality
feelingsin termsof thestereotypically
female
emotions, "embarrassed," "scared," or
If secondarysocial relationships
are more
"ashamed,"and femalesemotedoverallwith affectively
neutralthanprimary
relationships,
somewhatmore displeasure,arousal, and thenprescriptions
to feel no emotionshould
vulnerability.This finding accords with be concentrated
in academic,business,jusBrodyand Hall's (1993) generalization
that tice, and medicalrelationships,
whileoccurfemalesare moreinclinedtowardintropuni-ring rarelyin familyor intimacyrelationtive affects.Males more often said they ships.(Religiousandlaityrelationships
might
would feel "calm," "happy,"or "joyless." be eitherprimary
or secondary,so we make
The relativepositivityof the male prefer- no prediction
in thesecases.) We estimated
a
ences perhapsreflectsthe Brody and Hall log-linearmodelforeach typeof relationship
thatmalesshowmorepridein to see whether
generalization
itinvolvedan unusualnumber
theself.Contrary
to Brodyand Hall's report, of eventswithno-emotion
prescriptions.
however,males were not moredisposedto
The number
ofno-emotion
normswas what
male "outer-directed"
emo- mightbe expectedfor academic, business,
stereotypically
tions of anger and contempt.Indeed, we family,intimacy,
and laityevents,in viewof
foundsituations
inwhichfemalesexperienced the numberof eventsinvolvingeach such
thesedominanceemotionsmorestrongly
than relationship
and the totalnumberof events
males.
withno-emotion
norms.Unusuallyfew no-
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EMOTION NORMS
239
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David R. Heise, RudyProfessorofSociologyat Indiana University,
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