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C ha p t er 9 : Fo re s try in N e wf o un d lan d an d Labr ad o r
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
Role of forest ecosystem in the biosphere
Types of global forests
Forest regions of Canada
Forest values
Boreal Forest characteristics
Forest usage
Ecological succession
Characteristics of old growth forest in Newfoundland and Labrador
Challenges to old growth forests – preservations versus harvesting
Suggested Activities
BLMs
Mini-Lab Activity: Forest Values Mapping
9 – 1 Examples of Products made from Wooddervied Chemicals
Mini- Lab Activity: Trends in Gray-cheeked
Thrush Populations
9 – 2 Forest Values Mapping Worksheet
Case Study: Maintaining secondary mature
forest in the Avalon forest
9 – 3 Sample Forest Values Map
9 – 4 North American Forest Types
Notes
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Chapter Overview
In chapter 9 students will take a closer look at the forests of Newfoundland and Labrador. Forest
ecosystems have shaped our culture and economy for hundreds of years and continue to bolster
our social fabric. Historically speaking, the connection to our forests includes practices of
sustenance and necessity where our very survival as a people was dictated by our ability to utilize
our forest resources. Today, our forests play a dual role. The cultural connection is certainly as
strong as ever and the forests provide significant recreational value (as discussed in Unit 2).
This chapter looks at the Boreal forest from a global and local perspective with a specific focus
on human use, personal values, and the diversity and dynamics of the Earth’s largest biome. This
chapter will give students the opportunity to begin to look at the possible impact of forest use on a
specific group of animals, the forest birds, and to look at the conflicts that arise when public and
industry forest values clash.
The term ‘value’ was introduced in Chapter 6 and in this chapter students will have the
opportunity to link or map their forest values with a place with which they are familiar. This
activity is powerful and results may vary depending where your students live. Expect exciting and
emotional discussion from students who live in rural settings and see the forest as their play
ground. Urban students may not have this connection. In this case, you might choose to map their
forest values to a local park. The key point here is respecting individual values.
Key Terminology
Biomass
Boreal Forest
Frontier Forest
Gap Replacement
Indicator Species
Intact Forest
Old Growth Forest
Wet Boreal Fores
Teaching Suggestions and Strategies
Most schools and communities are within
I
f there is a boreal forest adjacent to the
school or within a short walking distance,
consider bringing your students out for a
class and doing the following short activity
with them:
a stone’s throw of the Boral forest. You
might expect your students to be familiar
with the working of the earth’s largest
biome, but they are not. Rural students see
the boreal forest as the place to hunt, fish,
cut firewood, and snare rabbits. Urban
students may not have ventured into the
forest or may have only experienced the
forest in a park setting. The boreal forest has
been referred to as the ‘ugly duckling
forest’. There are more books, TV shows,
resources, and story books available on the
tropical rain forest and therefore students
know more about this forest than the boreal
forest! They do, however, know what comes
from the forest. Ask them how we use the
forest and classify those uses as economic or
cultural. Refer to BLM 9-1
•
•
156
Ask them to list five unique things
about the forest that they see around
them.
Then ask how they would view this
forest if they were:
ƒ The owner of a saw mill
ƒ An artist
ƒ A photographer
ƒ The owner of Corner Brook
Pulp and Paper
ƒ An employee of Terra Nova
National Park of Canada
•
and Labrador. This could be included in their
portfolio.
Follow this with the following
question. Because each of these
people view the forest differently,
should one view carry a greater
weight than the other? Students will
say no. Reintroduce the term value
and remind your students that
respecting values is an important
component of modern day resource
management.
•
Ask them how they use the forest,
including urban forests. This is a
lead in to the ‘Forest Values
Mapping’ activity later in the
chapter.
•
If you have an opportunity, bring
along a Conservation Officer and
have them spend a few minutes
introducing students to the diversity
of the boreal forest. Use the one
page forest field trip as a guide for
this activity found as a BLM in this
resource.
Teachers could further a discussion about
values by asking students to brainstorm the
different ways they think a forest ecosystem
can be maintained. Students should be
divided into groups of three or four for this
activity. Each group would report back to
the class. The teacher could then introduce
the concepts of silviculture, urban forests
and trail developments locally, provincially
and internationally. Using the ideas
generated by the students, the teacher could
then help the students classify their ideas
under each of these concepts. The main
emphasis
here
should
be
toward
understanding the human efforts that
recognize the merits of sustaining our forests
both in our province and globally. Students
could complete the case study “Forest
Values” from Futures From Forests
Resources.
The
Forest Values Mapping activity is
important since students will learn that
individuals value the same thing but in
different ways and that management of the
forest, park, or the urban forest has to be
done in a way that values are protected. At
the same time individual stakeholders will
have to realize that they may have to give a
little to protect their values and to respect
others.
Ask students how we use the forest and
categorize them as ecological, cultural, or
economic uses.
Teachers could have students brainstorm
about the values of the boreal forest. The
teacher could write each of the student’s
suggestions on the board in random order.
Students could then be asked to take the
list the class has generated and to classify
them under one of the three headings
(economic, ecological, and social).
The Forest Values Mapping activity is
powerful because it connects students with
their local forest. This activity may have to
be modified for an urban setting. Some
suggestions are:
Teachers could have students think about
the three values that we can put on a forest
ecosystem and to choose the one they see as
most important. Following the Think-PairShare approach, students could then partner
with a student next to them and explain
which they think is most important. Students
could then make a journal entry about which
of the three is the most valuable and the most
important to the citizens of Newfoundland
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•
Focus on a park (i.e. Bowering
Park) or section of a trail way.
•
Focus on the Urban Forest by
choosing a section of the community
where there are trees and natural
green areas.
Hemisphere.
Imagine
yourself
flying across Newfoundland and
Labrador, westward over northern
Canada, on to Russia and Northern
Europe, across a carpet, as far as the
eye can see!
Do
not spend too much time on boreal
forest facts. Students should leave this
chapter with the understanding that the
boreal forest is the largest forest biome and
we depend on it for many things.
Newfoundland and Labrador, for the most
part, lies in the boreal forest and, despite
what they see, the boreal forest is a diverse
and magical place. Finally they should see
that the boreal forest is a dynamic living
thing.
Teachers should emphasize that physical and
geographical features determine the
characteristics of a ecosystem (i.e. latitude,
temperature, rainfall, etc.). It is important to
remember that the boreal forest ecosystem
has many plants and animals with specific
adaptations to these characteristics. Teachers
could point out that the plants and animals
adapted to living in the boreal forest would
not necessarily be able to survive in a
different forest area (and vice versa). If
global changes occur (e.g. increased
temperature) this could threaten the
existence of the boreal forest).
The
following guided imaginary exercise might
be used to drive this home and is best done
outdoors. Use the Future from Forests Power
Point “Forest Ecology” to cover basic boreal
forest ecology.
•
In distance you see a fire, and then
another. Flashing and then dying
out, the large burnt black scar
turning slowing into green as the
forest regenerates. To your left, an
insect infestation sweeping across
the landscape and disappearing
again as new trees replace the fallen
ones. The forest is like a skin,
damaged and quickly repaired again.
•
Now let’s speed things up. Fires
sweeping across the landscape,
dying and new forest growing up in
a flash. Harvesting in a blink, a
swath of forest is cut down and
grows up in a moment. Insect
infestations spreading across eastern
Canada, on to the island of
Newfoundland, then Fogo Island, all
in a moment.
•
You’re in forest time now. 10,000
years flashing before you. The tree
line moving north, and then south,
then north again, adjusting to the
global climate. Fires, insects, wind
blowing down trees in the forest;
scars appearing and healing before
you. That’s the boreal forest on
boreal forest time. A scar takes 60 80 years to heal, a moment for a
forest, a life time for us. That’s a
hard thing for us to swallow. But
then our time and boreal forest time
are different.
Getting to Know Forest Time
Have students close their eyes. Wait for 2
minutes until they relax. Then say the
following:
•
Imagine a green carpet rolled out
before you, as far as the eye can see.
The carpet is rolled out over hills,
around lakes and rivers, and on to
the horizon.
•
Look closely. The carpet is a forest,
see the tree tops, the open spaces,
bogs and wetlands. This is the
boreal forest, the largest biome on
the planet, encircling the Northern
Begin
covering the boreal forests of
Newfoundland and Labrador by referring to
a map, students should be able to locate the
general distribution of the boreal forest
within the province of Newfoundland and
Labrador. Students could brainstorm about
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the common features of the boreal forest and
relate to their own experiences. (In
particular, students could compare and
contrast the types of flora and fauna in the
global boreal forest.)Teachers could
highlight the varying uses of the forests in
our province. Students could generate a list
of uses they are familiar with as a means of
beginning this topic. Since there are many
alternate uses, the list of uses should not be
limited to those in the outcome. This will be
further covered through the activity
“Domestic Use Survey”.
the coastal tuckamore forest. These abiotic
factors have greatly modified the shape and
growth of trees in this forest.
There are many plant and animal species
that makes the boreal forest their home.
Teachers could have students read the Enviro-
Students
should be familiar with the
dominate conifers of Newfoundland and
Labrador. Show pictures and a branch from
the two dominant conifers, black spruce and
balsam fir. A quick test to distinguish
between the two is to roll a needle between
your fingers. The differences are outlined
below.
focus “The Plight of Borel Birds” and the
mini Lab Activity “Trends in Grey-cheeked
Thrush Population”. The Enviro-Focus on
page 268 of the student text provides an
opportunity to look at the relationship
between boreal habitat and a variety of bird
species. Some students prefer to analyze
data in a graphical format. Ask one of your
students to enter the data on page 271 of the
text into a spreadsheet and produce a line
graph.
Succession in the boreal forest is driven by
The trees of the boreal forest are adapted to
fire, insect, and wind related events. Explain
to your students that although the visual
impacts are hard for us to handle and are
long lasting, they are natural elements of the
boreal forest biome.
harsh environment. A visit to a tuckamore
forest or the Tablelands in Gros Morne
National Park of Canada will drive this point
home to your students. The tuckamore forest
is an ideal site to study the variation in light
intensity, canopy cover, wind direction and
intensity, and air and soil temperatures on
If there is a recent forest fire, cut over, blow
down, or a site where members of the
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community are harvesting firewood nearby
then bring you students and have them
document as much evidence as they can find
of succession with their digital cameras.
Teachers could have students access the
Natural Resources Canada Website for a
map of old growth forest locations and
photos of old growth forests across Canada.
Have them also shoot a series of ground
images as they walk from the disturbance
into the undisturbed forest. Post a set of
these images in series along with a selection
of the other images on the classroom wall.
This is a great activity to capture
“succession”. Another option is to have a
student do this as a project and present the
images as a power point presentation.
Students should recognize that a primary old
growth forest has not been directly
influenced by human activity, whereas
secondary old growth forests show signs of
recovering from some disturbance. Students
will have encountered the concept of
succession in previous science courses and
they should apply this concept in this case to
understand how old growth forest can
develop, given time, from disturbances. Use
Futures from Forests Power Point “Old
Growth Forests”.
B
egin the topic of the old growth forest by
asking students what an old growth forest is
and the characteristics of an old growth
forest. Most students’ perceptions of an old
growth forest is a forest of tall trees but that
is not the case. If there is a peat bog nearby
and you have an ‘aged’ tree there, then
perhaps this is an example of an old growth
forest in their own back yard. Review the
characteristics and values of the old growth
forest.
Point
out that the necessary balance
between biodiversity maintenance and
sustainable resource development face
unique challenges when dealing with old
growth forest. Two case studies can be used
to highlight the challenges.
Students are well aware of what happens
when values clash. They see it every day
and there are daily examples in the media.
Begin by asking students to give you a few
examples from their community and then the
province. From here, move into the Case
Study: Logging the Main River on page
279 of the student text. It is not important
for students to remember dates or specific
events in this conflict. What is important is
that they are able to identify the different
values that are in conflict, the time required
to resolve them, and to reach consensus. To
date, because of costs associated with
selective harvesting and transportation, the
area has yet to be harvested!
Although there is no specific accepted
definition of old growth forests, there are
characteristics that distinguish old growth
forests from mature forests. Specifically, they
are recognized by the absence of recent natural
or human disturbance. Using a map of
Newfoundland and Labrador, students could
be asked to identify areas which they feel
might be classified as “old growth forest”.
Teachers could reference the importance of
forestry to the economy of Newfoundland and
Labrador and the fact that there are now very
few true, old growth forests in Newfoundland
and Labrador as a result of forestry activities.
Extension
When delivering this chapter to students in
aboriginal communities, you might begin by
inviting an elder into the class to share with
the students their cultures’ view of the
forest.
Guest Speaker
Forest and culture are intimately entwined.
Our aboriginal peoples have a more intimate
and spiritual relationship with the boreal
forest than people of European descent.
160
questions and answers on the classroom
wall.
Field Trip
It is impossible to give your students a
complete understanding and appreciation of
the ecology of the boreal forest. However, it
only takes one question to spark a life time
of interest and research. If you have the
opportunity, take your students or have
someone lead them on a boreal forest field
trip. Give each student an index card before
they leave. During the field trip, have them
write one question based on what they have
seen. How, what, when, why are the types of
questions they should be looking for. Upon
returning to class, collect the cards, shuffle
them and randomly pass a card to each
student. Next time you are in the computer
lab, give students 10 minutes to find the
answer to their question. Have them post the
Schoolyard activity
Succession in the school yard: there is an
easy way to understand succession. Run a
line from the edge of the schoolyard into a
wooded area. Select one schoolyard plant (a
grass for example) and one forest plant (a
forest floor plant or trees species). Walk into
the forest. At every 50 cm interval along the
string, lay down a meter stick perpendicular
to the line. Record the number of grasses
that touch the meter stick. Repeat this
activity as you walk out of the forest. At
every 50 cm interval, record the number of
forest species you chose to identity. Graph
and account for your results.
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Answers to Questions
Check Your Understanding (Page 253)
1. The ecological values of forests are:
• Habitat for animals
• Carbon storage and cycling
• Water retention and runoff control
• Soil stability
These values, along with the forest’s ability to produce oxygen, are essential for sustaining
life in the boreal forest.
2. Students’ lists will vary. Remind students that there are many products that are derived from
wood. A more typical list of possible products and materials might include chairs, paper,
pencils, products made from engineered wood such as particle board in furniture, ceiling tiles
etc. A list of chemical products derived from wood are found as a BLM on page ------ of the
teacher resource.
3. All global ecosystems, including the world’s forests, are facing pressures from the harvesting
of wood fiber for construction and paper production and the loss of forest land from the
clearing for cattle raising, farm land, and housing.
4. Some of the challenges facing forest managers include maintaining and sustaining a wood
fiber supply for the pulp and paper industry and saw logs for the sawmill sector, preserving
old growth forests and protecting mature forest against insect, disease, and fire threats while
at the same time meeting the needs of the domestic user for fire wood and recreation.
5. The answer to this question will vary depending where the student lives. Rural students may
depend on the forest for jobs, fire wood and their main source of recreation. On the other
hand, urban students may only see the forest as a ‘park’ or a place to cut Christmas trees.
For Further Discussion and/or Research (page 253)
6. Ways that global forests support the planet include climate control, carbon cycling, water
cycling, habitat, and producers. Students could do some research on the Internet and prepare
a brief PowerPoint presentation using the Smart Board or cut and paste text and images to
make a poster on one of those topics.
7. Research topics will vary. Encourage students to do preliminary research to identity timely
issues.
8. To assist students, you may consider identifying categories of products and assign a group of
students to focus on those only. Categories might include:
•
Solid wood products
154
•
•
•
•
•
•
Products made from wood
Non-wood and non-paper products
Wood derived chemicals
Bio-medicals
Products made from wood based paper
Bio-renewables
Check Your Understanding (Page 256)
1. The dominant forest type in Newfoundland and Labrador is the coniferous forest. The two
dominant forest tree types include balsam fir forest and black spruce forest.
2. Students may want to refer back to the results they obtained doing Mini-Lab Activity: Local
Participation Rates in Outdoor Activities (page 167) as most activities identified take
place in or around the forest. Some of the activities include hunting, fishing, trapping, berry
picking, wood cutting, hiking, and skiing.
3. Newfoundland and Labrador lies in the boreal forest, the largest biome on the planet. The
boreal forest is also referred to as taiga or coniferous forest.
For Further Discussion and/or Research (Page 256)
4. A paragraph on the Boreal forest biome should include characteristics pertaining to climate,
flora, and fauna.
Check Your Understanding (Page 257)
1. Natural Resources Canada (NRCAN) publishes an annual report on the State of Canada’s
Forests. Since the early 2000’s, the face of Canada’s forest has been changing. Students
should be encouraged to consult this document to help them answer this question. Generally
the economic value is derived from industry (pulp and paper, fuel, lumber, and food) and
tourism (hunting, bird watching, eco-hiking, and green spaces).
2. A value is a belief that holds personal significance. Forest values could be aesthetic, for
example, a painter’s perspective, recreational like hiking and hunting, cultural like cutting
Christmas trees, spiritual like indigenous peoples’ beliefs, economic like forest employment,
etc.
3. The economic values of a forest would be easier to recognize because there are means by
which monetary value can be calculated for forest products. Aesthetic value, because of its
subjective nature, would be much harder to recognize. It would depend on the perspective of
the person doing the valuing.
4. Change in smaller measures is easier to identify. Smaller measures are easier to quantify,
easier to grasp and understand (less complex) and do not encapsulate the bigger picture and
interconnectedness of forest values.
5. Students might consider interviewing their parents or grandparents. Student responses will
vary.
155
For Further Discussion and/or Research (Page 257)
6. Students might consider capturing the interviews on video and editing them into a 10 minute
video. Another approach is to take a black and white photo (colour converted to B/W using
editing software) and next to the photo transcribe the key points of the interview.
7. Student responses will vary. For example, students might select southern Labrador which has
a similar forest region as the island of Newfoundland, but less industrial disturbance to the
forest. Here trapping may play a significant role. Local residents would want to maintain the
forest rather than cut it for forest products like lumber.
Check Your Understanding (Page 272)
1. Characteristics of the Boreal forest include slow growth, least amount of biodiversity, coldest,
largest, and poorest soil conditions.
2. The Boreal Forest is circumpolar. It covers 8% of Earth’s landmass and contains 26% of the
world’s closed crown forests. In Canada, 50% of the country is covered in Boreal forest.
For Further Discussion and/or Research (Page 272)
3. Like all boreal forest species, the conifers of the boreal forest are adapted to its ‘harsh’
environment. Some of these adaptations include downward pointing branches which help
with shedding heavy winter snow loads, a dark green colour which captures the lowest light
levels for photosynthesis, and wax coated needle leaves which have less surface area and
helps to conserve water. Damage due to freezing is minimized by small leaves and special
water transport tissues.
4. Student’ answers will vary, but students could refer back to unit one and use the list of native
and non-native mammals as their guide.
5. One of the best places to demonstrate the impact of the environment on the growth of a
specific species of tree is either along the transition from forest to bog (wetland), the
transition from low to high altitudes or a tuckamore forest long the coast.
Check Your Understanding (Page 274)
1. Seasonal changes include periodic needle loss, sap reduction in winter, leaf loss on deciduous
trees, snow and ice accumulations, changes in animal and plant biodiversity, and length of
daylight. Successional changes include primary successional changes like soil production and
secondary successional changes like plant replacement.
2. Succession is the ecological changes that occur as plant communities change over time until a
climax community is reached. Primary succession occurs when there are no soils present
which require the presence of soil building pioneering organisms. Secondary succession
occurs when there is an interruption or disturbance in the succession process such as a fire,
insect or blow down damage, or clear cutting. In this case, soils are still present and plants
that can take advantage of the disturbance move in to the disturbed area.
156
3. The important role of forest fires include soil enrichment through nutrient release, limiting
disease spread, and creating habitats for other plants and animals.
4. Some disadvantages of suppressing forest fires include:
•
•
The forest becomes older and becomes less productive.
Encourages insect and disease outbreaks.
For Further Discussion and/or Research (Page 274)
5. PowerPoint presentations will vary from student to student. This question can be a good
group project.
Check Your Understanding (Page 287)
1. Characteristics of an old growth boreal forest include a variety of tree species, very old but
not necessarily large trees, little evidence of fire or insect damage, and multilayered with
distinctive or defined lower, middle, and upper layers.
2. See table on page 36 of the text.
3. Students’ answers will vary as some agree that this would present value while others may
argue that there is more value in harvesting the forests.
4. The forests of the Main River watershed are considered “old growth” because they lack
disturbances for several centuries with little human occupation. Protecting such forests
maintains biodiversity and ecological balance.
For Further Discussion and/or Research – Page 287
5. Student answers will vary. Posters should be displayed in the classroom.
157
Case study and Activity Notes
Mini-Lab Activity - Forest Values Mapping (Pages 258)
The purpose of this activity is to provide an opportunity for students to link their personal forest
values with their local area and to identify potential conflicts. It also reinforces the ideas of
biodiversity, sustainability, and stewardship at the community level.
You will need:
•
•
•
A topographic map of your region
Clear plastic as an overlay for the map
Colored markers
Digital topographic maps of Newfoundland and Labrador are available. If you find yourself using
topographic maps a lot in this course, purchase a copy of Tourtech along with the Newfoundland
and Labrador map set. This can be purchased at Cansel in St. John’s. If you have access to a
smart board, project the map of your area on the board and have students place their values on the
board with coloured markers.
Student worksheet for this activity is found on BLM 9-2. An example of a forest values map can
be found as a BLM 9 – 3 of the teacher resource. Use this as an example of a value map for the
students.
Analyze and Conclude (Page 261)
1. Expect overlaps to occur in areas close to the community or near areas where forest
harvesting occurs. Students’ answers will vary.
2. Wherever there is overlap, there will be the potential for conflicts. The answers to this
question will vary. Some examples might be:
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
Recreation activities versus domestic or commercial cutting.
Aesthetics and/or spiritual versus resource exploitation (extraction).
Cabins and potential mining or forest harvesting.
Snowmobile trails and cross country ski trails.
Cultural land use verses exploitation (extraction).
3. Methods to resolve the conflicts include community/company forums (town hall meetings),
government intervention, and the legal process. Another process is called conflict resolution
and is where stakeholders arrive at a consensus through respect of each stakeholder’s values
and a willingness to compromise.
4. The steps may include consultation between stakeholders followed by negotiation and then
resolution. Some options that may be considered might be the maintaining of a buffer zone
around the mountain bike trail and the swimming hole or rerouting sections of the hiking
trail.
158
For Further Discussion and/or Research (Page 261)
5. An example of a values conflict where it is impossible for everyone to get what they want
might be when a forest area has been designated for clear cutting when a NGO (nongovernment organization) sees the area as having significant ecological and/or cultural value.
In this case, people who place economic value on the forest are pitted against those who
would have the forest preserved as is and let nature run its course. A compromise that might
evolve from this might include a reduction in the allowable cut in the area and the
modification of the boundaries of the protected area. Issues related to timber harvesting in the
Main River watershed is a good example of this kind of conflict.
6. Students’ answers will vary as students’ values either align with those of the council or differ.
Case Study – Logging the Main River Watershed (Page 279)
Having students learning the dates and events that lead to a resolution of this conflict is NOT the
intent of this case study. What is important here is that students learn that the process to resolve
the issue can be lengthy and that a resolution can be reached through stakeholder participation,
respect for the stakeholder’s values and compromise between the stakeholders.
Questions (page 282)
1. The Main River was given the designation as a Canadian Heritage River because it is one of
the last wilderness rivers and one of the best white-water canoeing rivers in Newfoundland
and Labrador. In addition, the river runs through one of the oldest Boreal forest in the world
and the oldest Boreal forest in Newfoundland and Labrador. It possesses unique ecological
characteristics not found in other boreal forests.
2. Answers will be dependent on the sources searched. However, the website “Canadian River
Heritage System” would be an excellent source of information. On the site each Heritage
river system has its own descriptor. Students should consult these for their information.
3. If a compromise had not been reached, on harvesting in the Main River Watershed, there may
have been the possibility of the Main River losing its status as a heritage river since
harvesting would have significantly affected its old growth forest and changed its unique
environmental and cultural characteristics.
4. a) Reduction in habitat could occur if clear cutting was employed, however, since selective
cutting was proposed, this would be significantly reduced. Overall, it is suggested that
minimal impacts will occur.
b) Selective cutting is being used as much as possible and a minimal number of access roads
are being completed.
c) Students’ opinions will vary. Encourage them to support their answers.
5. If logging activities were stopped in the Main River watershed, there would be a loss of local
employment and perhaps an increased cost to the company as they would be forced to harvest
timber stands further from the paper mill in Corner Brook.
159
6. Forest harvesting near the boundaries of Gros Morne National Park of Canada boundaries
may result in habitat loss and fragmentation, disruption of animal migration routes, and
modification of water flow (runoff) due to less tree cover (vegetation) loss or reduction.
7. Many would say since there is logging, they lost the battle to preserve the Main River forests.
Many environmentalists and environmental organizations confuse the concepts of
conservation and preservation.
8. a) People will usually support their primary values and employees of Corner Pulp and Paper
will side with the company. At the same time most Newfoundlanders and Labradorians love
the wilderness and value it as a place to hunt, fish, and enjoy the great outdoors. Employees
who live in the White Bay area would also support some measures to preserve those values.
b) Economically, the provincial government had to consider the value of the products
produced as well as the income from employment during challenging economic times.
Socially, the idea of recreational value within the area had to be considered since the area has
become known provincially and nationally for this. Forest harvesting would affect this
negatively. Politically, the government could not be seen as choosing one group over another.
The issue had the attention of the public and opinions were varied.
c) Students’ answers may vary.
Case Study – Maintaining Secondary Mature Forest in the Avalon Forest (Page 285)
With almost half of the population living on the Avalon Peninsula, the area is finding its self
under increasing land use pressures. This should be the focus of this Case Study.
Questions (page 286)
1. Maintaining a mature forest on the Avalon Peninsula is critical because of the associated
economic, ecological, and social values.
2. Competing land uses include logging, recreation, agriculture, firewood, roadways, etc.
Reconciliation can occur through government policy, minimal removal of forested regions,
and protecting species.
3. Selective cutting could ensure a range of different age-classes at any time. Also, harvesting
rotation along with applicable silviculture practices will produce a range of age-classes in
forest stands.
4. Moose have caused the natural succession to change from birch and fir, to spruce and grasslike habitats because moose like to eat the birch and fir.
5. It is important to maintain mature forest in the Avalon forest area as it is the preferred habitat
for the introduced Newfoundland Marten and the arboreal lichens as well as recreational and
economic pursuits like hiking, camping, tourism, etc.
160
BLM 9 – 1 Examples of Products Made from Wood-Derived Chemicals
- Torula yeast (a food supplement) is grown on
wood sugars and wood mineral nutrients
leftover from pulping operations. This is used
in baby foods, imitation bacon, cereals, baked
goods, etc.
- Textiles (Rayon)
- Cellulose acetate
- Cellulose nitrate (former composition of movie
film, except that it was very flammable and
unstable with age)
- Tannin (used in natural tanning process, less
common than formerly)
- Celluloid (rarely produced nowadays, except
for guitar picks and pick guards, fountain pens,
accordion cases and ping-pong balls
- Carnauba wax is commonly used as a pill
coating.
- Cellulose acetate and cellulose nitrate are both
used in adhesives and lacquers.
- Linoleum (oxidized linseed oil mixed with pine
resin and wood flour)
- CMC (carboxymethyl cellulose) is used as a
food thickener and texturizer for products such
as ketchup and ice cream (depending on
manufacturer); also used to stabilize oil well
drilling muds.
- Acetic acid (produced by distillation of wood)
- Cellulose-based pill fillers
- Shaving cream (tea tree oil, camphor, etc.,
- Cellophane (wrapping material, also used for
Easter basket grass!)
- Suntan lotion (e.g., almond oil (emollient);
clove bud oil (scent); cocoa butter (emollient))
-Toothpaste additives (e.g., cellulose gum)
- Ink (incorporate tall oil rosins from hard pines)
- Plastic twine
-Tall oil fatty acids and derivatives are used as:
PVC stabilizers
Synthetic lubricants
Polyamides
Corrosion inhibitors
Soaps
Detergents
Emulsifiers
Rubber processing additives
Asphalt additives
Concrete additives
Epoxy additives
Plasticizers
Metalworking chemicals
Oil field chemicals
Rosin-based adhesive products
- Biofuels from wood distillation
- Liquid nail polish
- Cigarette filters (cellulose acetate fibers)
- Cellulose industrial filters
- Sausage casings
- Cellulose sponges
- Artificial vanilla flavoring (by-product of Kraft
process pulping)
- Cleaning compounds
- Additive to unfired ceramics to give them
strength
- Hair spray
- Cosmetics including thickeners such as methyl
cellulose
Source: http://www.freenetwork.org
- Methanol (used in colognes, solvents)
161
BLM 9 – 2 Forest Values Mapping Worksheet
Part 1: Why is the forest important?
I value the forest because…
My community values the
forest because…
People on planet Earth value
the forest because…
Part 2: Bringing my values home
Value
Location
162
BLM 9 – 3 Sample Forest Values Map
Source: Newfoundland and |Labrador Model Forest
163
BLM 9 – 4 North American Forest Types
164
C h a p t er 1 0 : Man a g in g Our Fo re s ts
In this Chapter
9 Paradigm shift in forest management in Newfoundland and Labrador from exploitation to
one of sustainable development
9 Sustainable Forest Management principles and the development of forest management
planning
9 Forest harvesting techniques in Newfoundland and Labrador
9 Silviculture practices in Newfoundland and Labrador
9 Harvesting technologies – past, present, and future
Suggested Activities
BLMs
Mini-Lab Activity: Age-Class Distribution
10 – 1 Measuring the Height of a Tree
Activity: Forest Management Activity
10 – 2 How Fast Does This Tree Grow?
Core Laboratory Activity: How Fast Does
This Tree Grow
10 – 3 Domestic Fuelwood/sawlog Survey
Mini-Lab Activity: Domestic
Fuelwood/sawlog Survey
Notes
________________________________________________
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165
Chapter Overview
Since the early 1900’s, the forests have acted as economic engines by providing raw materials
used in construction and paper making, giving needed employment to support our population. As
such, our treatment of the forests has evolved as our understanding and knowledge of forest
ecology expanded. Long gone are the days of taking without replacing. Sustainability and
stewardship direct forest management as a means of striking a balance between resource
extraction and biodiversity maintenance. Students will need to make the connections between
forest conservation and forest resource extraction to support our economic and cultural demands,
while at the same time planning for the future. Current forest management practices have come a
long way, primarily due to increases in demands for forest resources. Sustainable practices have
evolved that support the required balance. Furthermore, the efforts in our province today
represent a national and global approach to forest sustainability.
Key Terminology
Domestic logging
Paradigm shifts
Exploitation
Sustainability
Sustainable forest mgmt.
Clear cutting
Selective cutting
Buffer zone
Silviculture
Integrated pest mgmt.
Biological control agent
Salvage cut
Teaching Strategies
significant changes in the way humans view
the world. Use the material below to review
paradigm shift.
Revisit the concept of paradigm shifts and
integrate this idea into changes made over
the years to forest harvesting in our
province. Paradigm shifts are rare and are
What is a paradigm shift?
In 1962, Thomas Kuhn defined the concept of ‘paradigm shift’. Kuhn stated that scientific advancement is not
evolutionary, but rather is a "series of peaceful interludes punctuated by intellectually violent revolutions", and in
those revolutions "one conceptual world view is replaced by another". Paradigm Shift is a change from one way of
thinking to another.
Examples of paradigm shifts
Agriculture changed early primitive society. The primitive peoples existed for centuries roaming the earth hunting
and gathering for seasonal foods and water. By 2000 B.C. Middle America was a landscape of very small villages,
each surrounded by patchy fields of corn and other vegetables.
The printing press and the making of books changed the culture of people and had a direct effect on the scientific
revolution. Johann Gutenberg's invention in the 1440's of movable type was an agent of change. Books became
readily available, smaller and easier to handle, and cheap to purchase.
Agents of change are driving a paradigm shift today. The signs are all around us. The introduction of the personal
computer and the internet has impacted both personal and business environments and is a catalyst for a paradigm
shift in how information is processed and communicated. Recently there has been a shift from a mechanistic,
manufacturing, industrial society to an information centered society, where increases in technology will continue to
impact globally.
166
Review the history of forest management
Labrador – The Forest Process
Agreement on page 293 of the student text.
with emphasis on paradigm shifts in forest
management practices by briefly outlining
exploitation, utilitarian, and the ecosystem
based/sustainable approach. Working in
groups, students could create a timeline that
represents changes in the management of
Newfoundland and Labrador forests.
Students could create a poster or collage that
demonstrates the changes that have occurred
in forest management over time. This
outcome requires only a very brief
treatment.
Review
the five criteria for sustainable
development. Ask students which of the five
criteria of sustainable forest WOULD NOT
have been considered a part of forest
management back in the 1930’s.
Follow with an outline of sustainable forest
management (SFM). Teachers could refer
back to Unit 1 in which the role and
importance of Environmental Science was
discussed. SFM depends upon the scientific
data that is collected and analysed in a
systematic manner.
Students do not need to know the details of
these pressures that changed forest
management practices. The intent is for
them to recognize that a paradigm shift has
occurred. The Brundtland Report originated
at the 1972 Stockholm Conference on global
forests and forest management. Public
pressures for sustainable forest management
include such things as ISO certifications on
consumable products, stricter environmental
regulations, and stronger awareness of
environmental impacts.
Ecosystem management is the main
component of SFM. The elements of
ecosystem management are directly infused
in SFM. Teachers should identify that both
terms, in this context, are often used
interchangeably.
Teachers could have students complete the
Mini Lab Activity “Age-Class Distribution”.
As a side project have your students put
together either a poster or power point
presentation that communicates visually one
of the five criteria for sustainable forest
management.
Students could complete the case study “A
Step back in Time” from Future from Forest
resource.
E
xplain to students that forest management
can be compared to farming ‘in the wild’.
Forest management practices are similar to
agricultural practices. In many parts of the
world, for example in Europe and Ireland,
trees are grown in plantations and managing
“wild” stands of forest for timber is
secondary. Highlight sustainable forest
management
principles
using
a
representative from the Newfoundland
Model Forest Network, Canadian Forest
Service, or the Department of Natural
Resources.
List the criteria used for measuring success
of SFM. Include:
ƒ conservation of bio-diversity
ƒ maintenance of forest ecosystems
ƒ conservation of soil and water
ƒ contributions to global cycles
ƒ
economic and social benefits
Students could be organized into groups of 3
or 4. Using what they have already learned
in the course, each group would discuss the
various items or issues they feel are
important to be considered in the sustainable
management of a forest ecosystem. Each
group could then report their list to the
whole class. The teacher would record their
Tie the discussion of forest management
back to the previous activity, Mapping
Forest Values, and by using the material in
Enviro-Focus: Forest management in
167
The Forest Management Activity, on page
307 of the text, outlines the importance of
sound data to support decision making. This
activity can be built around a visit from a
local forest manager. Use Futures from
Forests Power Point “Forest Management”
to support this material.
ideas and suggestions on the board, grouping
them according to the 5 guiding criteria.
After all the student suggestions have been
grouped, the teacher would then match each
group with the appropriate guiding criteria.
Teachers could have students think about the
5 guiding criteria and the examples given
and to decide which of the criteria they feel
is the most important for the management of
a sustainable forest. Following a Think-PairShare approach, students would then share
their thoughts with a partner. The teacher
could then ask any student who wanted to
share their thoughts with the class to do so.
The teacher could ask if any members of the
pairs wanted to share some interesting idea
that their partner had with the class (often
students find this less threatening).
The technology used to harvest timber has
evolved to the point where the operator of a
harvester can work in climate controlled
comfort with minimal impact on the forest
floor. Video resources to illustrate various
mechanized forest harvesting techniques are
available from the manufacturers or on
YouTube (youtube.com) . Ask one of your
students to put together a collection of these
clips using video capture software.
Contrast full-tree harvesting and short wood
harvesting in terms of reducing the
environmental impact on forest habitat.
Point out that in the past when trees were
harvested with a buck saw and hauled out on
a ‘slide’, the short wood method was used. It
should be noted that in short wood
harvesting the harvester, which already has
wide low pressure tires to reduce ground
pressure, lays down a ‘bed’ of branches and
travels on them further reducing ground
pressure to the point where young balsam fir
are not damaged.
Students could complete the case study
“Sustainable Forests” from Future from
Forests resource.
Sound
decision making in forest
management is based on sound data. Review
the science of forest management and if
there is an opportunity arrange a visit to a
District Management Office or have a
representative from the Department of
Forestry visit. Spend time on the role of
GIS, satellite imaginary and computer
modeling in forest management. The
material on pages 333 – 336 of the student
text provides background in this.
There are still many ‘old-timers’ still around
who used to work in the woods. To capture
their experiences, have a student do a video
or audio interview for future classes.
D
iscuss forest management planning in
Newfoundland and Labrador emphasizing
the role of public consultation. Use the Eco
Spotlight: Clarenville Forest Management
District on page 305 of the student text and
refer back to the Mini-Lab Activity: AgeClass Distribution on page 302 of the
student text to emphasize one of the major
problems, management for sustainability,
faced by forest managers. Both of these
activities are technical and so a review of
both is required before presenting them to
your students.
Distinguish
between clearcutting and
selective cutting as forest harvesting
techniques in Newfoundland and Labrador.
Teachers should limit discussion to the fact
that these techniques are intended to mimic
natural occurrences in forest e.g. clear
cutting (fire, insect infestation) selective
cutting (blow down).
Despite the perception of the negative
impacts that clear-cutting has on forest
168
ecosystems, many improvements have been
made to reduce these. For example, students
should be aware that the edges of cut-overs
are no longer cut straight so as to replicate
natural open spaces, cutting debris is left
where the trees are cut to create habitat for
small animals and plants, harvesting
machines use tracks instead of tires to
reduce soil disturbance, and access roads are
no longer built using bulldozers that remove
topsoil.
Use
the case study, Re-greening the
Forest on page 320 of the student text to
expose students to the concept of silviculture
and the techniques utilized in this forest
cultivation practice. Have them think in
terms of silviculture being similar to
agriculture.
Describe silviculture techniques. Include:
•
•
•
Teachers could have students read the
Ecospotlight “Riparian Buffers”.
•
•
pre-commercial thinning
genetic enhancement
introduction of faster growing
species
tree plantations
integrated pest management
Agriculture and silviculture compared
In many respects, forestry is similar to agricultural science and foresters are comparable to
farmers. Forestry and agriculture both deal with the harvesting and management of ecological
systems. Both fields also look for ways to make the best possible use of land to produce valuable
products. However, some important differences exist between the two fields. In the first place,
agriculture deals with a greater variety of species and products, while forestry deals essentially
with one species - trees. In addition, farmers deal with a wider range of harvesting and
management systems, most of which are much more intensive than in forestry. Finally,
agriculture involves relatively short harvesting rotations, with most crops being planted and
harvested once a year. Still, the goals of forestry and agriculture are very much alike. These
include harvesting and managing crops to produce ongoing yields of organic products that are
required by society.
Another shared feature of forestry and agriculture is that both substantially deteriorate the original
ecosystems of the area. For example, populations of many native species of plants and animals
may be reduced, threatened, or even eliminated. The soil is often eroded, the environment may
become contaminated with pesticides and fertilizers, and the beauty of the landscape may be
degraded. One of the most important challenges to both forestry and agriculture is in achieving
their primary goals of maintaining harvests while keeping the environmental damage within
acceptable limits.”
Source: http://www.scienceclarified.com
T
o reinforce silviculture principles and
practices, complete Core Laboratory
Activity: How Fast Does This Tree Grow?
on page 321 of the student text and if
possible, visit a provincial tree nursery for a
demonstration of various silviculture
techniques.
M
any students would enjoy doing the
Mini-Lab
Activity:
Domestic
Fuelwood/Sawlog Survey on page 331 of
the student text. The activity is a great way
of assessing local harvesting technologies
and perhaps management at the local or even
169
personal level. Apply the results to
comparison of historical techniques with
modern ones.
they can have drastic impacts on forest
resources and on long term forest
management
plans.
Review
pest
management by focusing on the Case
Study: Managing Balsam fir Stands
Infested by Balsam Wolly Adelgid.
A
lthough insect infestations and fires are
an integral part of the natural forest cycle,
170
Answers to Questions
Check Your Understanding (Page 292)
1. Events or issues that might be responsible for the shift in resource management approaches
might include overexploitation, pressure for usage such as logging, pulp and paper,
recreation, etc, a need for sustainability and pressure from markets whose customers want to
only use products that have been managed, harvested and manufactured or process in a
environmentally sustainable manner and have a ISO rating.
2. Ecosystem based management can be applied at local, regional, and global levels. Local
examples might include stream management within a community that addresses fish habitat.
This would then extend into regional watershed management strategies. Since all watersheds
are theoretically interconnected, this could be applied on a global level.
3. Students’ views will vary. Students must be able to support their answers. If they agree it has
changed, then their view is supporting ecosystem based management. If they think no real
change has occurred, then their view is primarily exploitation based.
4. Non Government Organizations (NGO’s) may include: Greenpeace, WWF, David Suzuki
Foundation, and others.
5. Initially forest harvesting companies and government agencies are affected by paradigm
shifts in forest management. The general public, in the short term, will see changes to
traditional usages in a particular region like firewood harvesting or cabin building on pulp
and paper leased lands. In the long term, the public will have to adapt to the new regulations
concerning forest use.
For Further Discussion and/or Research (Page 292)
6. There now is a real move towards a shift in sustainability evidenced by management practices
in forestry sectors. It is real since the results support sustainability.
Check Your Understanding (Page 299)
1. The types of information collected from aerial and satellite photographs include the species of
trees and their density (crown cover), relative health (infested or diseased), quantity and
approximate age class. This information is analyzed and used as a decision making tool on
where to harvest, how to harvest, and where to build access roads.
2. The purpose of the permanent sample plots and the ground-truthing plots are to increase the
accuracy of the forest inventory maps and to help improve aerial photograph interpretation by
verifying that what is interpreted from the air is what is actually on the ground.
3. Reasons not to harvest include nesting areas may be present, old growth areas may be
identified, and unique ecological characteristics such as sensitive terrain may exist. Other
reasons may include high tourism value and a possible reduction in recreation areas such as
hiking trails, cabin areas, snowmobile trails, etc.
171
For Further Discussion and/or Research (Page 299)
4. Students can answer this question using Google Earth if their community and surrounding
area is covered by a high resolution satellite photo. Answers will vary depending on the data
layers that are available. Maps might include ecological information like sensitive habitats or
nesting areas, migratory routes of animals, cultural information like sacred grounds, hunting
grounds, fishing grounds, and social considerations like recreation areas (e.g., ski trails,
snowmobile trails, ATV trails, etc).
Check Your Understanding (page 319)
1. Economically, clear-cutting is cheaper because fewer roads need to be constructed and
harvesting is done at a faster rate. Ecologically, it produces even age-class forests. As well, it
mimics natural processes that drive change in an undisturbed boreal forest. Clear cutting
mimics natural processes that include fire, insect damage and wind throw.
2. Potential problems associated with clear cutting include loss and/or fragmentation of forest
habitat, soil erosion, water quality and quantity impacts, reduced fish habitat, etc.
Overcoming these issues requires irregular shaped cutting patterns, leaving non-merchantable
timber for snags, leaving large diameter trees for seed sources and habitats, leaving slash on
the ground for small animal habitats and buffer zones around lakes, streams and wetlands.
3. Selective cutting would be used in ecologically sensitive areas and where forests are multiaged.
4. Because clear cutting in some ways mimics natural processes such as fire and insect damage,
it has many positive impacts. These are listed in table format on page 313 of the student text.
5. A riparian zone is a natural strip of land adjacent to streams, rivers, or wetlands. It is the
transition zone between two ecosystems, for example, between the boreal forest and a pond.
They act to filter run-off, enhance nutrient uptake, increase canopy shade, and supply food
and habitat for riparian species.
6. Short wood harvesting has the least impact because the slash is left behind to make a ‘bed’
for the harvester to travel on which reduces soil impact. The slash also provides a source of
nutrients and prevents erosion and desiccation of forest soils. Full tree harvesting involves the
removal of the whole tree (including all branches and needle) to a common location where
they are delimbed and the tops cut off.
7. Silviculture is the development, cultivation, and reproduction of trees.
8. Silviculture and traditional farming practices both utilize site preparation, planting of plant
species, thinning, application of herbicides and pesticides, and harvesting.
For Further Discussion and/or Research (Page 319)
9. Students’ answers will vary.
172
10. Both this question and question 11 can form the bases of a debate. Another approach is rather
than students formulating their own reasoning; they can search the internet for opposing
views on this topic and present those. This is an interesting exercise because students are
going to end up with viewpoints that cross the full spectrum in term of environmental
activism.
Check Your Understanding (Page 330)
1. Integrated Pest Management has four components. They are:
•
•
•
•
Plan and manage to prevent organisms from becoming pests by understanding
the life-cycle of the pest.
Understand the conditions that bring on pest outbreaks.
Selecting the best control measures, monitor the pest population and other
beneficial organisms, and all other relevant environmental factors.
Monitor the effectiveness of the pest control program.
2. Two advantages of using biological controls over chemical controls are:
•
•
Biological control agents exist naturally in the target organism and do not affect other
non-target species.
Biological control agents do not bioamplify/biomagnify in the ecosystem like chemical
controls.
3. Students can choose from any two of the five positive effects or the three negative effects of
insects and diseases from figure 10.32 on page 327 of the student text.
4. Forest pests are naturally occurring in any ecosystem. There were outbreaks before
Europeans came to Newfoundland and Labrador. The Aboriginal people had little or no
concern for these outbreaks since the basis of their civilization was not economically tied to
the forest, but rather spiritually and ecologically linked to the forest. Aboriginal peoples in
Newfoundland and Labrador were hunters and gatherers which necessitated migrations to
various areas for food and materials necessary for survival.
For Further Discussion and/or Research (Page 330)
5. Warmer temperatures brought on by climate change will expand the ranges and enhance the
survival rates of forest pests such as the spruce budworm. It may allow insect pests not
normally seen in our boreal forest to self-introduce, thereby increasing the number of pest
species. There is a long list of non-native pest species identified as posing a potential risk to
Canada’s forests. They include the brown spruce longhorn beetle, European wood wasp,
Asian gypsy moth, Asian long-horned beetle, emerald ash borer, and the hemlock woolly
adelgid.
Check Your Understanding (Page 336)
1. Modern mechanical harvesters use very low air pressure in their tires to minimize ground
disturbances. The low air pressure spreads the weight of the harvester over a greater area.
Ground disturbance include:
173
•
Soil compaction from the weight of the machinery. Soil compaction restricts the root
growth of seedlings, thereby decreasing the regeneration rate.
•
Tire rutting in forest soils from constant usage by harvesting equipment. Rutting
causes water channeling which increases soil erosion.
•
Damage to seedlings from repetitive compression by the tires or tracks as it works in
the harvest zone.
2. Walking forest harvesters have advantages over wheeled harvesters that can be summarized
into two main advantages; however, six are indicated in the student textbook on page 333.
They are:
•
The foot print of the walking harvester is much less, which reduces soil compaction, soil
erosion especially on steeper terrain, wheel rutting, and seedling damage.
•
Walking harvesters can operate in steeper slope terrains, which allows for more timber to
be harvested in an area.
3. Remote sensing is the gathering of information about Earth’s surface using ground based
sensors, aircraft, and satellites. Remote sensing can be used to:
•
Do reconnaissance mapping. This type of mapping allows forestry companies to
determine the tree species, and the quantity and quality of the forest cover.
•
Plan commercial operations by mapping areas for harvesting and silviculture operations,
build access road networks for forestry operations, identify insect/disease and forest fire
damage, and update forestry inventory.
•
Carry out environmental monitoring. Foresters can measure/monitor deforestation,
wildlife habitat assessment, watershed protection, and coastal protection in the case of
mangrove forests.
4. Students may arrive at different values of the forest to them. Values can be divided into three
main areas:
•
Ecological value – the habitats it provides for forest species of plant and animal.
•
•
Economic value – the monetary returns from forestry operations.
Recreational/Spiritual value – the feeling one gets by being in the forest, and
experiencing the smells, the sights, and the activities of hiking, camping, and RVing.
Most students will relate their values to what they have personally experienced. Few students
may relate the spiritual values; however, it is important to underline this as an important
value to a person’s overall well being.
174
Case study and Activity Notes
Mini-Lab Activity – Age-Class Distribution (Page 302)
Sustainable development is the key theme of this course. If we manage our resources in a
sustainable manner, then in theory we will have enough to meet our present needs knowing that
there will be plenty to meet our future needs. The purpose of this activity is to answer the
following question. Is our current forest harvesting practices sustainable?
Some students may have difficulty grasping the concept of age-class and how it applies to
harvesting practices. Teachers might consider making a series of overheads or a powerpoint
presentation of the graphs and doing the activity with the class.
As you proceed through the activity, explain that a severe insect outbreak might change
harvesting plans as the damaged timber would have to be harvested first.
Analyze and Conclude
1. Answers will vary. Most students might choose the plan that achieves a balanced age class in
the shortest period of time.
2. Over mature timber stands are more susceptible to blow down and fire damage. Having no
over mature stands will reduce this and, from an economic perspective, will reduce the losses
of merchantable timber.
3. Harvesting immature timber reduces future supplies of harvestable timber. This can lead to
social impacts like reduced recreational uses and economically it reduces potential
employment and lost forest resources.
4. Factors that affect efforts to balance an age-class structure include insect damage, forest fires,
and weather/climate related factors (e.g., storms, ice, drought, and floods).
Core Laboratory Activity – How Fast Does this Tree Grow? (Pages 321)
This activity can be done in any tree stand. If it is done in late fall, after the leaves have
fallen, teachers may want to identify trees before hand, as tree identification after this
point relies on twig characteristics and is difficult. Teachers should assist students in
identifying tree species if tree identification keys are used.
Teachers could have students learn how to use a standard compass in order to determine
the direction of twig growth for table A.
Teachers should remind students that data pertaining to both tree height and tree diameter
are included in table B.
Student data sheets can be found on BLM 10-2.
175
To obtain tree diameter, students measure the circumference of the tree and calculate the
tree diameter using the following formula:
d = _ C___
3,1416*
*Note that the symbol
equivalent to 3.1416.
π (pi) is located on all standard calculators. The value of pi is
Teacher might consider purchasing a tree diameter tape. The tape is placed around the
tree and the scale reads diameter rather than circumference.
Note that the device used to measure tree height is very expensive and teachers might
consider purchasing a clinometer that only measures observer angle. Using this angle and
distance of the observer from the base, the tree height can be calculated. An example is
shown in BLM 10-1.
Pre-Lab Question (page 322)
The data will tell you about the health of tree species, especially when the same species is
compared. Also it can be used to compare same species and their different growth rates.
Analyze and Conclude (page 323)
1. Students’ answers will vary. Different tree species vary in their growth rates. For example
willows grow faster than maples.
2. Patterns will vary depending on which species are being compared. The table below is an
example of data collected from a Red Maple. Suggested reasons for there being different
patterns
•
•
•
•
The amount of moisture available to your tree species.
The amount of sunlight available to your tree species.
The quality of the soil where your tree species grows.
The slope of the ground.
176
3. Answers will vary depending on whether your tree species was planted in the last five years.
This can be found in the students’ data by looking at the number of terminal bud scars.
4. Other instruments that could be used include tree (increment) borer for aging a tree. This
method is more accurate that terminal bud scars; however, the following should be
considered: trees occasionally produce more than one ring a year; trees occasionally go a year
or more without producing a ring depending on the environmental conditions; and you have
to somehow see the rings to count them. An indirect method is to research the area you are
conducting the core laboratory and determine the date the trees were planted or the area was
last harvested. Another indirect method to determine a tree’s age is to use the diameter of
your tree and multiply it by the growth factor (See Table Below) to get its age. This method is
recommended because increment borers require some skill in usage and bore holes in tree
stems can be entrance point for insects or fungal diseases. One other instrument that is
required to complete this table is a compass.
5. Students’ answers will vary. Students may suggest that they age the tree, use an indirect
method to measure the height of the tree, or determine the tree’s diameter using a regular
measuring tape and then use the formula (tree circumference ÷ 3.14 = diameter).
6. There are several things to look for when determining the relative health of trees used in this
core laboratory. They are:
•
Look for dead wood on the main trunk of the tree. This may indicate a disease has
attacked the stem and is weakening the tree.
•
Look for excessive off-shooting (suckering) which can indicate a response to
environmental stresses such as soil compaction, overly wet conditions, or minor diseases.
•
Look for insects such as tent caterpillars, leaf eating beetles, and leaf miners. Also, look
for wood boring insects. Indicators of wood boring insects are small round holes through
the trunk with sawdust on the ground around the tree.
177
•
Look at the relative density of the tree’s crown and compare to same species in the area.
Thin crown indicate health problems.
7. Answers will vary and might include soil quality, elevation, and latitude.
Extension
8. Trees in urban areas do not exhibit typical growth patterns as compared to natural forested
areas. Soil compaction and ground water patterns, urban microclimates, air quality, and road
salt are a few factors that might influence growth patterns.
9. Urban forests have problems not found in a natural ecosystem. They include:
•
Compacted and poor soil, city streets, driveways, and underground utility services
can constrain their roots.
•
A shortage of water and nutrients, common in urban areas, can kill them.
•
Road salt, pollution, and pesticides used to treat lawns can contaminate their air and
water.
•
Other trees and buildings can block their sunlight, vandalism, vehicle accidents, lawn
mowers, weed trimmers, snow plows, and poor pruning can damage their trunks and
branches.
10. Using a tree (increment) borer is more accurate that using terminal bud scars to age a tree.
Look at the increment bore sample below as an example for aging a tree. Students’ answers
will depend on how well students can determine the age of the tree from the increment bore
sample. It is important that the teacher show how to take the sample and interpret the sample
before students attempt to take a sample. Increment borers can be damaged if used
incorrectly.
178
11. The advantages are:
•
Tree bore samples are more accurate compared to terminal bud scars because bud scars
can disappear with age, particularly if the branch is large.
•
Terminal buds could have been used as a food source for animals like moose and hare in
any one year which makes reliability uncertain.
•
Unless tree branches are low enough to gather a sample, tree borer sampling will be the
only direct method to use.
Case Study – Managing Balsam Fir Stands Infested by Balsam Woolly Adelgid (Page
328)
Some of these questions cannot be answered using only the text material. Consider providing
students with a file of resources rather than relying on the internet.
Questions
1. Balsam woolly adelgids are tree stem sucking insects. Because of a toxic substance secreted
by the adelgid during sucking, the tree’s normal growth is disrupted.
2. The adelgid can be controlled by both silvicultural and chemical methods. A salvage cut of
infected balsam fir trees of merchantable size is the most practical option. The slash must be
burned to destroy the adelgid from spreading. Chemical control requires a systemic
insecticide to be placed inside the tree stem. However, this is not cost effective on a
commercial scale.
3. The answers will vary among students; however, the following points should be brought up
for discussion:
•
Exotic tree species may disrupt a natural ecosystem, especially if the exotic species out
compete other tree species.
•
Exotic species may arrive with its own exotic insect pests, which may infest native
species.
•
Exotic species may not meet the habitat requirements for other natural species that were
dependent on balsam fir.
4. Reduced AAC can have three possible socio-economic impacts.
•
Firstly, the reduction in forest workers required to cut and manage trees translates to
loss of wages to the community and the province.
•
Secondly, the suppliers of equipment and services to the forest industry will be
negatively impacted at the community and provincial levels.
179
•
Thirdly, government revenues decrease due to lower harvests, declining royalties,
and reduction of tax revenues. Governments may have to spend more money in
retraining people previously employed in the forest industry and have to supplement
their income in the short run.
5. The present provincial forest management strategy is stated as "To maintain the long term
health of forest ecosystems while providing ecological, economic and cultural opportunities
for the benefit of present and future generations." (Provincial Sustainable Forest Management
Strategy- May 2003)
•
In light of the strategy, it would be a good sustainable practice if areas infested with
balsam woolly adelgid be cutover to harvest the merchantable timber and destroy the
slash to kill the balsam woolly adelgid.
•
Pre-commercial thinning (PCT) increases forest stand yields over a shorter period of
time. PCT would be a good management strategy since removing infected trees would
eliminate the spread of the pest while increasing stand yield.
Mini-Lab Activity – Domestic Fuelwood/Sawlog Survey (Page 331)
This activity is better in rural areas, however it may also be done in a larger urban area if a
suitable sample size can be identified. This will be the second public survey that students will
have developed and delivered in a public setting. Remind your students to be polite and respectful
when carrying out the survey. Student data sheets can be found on BLM 10-3.
Analyze Your Results
1. Student made graphs will vary. It is recommended that a bar graph be used.
2. Student average will vary.
3. Student results will vary.
180
BLM 10 – 1 Measuring the Height of a Tree
h = height of survey observer (to eye level)
The survey recorder stands at a measured distance from the base of the tree (baseline B).
Using a hand-held device called a clinometer, measure the angle in degrees between the
horizontal, their eye and the top of the tree (the angle bpt = angle A). Then, using tangent
tables (obtained from trigonometrical tables or from a calculator) and the equation Height
of Tree = h + (B x tan(A)), the survey recorder can calculate the height of the tree and
record it in a table.
Example calculation:
B = 7 metres
H = 1.5 meters
A = 35 o
Using a scientific calculator find the Tan of 35o. Key in 35 and push the tan key. The tan
will be .7002
Height of the tree = h + ( B x tan(A))
= 1.5 + (7 x .7002)
= 6.4 m
181
BLM 10 – 2 How Fast Does This Tree Grow?
(Data tables)
Table A: Tree twig length
Twig Growth
.
Tree
No.
Tree
Species
Direction
N/S/E/W
20__
20__
20__
20__
20__
AVG
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
182
Table B: Tree data
Tree No.
Tree Species
Tree Height
Tree Diameter
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
183
BLM 10 – 3 Domestic Fuelwood/sawlog survey
1.
In the last 12 months, have you cut any wood (firewood, scraps or sawlogs)?
_____ Yes _____ No
2.
What kind of wood did you cut?
_____ hardwood
3.
______ slabs ______burned wood
How far did you travel to obtain fuel wood (km)?
_____ less than 5
4.
______ softwood
_____ 6 -15
_____16 - 26
How did you transport the wood (Check all that apply)?
______ truck
______ snowmobile
_______ ATV
______ Other What were they? ______________________
5.
6.
Generally, in what months do you cut wood? (Check all that apply)
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
In the last 12 months, how much time have you spent collecting wood? (Indicate the time
spent preparing trails, cutting and hauling wood, and splitting and stacking)
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
184
7.
How much wood have you cut?
Amount Cut
1 Cord = Stacked Wood (4feet high X 4 feet wide X 8 feet long)
1 Pickup load = ½ Cord
Land tenure:
A - Crown Land
B - Company Land
C - Private Land
Harvest Codes 1 - Cutover
2 - Green standing timber - mature forest
3 - Green standing timber - immature forest
4 - Dead standing timber
5 - Scrub
Type
Species
Amount cut
(cords)
Land Tenure
Hardwood
Softwood
Mill slabs
Sawlogs
Burned timber
185
Harvest Code
Amount
Bought (cords)
Chapter 11: Agriculture in Newfoundland & Labrador
In this chapter:
9 Role of forest ecosystem in the biosphere
9 Role of agriculture in Newfoundland and Labrador, historically and currently
9 Major crops, livestock, poultry, horticultural products, and agricultural products in
Newfoundland and Labrador
9 Challenges of farming in Newfoundland and Labrador including pest management, soil
management, and growing season
9 Environmental issues associated with agricultural production in Newfoundland and
Labrador
9 Implications of climate change on agricultural production in Newfoundland and Labrador
Suggested Activities
BLMs
Core Laboratory Activity: Testing the
Effectiveness of Plastic Mulch
11 – 1 Agricultural Land Use
Mini-Lab Activity: Soils
11 – 3 Soils Lab
11 – 2 Testing the Effectiveness of Plastic
Mulch (Data Table)
Notes
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
186
Chapter Overview
Agriculture has been an integral component of our province’s history from the beginnings of
European settlement when permanent residents began to utilize small plots of land to grow
vegetables for sustenance. From these meager beginnings, the people of this province have
struggled against harsh climate, poor soils, and short growing seasons to reap a harvest from the
land. Today, agricultural practices have advanced to include livestock and poultry farming,
horticulture, crop farming, berry farming, turf grass, silage production, and tree farming. The
possibilities for such diversity have been the result of scientific advancements in soil
enhancement, fertilization, pest control, selective breeding, and greenhouse technologies. The
movement in agriculture has been towards sustainable farming and animal husbandry such that
environmental issues are addressed while at the same time cultural and economic interests are
maintained. Careful selection and application of technologies and practices are the highlights of
what is now a very successful industry in the face of those same challenges encountered by our
ancestors over five hundred years ago.
Key Terminology
Agriculture
Agro-meteorology
Silage
Plastic mulch
Livestock
Gross national product
Horticulture
Forage
Growing degree day
Biogas
Frost free days
Land degradation
Soil management
Agricultural runoff
Agricultural pest
Teaching Strategies
environment that involved them making
large scale changes. Ask them what changes
this activity brought to their surrounding
environment.
Begin
the unit by asking students what
their understanding is of agriculture in
Newfoundland and Labrador. Teachers
could begin this topic by having students
write their own definition of agriculture.
Depending where students live their
definitions will vary. Students from small
rural communities might have experienced
agriculture in small family gardens whereas
students
from
communities
where
agriculture contributes to the economy will
view agriculture in it a truer sense.
Teachers could provide a very short
overview of the hunter/gather lifestyle and
how this approach to supporting a group of
individuals was limited and had a minor
impact on the environment from the global
perspective. Despite this they still were
closely linked with the environment.
O
utline the present level of agriculture in
Newfoundland and Labrador. Include:
• levels of employment
• impact on the GNP
• number of active farms
• primary products
Brainstorm ideas that center on the history
of agriculture, its importance, and how it has
changed. Focus on the fact that agriculture
has been practiced for approximately 10,000
years and is perhaps humankind’s first real
large
scale
interaction
with
their
187
Since information to meet the outcome
changes annually it is best to download
the Griffons Industry annual report. The
document is written for a public
audience and is therefore easily read by
most students.
Berries
have
narrow
environmental
tolerances. Some species, such as
cranberries, have been cultivated whereas
others, such as the bake apple, are very
difficult to cultivate. Learning about these
limited tolerances will give students a
appreciation of how environment and
climate are the ultimate decision makers
when it comes to what can be grown in this
province.
Teachers could have students refer to the
Land and Sea Episode entitled “It’s a
Life”. This video highlights the
evolution of a current cow farm in the
province.
There are a number of cranberry, turf and
vegetable farms on the island and if possible
a visit to one should be done. This trip can
also be combined with a bog ecosystem
study.
H
ave students identify what they see as the
major crops grown in our province.
Compare this with generations past and
contrast this with the rest of Canada (for
example, regionally – Prince Edward Island
grows potatoes, the prairies produce grains,
and British Columbia produces fruits). Use
the supplied map as students determine as
many agricultural regions as they can in our
province. Teachers could facilitate this
activity by reminding students that there is
quite a variety within our province.
Teachers could have students read the
Envirofocus
“Creating
Growing
Enviroments for Cranberries”.
T
he practice of agriculture is difficult in
this province due to soil and climate. Use
BLM 11-1 to show the agricultural
distribution on the island. Identify primary
crops and the challenges faced by agroproducers in Newfoundland and Labrador
such as soil and climatic conditions, distance
from markets, and pest controls.
When discussing forage, teachers could ask
students what farm animals eat; the most
common response will be “hay”. Teachers
could begin by focusing on the variety of
forage available and why there is such a
variety. It is important for the students to
understand that the forages that contain the
highest levels of nutrients and energy are the
best for livestock. Teachers should then
clarify that, like all crops, different forage
will require different environmental
conditions for optimum growth. While corn
makes up a significant portion of forage
crops, greater amounts are being grown for
human consumption.
Teachers should have students refer to the
Land and Sea episode entitled “The Parsons
of Lethbridge” This video tells a story of a
couple who carved out a farm from the
forest on the Bonavista peninsula for the
purpose of growing crops. This video
highlights some challenges associated with
the growing crops in that area of the
province. Review the Enviro-Focus:
Creating growing environments of
cranberries.
M
any students will have witnessed a
“moose in the cabbage patch” event. Begin
by asking students to tell the class stories
where moose have been either in their
vegetable gardens, farm, or backyard
munching on someone’s favorite flower
bush. Follow this by having them tell the
class what measures were put in place to
Many students may not be familiar with
the variety of cultivated and wild species
harvested in Newfoundland and Labrador.
Having them bring in photographs or even
samples may be a way of helping them learn
about the plants grown in Newfoundland
and Labrador.
188
prevent further incidents. Teachers could
have students read the Enviro-focus “Moose
and Christmas Tree Wreath Grower
Conflicts”.
“A Rear Breed” This viedo documents the
evolution of a turkey farm in the province.
Have your students present an overview of
livestock species that are raised in the
province.
After reviewing the measures that can be
implemented the control or eliminate moose
conflicts teacher could ask students to draw a
site plan of a garden that they might construct
showing the application of what they learned.
Focus
on the topic of livestock and the
environment by looking at issues relating
impacts on water quality, reduction of
biodiversity and impacts on climate. While
there are many issues that could be raised
when discussing this topic, it is important to
keep the focus on what is most important
here; the relationship between the raising of
livestock and poultry and the environment.
Teachers should ensure students understand
that, when looking at environmental issues
relating to agricultural practices, such as the
raising of livestock and poultry, stopping the
practice is not an option because many
people want or need the protein that is
produced and there are economic reasons for
continuing the production (i.e. there are no
easy
answers).
When
addressing
environmental issues relating to livestock
the focus must be on ways of reducing
and/or mitigating the impacts.
At this point the discussion on the ethics of
shooting moose as a way of dealing with this
issue might be considered. Teachers may want
to recall the ideas presented in Unit 2.
As enrichment have students look at some of
the technologies that can be used to control
moose intrusions. Electric fences and scare
devices (noise makers) are the most
common. Challenge students to come up and
design their own methods of control.
To
demonstrate how environmental
challenges are met focus on the Envirofocus
Growing
Silage
Corn
in
Newfoundland and the Core Laboratory
Activity: Testing the Effectiveness of
Plastic Mulch. Link the use of plastic mulch
back to the concept of growing-days. It is
the use of the plastic mulch in combination
with new strains of silage corn that enable
many farmers to produce viable crops yields.
Follow this by inviting a farmer in to talk to
the class about the environmental
regulations and issues that they deal with.
While students would have some
background
knowledge
of
aquatic
ecosystems from other science courses,
teachers should help them make the link
between raising livestock and the issues
relating to water quality. Focus on specific
examples of impacts that include, run off
from manure storage and manure deposited
on fields and livestock access to water bodies.
This will be addressed in more detail in a later
unit.
Teachers
should list the major types of
animals raised in Newfoundland and
Labrador and make students aware of the
diversity of animals being raised and the
purposes for which they are being raised.
Clearing land for agricultural purposes has
resulted in tremendous changes in natural
ecosystems. This is best illustrated by
having students browsing the globe using
“Google Earth” and having them focus on
land use for agricultural purposes in the
Midwest (United States of America) and the
clearing of the rainforests in the Amazon.
The latter example will lead into a
discussion of the potential impacts on bio-
Teachers should have students refer to the
Land and Sea eposide entitled, “From
Wilderness to Woodale”. The viedo reveals
a success story relating to agriculture (eg.
dairy farming) in the province.
Alternatively, teachers could have students
refer to the Land and Sea episode ,entitled
189
Teachers could plan a trip to a local
agricultural operation to give students a
firsthand perspective. Even local gardens
will give students an opportunity to gain a
better
understanding
of
agricultural
demands.
diversity in the tropical rain forest. This
activity will also give students an
appreciation of the extent to which
agriculture is practiced globally.
to waste (manure), methane gas production,
and disposal of animal parts. For example, in
the past animal wastes from the farm were
used to fertilize the growing vegetables. This
practice addressed two issues for the
individual farmer. How has this changed in
large scale operations? As an extension,
students might look at how these were dealt
with in the past and how they might be dealt
with in the future, in particular with new
farming technologies.
With increasing pressure being placed on
the world’s food supply, there is growing
interest in increasing farming in the more
northern regions of the planet. Define agrometeorology and review the concept of
Growing Degree Days (GDD). Work
through an example for the potato using the
material on page 370 of the text.
Explain how growing degree days can be
use to predict stages in a plant’s growth
using the example of corn below.
At this point have students identify, on a
local level, all of the agricultural activities
ongoing in and around their communities.
Phase
Vegetative
Development Stage
GDD
Planting
0
Two leaves fully emerged
200
Four leaves fully emerged
345
Six leaves fully emerged (growing point
above soil)
476
Eight leaves fully emerged (tassel
beginning to develop)
610
Ten leaves fully emerged
740
Twelve leaves fully emerged (ear
formation)
870
Fourteen leaves fully emerged (silks
developing on ear)
1000
Sixteen leaves fully emerged (tip of tassel
1135
emerging)
Reproductive
Silks emerging/pollen shedding (plant at
full height)
1400
Kernels in blister stage
1660
Kernels in dough stage
1925
Kernels denting
2190
Kernels dented
2450
Physiological maturity
2700
190
How GDD can be used to track the life cycle of a pest. The example below is for Alfalfa weevil.
Begin degree day accumulation on January 1
Stage
Activity
Egg hatch
Degree Days
300
1st - 2nd
Instar
Light leaf feeding 301-438
3rd - 4th
Instar
Major leaf
feeding
439-595
Pupa-adult
Feeding stops
596-810
D
O
utline methods than can be employed
by a farmer to protect crops from and/or
reduce the damage from frost. The use of
plastic to reduce the impact of frost can be
easily demonstrated if this unit is being
taught in late fall or spring. Wait for a night
when frost is predicted. Fall days that are
clear will be usually followed by a frost that
night. Have students cut off a one square
meter of plastic and place it on their lawn or
on school property. In the morning have
them remove the plastic and compare. At
this time you may also have students map
where there was frost and where there was
no frost.
efine frost free day and then have
students consult a reference such as the
Atlas of Newfoundland and Labrador to
find out how many frost-free days are in
their region of the province. The data
displayed on the map is calculated from an
average. Have students ask older members
of their community if they can remember
times when there lesser or more frosts than
common today.
From here teachers could have students look
at local trends. This information will be
based on their personal observations over
the years and from surveying older members
of their community. Have students attempt
to account for the following:
O
utline possible impacts of climate change
on agriculture. Include effects of:
• Frost in low-lying areas vs. higher
areas. (Cold air is more dense and
sinks into low lying areas)
• No frost on the forest floor but frost
on the open bogs. (The forest canopy,
like clouds, reduce the radiation of
heat back into the atmosphere at night)
• Little or no frost along the edges of
large lakes. (Larger lakes are large
thermal masses that hold and release
heat thus warming the surrounding air
in late fall)
Teachers should have students refer to the
Land and Sea episode entitled, “Fruits of His
Labour.” This video highlights the
challenges to agriculture in this province,
particularly in relation to cranberries.
•
•
•
•
•
•
higher levels of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
higher mean temperature
available water
soil fertility and erosion
pests and diseases
rising sea levels
Teachers should limit the discussion here to
the relationship between agriculture and
climate change. The factors that cause
climate change, predictions, etc., will be
covered in greater detail in Unit 5. For the
purposes of this discussion, teachers should
191
Teachers could use a pile of sand and peat to
demonstrate the difference between organic
and non-organic (mineral soils). Teachers
could take this demonstration a little further
by showing how organic matter can hold
water better than mineral soils. To do this,
place a sample of peat in a funnel and a
sample of mineral soils in another funnel.
Pour equal volumes of water in each and
measure the volume of water that exits each
funnel. Students will observe that a great
volume of water is retained in the peat
sample.
make students aware that overall the impact
of climate change in Newfoundland and
Labrador should be to have a positive impact
on agriculture.
Teachers could have students select a
specific agricultural region of the province
(i.e. the Codroy Valley) and, as a group, try
to predict how the agriculture of the region
might change in response to various changes
in climate. Teachers should ensure that
students realize that no one really knows the
long term implications of climate change
and that there are many complicated
interactions that might occur.
Students will have covered erosion in
previous courses and should be able to give
examples of localized examples of erosion.
As a means of demonstrating erosion,
teachers could use a setup such as describe
here: fill a 1-meter square board, framed
with 2”x 2”, with soil. Tip the board on a
10-degree slope and use a watering bucket to
pour water onto the soil. Students could be
challenged to determine ways to reduce the
erosion of soil that they will observe. Point
out that runoff contains silt, fertilizers,
pesticides and herbicides and bacteria. These
have a tremendous impact on aquatic
ecosystems and are covered in greater detail
in Unit 4 (the “Freshwater and
Environment”) of the text. Teachers should
limit the discussion of this material to the
context of agriculture. Students might be
encouraged to go online and search for
specific case studies of situations where
agricultural runoff has caused serious
environmental problems. The impacts on
ground water could also be addressed.
Teachers could refer to the Walkerton Envirofocus in unit 4.
Finish off this chapter by looking at soils.
Since students will have studied soils and
soil formation in previous courses and some
of the material on soils will have already
been touched on in Chapters 9 and 10
teachers could ask students to describe how
soil is formed and then linking this to the
notion of renewable resources.
Teachers could ask students to consider
whether it is possible that soil could become
a non-renewable resource (perhaps in the
short term due to mismanagement or
changes in the climate, but soils will reform
if the conditions are right.)
Point out that soils in agricultural areas are
much different from soils in forest area
where, even though harvesting may have
taken place, the soils are relatively
undisturbed. If you have time and the season
is appropriate, do the Mini-Lab Activity Soils as it will provide your students with an
opportunity to compare soils in areas of
agricultural activity with natural soils.
Acid soils are common in Newfoundland
and Labrador and treatment with lime is a
common
practice.
However,
an
understanding of how acidification impacts
plant growth is difficult and should be
limited to an understanding that acidic soil
will limit plant growth.
D
escribe the factors that contribute to
agricultural land degradation. Include loss of
organic matter, erosion, and acidification.
Organic matter acts as a source of nutrients
and helps improve the water-holding
capacity of the soil. It is composed of the
dead and decaying plant and animals
materials.
Inviting
a horticulturalist to speak about
lawn care is an interesting way to make the
192
integrated pest management are covered in a
number of sections in this text. The
introduction and the Forestry section of Unit
3 make reference to these topics. Teachers
should limit this discussion to addressing
pest management in the context of the
agricultural sector. Teachers could use
potato canker disease as a means of
addressing this outcome.
lead into soil conservation as many of the
practices used to maintain a lawn are similar
to soil conservation practices but on a
smaller scale.
Cover
the topic of pest management by
describing the common agricultural pests.
Teachers should ensure that students are
aware that other animals such as moose and
rodents are, at times, agricultural pests.
Teachers should also clarify that many
insects are essential for crop growth (e.g.,
pollinating insects). Pest control and
Teachers could have students read the Eco
Spotlight “The Hairy Chinch bug: Integrated
Pest Management in Your Own Backyard.”
193
Answers to Questions
Check Your Understanding (Page 344)
1. Answers will vary depending on what foods they have chosen. As an extension to this, you might ask
students if the source was local, if the food was grown outside of the province ,or as far away as on
the other side of the world. This is an important link as there are rising concerns about where foods
are grown and their real costs which include transportation.
2. Some foods are manufactured and contain few natural ingredients. Students might be interested in
finding examples of these.
3. Answers to this question will vary.
For Further Discussion and/or Research (Page 344)
4. As human population has increased, the demand for food production has also increased. However, the
total agricultural areas are shrinking because of urbanization. If the present rate of human population
growth and expansion continues, food supplies may not keep up with the demand. Technology has
kept pace with shrinking agricultural areas by producing more disease and drought resistant varieties
of crops and livestock while at the same time increasing net yields per hectare.
5. Interviews may be recorded in audio or video format. Transcribed interviews can be collected along
with a photo of the individual being interviewed. Later a few students might want to produce a
publication similar to the Labrador magazine “Them Days”.
6. Answers will vary. If possible, teachers should arrange for a field trip to a local farm.
Check Your Understanding (Page 351)
1. Soil and climate are two major factors that limit the range of agriculture in Newfoundland and
Labrador.
2. The last glacial period (The Wisconsin Ice Age) covered most of what is Newfoundland and Labrador
resulting in significant weathering, erosion and deposition of the soils. The result is areas with little or
no soils and some select areas with deeper stony soils. The subsequent soil building process has been
very slow.
3. Subsistence is producing enough food for survival purposes. In Newfoundland and Labrador,
producing potatoes, carrots, cabbage, and turnips (rutabagas) along with enough poultry and livestock
was essential to survival. Wild meat and berries would supplement farming activities.
194
4. Common crops include:
•
•
•
•
•
Berries
Root vegetables
Turf grass
Silage/forage
Trees
In 2010 the economic value is 0.5% of the provinces GDP. Students should check with the
Government of Newfoundland and Labrador for recent statistics on agricultural production.
5. Different species of berries required different soil and moisture conditions. Blueberries grow best in
an area recovering from a forest fire. Because of secondary forest succession, blueberry production
has a limited time period to produce the greatest yield. Bakeapples are greatly influenced by frost and
heavy rain at critical flower development.
Berry
Partridgeberries
Blueberries
Soil
Moist rich soil
Well drained
pH
4.5 - 5.5
4.5 - 5.5
Bakeapples
Boggy land with
ground water 40 50 centimeters
below the surface
Deep sandy loam
soils
3.5 - 4.5
Strawberries
5.5 - 6.5
Moisture
Well drained soil
Require lots of
moisture
Require lots of
moisture
Well drained soil
For Further Discussion and/or Research (Page 351)
6. The soil pH is changed by the fire and the resultant change in the climax community allows shrubs
like blueberries to grow and quickly colonize the area.
7. Students should be encouraged to do some research to find out about update practices. Commercial
blueberry growers use varieties that have higher yields and control the moisture and nutrients to
maximize yields.
8. Berries have many uses other than jams and jellies. Other uses include wines, medicines, and herbal
supplements.
9. Exotic fruit production is limited in Newfoundland and Labrador by environmental factors that
include temperature, soil fertility, diseases, and length of growing day.
10. Some important products of wild plants include food, dyes, medicines, and ceremonial/spiritual
symbols. The table below list medicinal plants used by the Aboriginal People of Newfoundland and
Labrador.
195
Plant
Blueberry
Dandelion
Labrador Tea
Balsam Fir
Alder
Strawberry
Use
Colic, jams, wines
- Liver, gall bladder, kidney, constipation
- Dried root for coffee
- Wash for yeast infection
- Asthma, colds, scurvy, fevers
- Wash for burns, ulcers and chafing
- Resin used has an antiseptic for cuts, burns and
sores
- Resin boiled in water to make creams for cuts
- Diarrhea, coughs, toothaches, sore mouth
- Bark shavings with vinegar great for migraines
- Stomach ailments, jaundice
- Externally for sunburns
Check Your Understanding (Page 356)
1. Forage is food grown for animal consumption such as corn, clover, and alfalfa.
2. All forage crops require good soils with the correct pH as well as plenty of moisture and sunlight. In
addition, the harvest time requires hot days with little moisture.
3. Under normal conditions, it is difficult to grow corn in most of the province with exception to the
West coast. The number of frost free days and total degree days available make it difficult to grow
traditional strains. However new strains and new technology have resulted in silage corn proving to
be a very important component in the Newfoundland dairy industry.
4. The advantages include a stone free soil that has been carefully prepared by adjusting the pH, fertility,
and moisture content. The disadvantages include loss of habitat and flood controls.
5. Solutions employed to reduce crop damage due to moose include electric fencing, noise makers, and
more intensive hunting of ‘pest’ moose in agricultural areas.
For Further Discussion and/or Research (Page 357)
6. Students might prefer to do research on one country. Ireland and countries of northern Europe
havevast peat reserves. Peatlands are generally used for growing cranberries and other berry type
crops. They can also support the growth of select root crops like potatoes and onions as well as
cabbage. Peat has been used as a source of energy.
7. Precision feeders work to place seeds at the correct soil depth and spacing during the planting
(sowing)process. Mechanical transplanters create the hole for the plant without soil compaction and
insert the seedlings without damage. Jacketed and ice bank cooled storage maximize the freshness of
a product while in storage. Mechanical harvesters require fewer individuals to harvest a crop.
196
Check Your Understanding (Page 365)
1. Cattle have the greatest global impact and their impacts are both positive and negative. A class
discussion or perhaps a debate on the extent of these impacts should be encouraged. Students should
keep in mind that the domestication of cattle, pigs, sheep, and goats can be traced to approximately
9000 BC and that, in some parts of the world, their impacts are viewed as part of the natural
landscape.
2. Sheep were important historically because they represented a hardy breed, capable of surviving the
harsh conditions of Newfoundland and Labrador. Wool was important for clothing and meat was
used as a source of food.
3. Common livestock diseases include salmonellosis, ringworm, Q-fever, and rabies. Students should
choose one of these diseases.
For Further Discussion and/or Research (Page 365)
4. The two ways that manure is used as an energy source is the production of methane gas from
decomposing manure and the burning of dried manure for cooking or a heat source.
5. Measures to eliminate Mad Cow disease include:
•
•
•
Strict inspection of slaughtered animals
Quarantine procedures for exported/imported live animals
Regular inspection of herds
Check Your Understanding (Page 368)
1. The three factors that influence the potential of a crop being damaged by frost include:
• Less cloud cover at night (increases the potential)
• Proximity to water (reduces the potential)
• Geographical features such as valleys (increases the potential)
2. The four methods used to reduce frost damage include:
•
•
•
•
Planting in less frost vulnerable areas
Avoid planting in depressions
Plant on south facing slopes
Ensure there are no barriers to the free flow of air
Other more expensive methods include using heaters, covering plants, using water sprinklers, and
using fans to move air. In Newfoundland and Labrador, using sprinklers has been the preferred
method.
3. Spraying water on crops can prevent frost damage even when the air temperature dips below zero.
This is possible because of the thermodynamic property called latent heat of fusion. Since water can
exist in its solid and liquid form simultaneously ONLY at 0° C, it will stay at that temperature until it
is all frozen. So for a short cold snap, this can protect fruit by essentially having the sprayed-on water
freeze instead of the fruit. But if it stays below freezing for an extended period, the fruit will freeze.
197
4. Aside from soil quality, other factors considered when selecting a site for an apple orchard include:
•
•
•
Number of frost free days
Location in relation to large bodies of water
South facing slopes
Check Your Understanding (Page 371)
1. Agro-meteorology is the study of the interaction between meteorology (weather and weather
conditions) and agricultural practices. For example cole crops require irrigation in August which can
be a dry month in Newfoundland and Labrador. As an additional example, cool season crops can
withstand colder temperatures and even light frost which makes them more desirable for growth in
Newfoundland and Labrador.
2. A growing degree day (GDD) is a measure of the ideal amount of heat available for plant growth. The
formula for GDD = ((Max temp + Min. temp)/2) – base temp. Each crop requires a specific growing
degree day and it can be used to assess the suitability of a region for production of a particular crop,
estimate the growth-stages of crops, weeds or even life stages of insects, predict maturity and cutting
dates of forage crops, predict best timing of fertilizer or pesticide application, estimate the heat stress
on crops, and plan spacing of planting dates to produce separate harvest dates.
3. Possible effects of climate change on agriculture in Newfoundland and Labrador are hard to predict
but might include a longer growing season, more rainfall or a drier climate, loss to lowlands from
rising sea levels etc. Because of ongoing research, students should be encouraged to seek up-to-date
research on the topic.
For Further Discussion and/or Research (Page 371)
4. Answers will vary – factors that may influence which crops to grow include:
•
•
•
•
Number of frost free days
The GDD
The environmental requirements such as moisture and pH of the soil
Students will have to do research and consult the Department of Agriculture.
Check Your Understanding (Page 376)
1. The soils in Newfoundland and Labrador are no older than 10, 000 years old because the glaciers of
the last ice age removed the pre-existing soils.
2. Five factors are:
•
•
•
•
•
Parent material – the original rock that has been eroded
Climate – influences the rate of weathering, types of soil organisms, rates of decay, moisture
content, and temperature
Drainage and topography - drainage influences soil profiles and chemical properties, whereas
topography influences the accumulation of soil and erosion
Time – most soils become more fertile over a longer period of time
Living organisms – the type and quantity of plants influence the amount of humus that
accumulates and decomposes in the soil
198
3. In a natural state, forests and fields would have different soil horizons, particularly with regard to the
upper horizon. This upper most layer in a field would be deeper than in a forest due to the continuous
changes from season to season. If a field was disturbed by agriculture, it would not have a true soil
profile as compared to a forest because agriculture turns over the topsoil while forest remains
undisturbed by humans.
4. The four components of soil are:
• mineral particles
• organic matter
• air
• water
A balanced soil is composed of 45% mineral particles, 25% water, 25% air, and 5% organic matter.
5. Sandy soils are very poor at holding water, whereas clay soils will prevent water from moving through
it. Therefore neither is particularly good at water retention.
For Further Discussion and/or Research (Page 376)
6. A first step would be to determine the soil pH and organic content. Then, if corrections are needed,
alter the soil to desired levels. For example, pH can be decreased using peat moss or sulfur.
Alternatively, soil pH can be increased using lime (calcium carbonate). As well, it would be
important to increase soil porosity and air content by tilling the soil.
7. Answers will vary. Students can obtain a sample of soil from a local garden center or hardware store
and use it to compare against local soil for organic content, pH, and water retention.
Check Your Understanding (Page 387)
1. The types of agricultural runoff include:
•
•
•
•
silting – fine soil particles that have negative impacts on aquatic ecosystems
bacteria – living organisms present in animal feces that can contaminate commercial and
residential water
fertilizers – organic and inorganic substances that can cause eutrophication in aquatic
ecosystems
pesticides – chemicals that can reduce biodiversity by eliminating specific animal populations
temporarily or permanently
2. A buffer is a zone of land which has the ability to stop or slow the movement of silt laden runoff from
reaching an aquatic ecosystem. This buffer may be a physical barrier such as a berm or a tree line on a
strip of land.
3. Bacterial contamination can cause disease and illness in people who consume water or food
contaminated with the bacterial pathogen. Fertilizers promote the growth of algae and other plants in
an aquatic ecosystem which, in turn, can result in eutrophication.
4. Manure contains undigested plant material, bacteria, and chemical components such as nitrogen and
phosphorus.
199
5. Manure can be used as a natural fertilizer for growing foliage, which is then used to make organic
fertilizers and biogas (methane).
6. Tillage is an agricultural practice of breaking up the soil in preparation for planting, weed control and
adding organic content.
7. Advantages include aerates the soil, adds organic content, and reduces weeds. Disadvantages include
increases the chances of wind or water erosion, loss of moisture, and increased cost of machinery.
8. Soils contain many decomposing organisms such as bacteria, fungi, and animals (earthworms) which
recycle the important nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus. The nutrients are used by other
plants to start food chains.
9. The three factors that influence erosion are:
•
•
•
Initial organic content of the soil
The slope or grade of the land
Cultivation practices
10. Soil erosion can be reduced by:
•
•
•
Planting a cover crop like fall rye or oats while the field is not used
Utilize contour ploughing on sloped lands to slow water erosion
Use a no-till approach or shallow tilling
11. Soil compaction is caused by heavy equipment moving over soil which reduces the soil porosity. This
decreases root growth and water percolation. On agricultural land, soil compaction can be reduced by:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Avoiding work on wet soils
Reduction in the amount of machinery used in fields
Use the same driving lanes or routes across a field
Using four wheel drive machinery reduces the load on each axle
Rotate the crop annually using crops that have penetrating roots
Add organic content each season to the soil
12. Soils are acidic in Newfoundland and Labrador because:
•
•
•
Primary successional processes have produced acidic soil from the weathering of parent
rocks
Organic soils such as peat bogs are the result of poor drainage thus producing acidic soils
The climax community in Newfoundland and Labrador is primarily evergreen coniferous
trees which promote acidic soils. As a result, the forest soils in this province have
resulted from the decomposition of acidic needle-like leaves.
13. Aluminum ions reduce root growth, prevent the absorption of calcium ions, and prevent soil bacteria
from properly carrying out decomposition.
14. The role of fertilizers is to enhance plant growth, thereby increasing crop yield.
200
15. Inorganic fertilizers are commercially produced with three main macronutrients (nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium) while organic fertilizers are derived from organic materials such as
manure and compost.
For Further Discussion and/or Research (Page 387)
16. Building a simple biogas generator would make an excellent science project and leave a
demonstration unit for successive years.
17. Composting allows decomposers to convert the wastes in manure to organic materials that enhance a
soil’s porosity and supply of the essential macronutrients for plant growth.
Check Your Understanding (Pages 399)
1. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an effective and environmentally sensitive approach to pest
management that relies on a combination of common sense practices. The IPM approach can be
applied to both agricultural and non-agricultural settings such as the home, garden, and workplace.
IPM takes advantage of all appropriate pest management options including, but not limited to, the
careful use of pesticides.
2. The six components of Integrated Pest Management are:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Prevention – monitoring and preparation can prevent or lessen the impact of a pest
Identification – the correct identification of the pest is necessary to treat it appropriately and
effectively and not to remove necessary insects in the ecosystem
Monitoring – checking systematically the areas where pests can occur and at what time in their
lifecycle is important to lessen their damage
Injury and action threshold - when a farmer discovers injury to the crop, an action threshold is a
numerical value assigned to the threat which will determine if any action is required
Treatments – once a pest threat requires an action, the treatment method used will depend on
which is best to have the smallest environmental impact in relation to the pest
Evaluation – once a treatment program has been used, the process leading to and including the
action needs to be assessed for its effectiveness.
3. The three types of pesticides used in Newfoundland and Labrador are:
•
•
•
Herbicides
Fungicides
Insecticides
4. DDT was banned because of its negative impacts resulting from bioaccumulation and
biomagnification in food.
5. The common pesticides used in Newfoundland and Labrador would be herbicides (like 24D) and
insecticides (like BT).
6. Chemical control uses either contact or system action on an insect through a manufactured chemical
compound whereas biological control uses another organism to control the pest.
201
For Further Discussion and/or Research (Page 400)
7. Organic gardening is growing crops without chemical fertilizers or pesticides.
8. Organic gardening was the only method of crop production in early Newfoundland and Labrador. It
relied on compost, animal wastes, and products from the ocean (fish offal/whole fish, sea shells and
kelp) to fertilize the soil. Since there were a variety of crops grown, insects were less of an issue.
9. Answers will vary. Encourage students to produce a power point presentation, use the Smart-board, or
produce a Pod-cast or web page.
10. Improper use of pesticides can have a very negative consequence on humans and the environment. As
well, it can lead to insect resistance which compounds existing issues.
11. It is recommended that you assign this question as an assignment.
202
Case study and Activity Notes
Core Laboratory Activity - Testing the Effectiveness of Plastic Mulch (Page 357)
This activity can be done in the classroom as a demonstration or in the laboratory as a formal lab.
Teachers will have to look for different plastics. Different thickness plastics can be purchased at most
hardware stones. Coloured plastics can be found at craft stores and specialty greenhouse plastics at garden
stores.
Before beginning the lab, ask students to identify variables and outline how they will be controlled.
Teachers should ensure that students understand that mulch is any material (usually loose) that is
used to control weeds and conserve soil moisture.
Teachers should ensure that students understand that plastic mulch is a product used in a similar
fashion to mulch to suppress weeds and conserve water in crop production and landscaping.
Student data sheets can be found on BLM 11-2.
Analyze and Conclude
1. Results will vary.
2. Results will vary; however, students should find that the clear plastic would have a greater impact on
soil temperature since it transmits energy rather than absorbs it. Also, water droplets under the clear
plastic retain energy rather than allowing it to escape.
3. See #2 above. Also, refer to http://plasticulture.cas.psu.edu/P-Mulch.html for a more thorough
explanation.
4. Thickness should influence the rate of temperature change, but results will vary.
Mini-Lab: Soils, page (377)
This activity provides students with an opportunity to collect soil data. Depending where your community
is located, you might have students compare agricultural soils with undisturbed forest soil or soil from an
abandoned traditional garden. A soil profile student sheet is found in BLM 11-3.
203
BLM 11 – 1 Agricultural Land Use
204
BLM 11 – 2 Testing the Effectiveness of Plastic Mulch
(Data Table)
Soil Temperature (0C)
Plastic Type
10 min
20 min
205
30 min
40 min
BLM 11 – 3 Soils Lab
Make a copy of your soil profile using the card above.
1. Attach a strip of carpet tape to the card. Do not expose the sticky side of the tape yet.
2. Peel the tape back until it exposes Horizon A. Carefully press a sample of soil from horizon A against
the exposed sticky tape.
3. Now peel the tape back unit it exposes Horizon B and press a soil sample from Horizon B against the
tape and repeat for Horizon C.
4. You now have a copy of the soil Horizon you studied.
206
Soil Data Table
Soil Layer
Depth
Colour
Texture
Temperature
Moisture
A
B
C
Percolation Rate Data Table
Trial
Beginning
water
level(cm)
Ending
water level
(cm)
Water
Drained
(cm)
Start time
Finish
Time
Percolation
time
Percolation rate
(cm/time
Site 1
Site 2
Site 3
Average
Soil Compactness Data Table
Trial
Depth (cm)
Temperature (oC)
Site 1
Site 2
Site 3
Average
207
Ph
Chapter 1 2: Mining in Ne wfoun dland &
Labrador
9
9
9
9
Identification of mining sites past and present in Newfoundland and Labrador
Economic importance of mining to our province
Importance of Environmental Impact Assessments
Types of mining operations, their environmental impacts, processing of ore, and concentration of
ore
Suggested Activities
BLMs
Experiment: Concentrator in a test tube
12 – 1 List of Common Minerals
Core Laboratory Activity: Simulating a
Surface Mining Operation
12 – 2 Simulation a Surface Mining Operation
(Procedure and Data Table)
12 – 3 Background Sheet
12 – 4 Mining Sites and Quarries
12 – 5 Partial List of Companies Incorporated to Work
Minerals in Newfoundland and Labrador
Notes
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
208
Chapter Overview
The core themes of stewardship, sustainability, and biodiversity are not directly applied to the mining unit
because of its non-renewable nature. Stewardship has to be a practice of any resource extraction,
especially in mining because of its environmental impacts. Mining has been an important part of our
history with early mining at Tilt cove, Little Bay, Bell Island, and Baie Verte. Mining has opened up areas
of our province such as Labrador City and Buchans. Because of Newfoundland’s and Labrador’s unique
geology, there are newer mine sites being discovered and opened like Duck Pond and The Beaver Brook
Mine located in central Newfoundland. More exploration companies view Newfoundland and Labrador as
treasure troves of possibilities and uranium, gold, nickel, and diamonds are just a few of the minerals on
their exploration lists. However, the days of large scale mining operations causing environmental
degradation are a thing of the past. The new approach is to ensure mining operations are properly planned
from initial site preparations to final closure strictly within the parameters of legislated regulations that
ensure environmental recovery and remediation. The challenges are significant, but attainable through
careful preparation and cooperation.
Key Terminology
Mining cycle
Exploration
Extraction
Processing
Reclamation
Satellite imaging
Core sampling
Open pit mining
Placer mining
Underground mining
Ore concentration
Heap leaching
Containment pond
Effluent
Tailings
Teaching Strategies
Have them follow up by visiting some selected
site using Google Earth. Remind them that only
the sites that are covered by a high resolution
satellite photograph are worth looking at.
Teachers should prepare a list of mines that are
visible and update it annually as higher
resolution images become available.
Begin
by having students brainstorm some
examples of how mineral resources have
contributed to the development of human
civilization. For example, the creation of various
tools and weapons like knives and spears or
adornments like jewelry allowed human
civilizations to flourish.
Teachers could have students refer to the Land
and Sea episode entitled “Mining and
Memories.” This video highlights the now
inactive Bell Island mines, which provided iron
ore.
Teachers should clarify for students that not all
impacts regarding mining are negative. For
example, economic impacts positively impact
the
entire
province.
Students
could
independently or in groups develop a list of
economic impacts and report them back to the
class for comparisons and discussion.
D
iscuss the social and economic importance of
mining to Newfoundland and Labrador from the
past to the present. If the school is located in a
mining town or a town that serves the workers of
a fly in operation, invite the mayor or a council
member to talk about the economic impacts.
Have the students consider what mining will
mean for the future.
Students can use a map of Newfoundland and
Labrador to locate current and former mining
sites and the minerals extracted from those sites.
(Example on BLM 12-4)
209
mining techniques and possible environmental
impacts. The Hope Brook Gold mine, which was
a topic in the former Environmental Science
course, can be used as an example of the
problems and challenges associated with mining
operations and reclamation processes. In
addition, Hope Brook can be used as an example
of the heap leaching process. BLM 12 – 2 and
12 – 3 will be needed.
In the discussion of minerals and society, do not
leave out our aboriginal peoples. Their ability to
work with stone was amazing and, if possible,
have students visit a museum or a site such as
Burnside or Boyd’s Cove where there are
dedicated interpretation centres that focus on the
lives of these people.
Most students appreciate the role of minerals
O
in their lives. Begin by finding out what their
perception of mining is and the role of minerals
and metals in their lives. Refer to the table on
page 409 in the text and perhaps students might
want to look at metals in other items such as
computers or mp3 players.
ther mine sites in Newfoundland and
Labrador can be studied to gain an
understanding into the milling process and ore
concentration, particularly Labrador City.
Review the mining process by first looking at
resulting tails that has the greatest potential
impact on the environment. Explain to students
that mining is like breaking a skin that keeps
most of these materials from impacting the
environment (reacting with water and the
atmosphere). Mining breaks the surface
exposing un-oxidized minerals to air and water.
Milling and smelting further releases more
materials.
It is the extraction of minerals from ore and the
mineral exploration. Students do not need to
know the details and processes behind these
mineral exploration methods. A general
understanding about the methods and how they
work is sufficient. These exploration methods
result in less environmental impact that
historical methods.
Students could investigate the reasons why an
environmental impact assessment is needed
before an ore body is developed. The Voisey
Bay nickel discovery went through an extensive
EIA and would serve as a good example.
M
ining requires energy. The table below
compares mining with other sectors in terms of
overall energy use.
Students could complete a case study “Voisey’s
Bay Environmental Assessment”.
consider the Core Lab “Simulating a Surface
Mining Operation” as the basis of explaining
the mining cycle as well as some of the various
210
Industrial Energy Use in Canada 2003
Sector
Energy Use (Petajoules) PJ*
Mining
620
Iron and steel
233.7
Smelting and refining
263.3
Cement
62
Petroleum refining
375
Forestry
18.8
Pulp and Paper Industry
850
Construction
56.7
Other manufacturing
566.3
Total Industrial
3045.8
*1 petajoule is equivalent to the amount of energy released from burning 31 million cubic meters of
natural gas or from 277.77 million kWh of electricity
Source: National Energy Use Data Base, Natural Resources Canada NRCan
concentrates. Students could then apply that
concept to mineral and ore production and the
need to concentrate ore resources for purity and
transportation purposes.
Begin
the outline of the mining process by
distinguishing between above ground and
underground mining. Teachers should limit the
discussion of open pit mining and its techniques
to fundamental processes that directly impact on
the environment. For example, when moving
large quantities of earth material, no discussion
is required about the machinery or techniques
used, but rather that dust is created from the
movement and/or blasting.
It
is not expected that students know the
specific details of any one method of mineral
concentration. Teachers could demonstrate, with
simple apparatus, each of these methods. For
example, gravity separation could be
demonstrated by stirring a heterogeneous soil
sample in a jug of water and letting it settle.
Magnetic separation could be demonstrated by
passing a magnet through a mixture of sand and
iron filings. Heap leaching could be
demonstrated by dripping water through a
mixture of sand and salt. Note that this is a
physical separation method, whereas heap
Have
students define ore concentration. To
help students understand the concentration
teachers could ask students to identify some
examples of everyday concentrates like orange
juice, canned soup, or tomato paste and have
them explain the purpose of creating these
211
Teachers should make students aware of the
different kinds of mine waste such as acid mine
waste, leachate, dust, etc.
leaching is an actual chemical separation
method. Floatation can be demonstrated by
shaking in a closed container a mixture of
powdered charcoal, mineral oil, water, and
liquid dish detergent. Resulting bubbles should
contain a coating of charcoal.
Case studies on the web can be used as a
strategy to teach the environmental impacts of
mine waste on water, particularly in
underdeveloped countries where environmental
regulations are lax or non-existent.
Prior to the current movement of environmental
awareness, little was done to treat mine wastes.
Teachers could initiate a brief discussion with
students about the effects of not treating mine
wastes and why it is important for the
environment to properly treat mine wastes.
T
he newest mineral extraction site (smelting)
in Long Harbour can be used as a basis for
explaining the differences between hyromet and
pyromet smelting. This can also be the basis for
discussion on environmental issues. The
materials below compare both in detail.
The Hydromet Process
The Hydromet process is an alternate to traditional smelting and eliminates harmful emissions. The
process uses chemicals that react and dissolve the metal from its ore, enabling the metal to be separated at
lower temperatures. The Hydromet process is currently not the common method used by companies for
nickel production. Inco intends to dissolve Ni2+ ions from pentlandite (Fe9Ni9S16) using pure oxygen and
water. The oxygen oxidizes most of the sulfide ions in the ore to solid sulfur; any excess sulfide is
oxidized to sulfate ions (in the form of sulfuric acid), which helps to dissolve the metals. At the resulting
pH of three, solid Fe2O3 is produced. The reaction for this initial leaching process is:
2 Fe9Ni9S16 (s) + 51 O2 (g) + H2O(l) ! 18 NiSO4(aq) + 13/8 S8(s) + H2SO4(aq) + 9 Fe2O3(s)
penlandite + oxygen + water YIELDS nickel sulphate + sulphur + sulfuric acid + Iron Oxide
The by-product H2SO4(aq) is later neutralized by adding limestone (Ca(OH)2) to form gypsum, which
separates from solution:
Ca(OH)2(s) + H2SO4(aq) ! CaSO4.2 H2O(s)
limestone + sulphuric acid YIELDS gypsum
Since all of the solid sulfur, gypsum and iron(III) oxide can be filtered off, the remaining solution
contains only nickel(II) ions which may be converted to pure nickel metal directly, without interference
from all other ions and compounds originally in the ore.
212
The extraction of copper from copper ore (smelting)
A common mineral of copper metal is chalcopyrite, CuFeS2. The primary treatment of chalcopyrite is
concentration of the ore by flotation. This is followed by a second step where it is heated in a blast
furnace with the oxygen pressure and temperature carefully controlled. The copper and iron become
separated from the chalcopyrite:
CuFeS2(s) + 4 O2(g) ! Cu2S(l) + 2 FeO(l) + 3 SO2(g)
.
+ oxygen yields copper(I)sulphide + iron(II) oxide + sulpher dioxide
Sand (SiO2) is then added to the blast furnace so that the iron(II) oxide produced is immediately
converted into a dense liquid layer of iron(II) silicate, termed slag:
FeO(l) +
SiO2(s) ! FeSiO3(l)
Iron(II) oxide + silica dioxide yields iron(II) silicate
The slag is removed, and the copper(I) sulfide from Equation 1 is reduced to copper metal upon reaction
with oxygen in air:
Cu2S(l) + O2(g) ! 2 Cu(l) + SO2(g)
copper(I)sulphide + oxygen yields copper + sulphur dioxide
for a whole mine site. A review the impacts and
remediation efforts outlined in the text and the
table below.
The greatest environmental challenge faced by
the mining sector is rehabilitating the site and
dealing with wastes that remain for many years
after the operation is closed. Teachers should
focus on the example of remediation specific to
the tailings plan for the Labrador West mining
operations. Teachers should also focus on the
preventative measures of the Voisey’s Bay
Mine. Students must be reminded that
remediation is an ongoing process throughout
the mining cycle.
Each stage of the mining process has different
impacts. The impacts of mining, milling,
smelting and waste deposits depend on the
sensitivity of land, the type of technology used,
the skill and knowledge of the company and the
ability to monitor and enforce environmental
regulations. Some of the potential environmental
damages of mining are outlined in table below.
Teachers could refer to the Hope Brook gold
mine as an example of mitigation strategies used
213
Potential Environmental Impacts of Mining
Environmental Effect
Sources
Remediation
Water (refer to chapter 13 for
more details)
- Increased silting and deposition of
sediments in aquatic habitats.
- Suspended solids from mine the
removal of water from ore
concentrate and tailing, site runoff
and road construction.
- settling tanks and properly
constructed and maintained
tailings dams.
- Toxic effects on aquatic life can
cause reproductive and growth
problems or death of
invertebrates, fish and other
animals
- Acid and heavy metal drainage
from waste rock runoff, mine
dewatering and tailings: or from
hazardous substances used in
milling processes, e.g., chemicals
from mine operations and
petroleum products, etc.
- properly designed and constructed
tailings dams, storage of tailings
under water
- recycling waste water
- control of hazardous substances
- Nitrogen in explosive residues
washed from mine sites.
- Containment of waste water and
runoff.
- Mine discharge, seepage or runoff
from waste rock disposal and mill
sites.
- same as above
- Physical damage to the watertable,
or dewatering (lower water levels
of lakes) from mine pumping.
- recycling waste water
- Destruction of vegetation and
wildlife habitats
- Clearing grubbing, road building
and other surface-related
operational and development
activities. Open-pit mining.
- restoration and reclamation after
the mine is closed
- backfilling open pits where
possible
- Destruction of disturbance of
rare or endangered species.
- same as above
- proper planning
- Aesthetic impact
- same as above, and noise
- proper planning
- Nutrient enrichment causes algal
blooms and reduces dissolved
oxygen in aquatic systems.
- Groundwater contamination
- Lowering of local groundwater
tables.
Land
214
Air (refer to Unit 5 for more
details)
- Dust
- Land clearing, road building and
other activities related to the
operation and development of the
mine. Crushing, milling and
tailings blown away from unstabilized surfaces.
- dust management on roadways
- employing wet milling
- stabilization of tailing by planting
vegetation
- Emissions (e.g., sulphur dioxide)
- From mills and smelters
- Emission controls on stacks
- Noise
- From blasting and operation of
heavy equipment.
Social and economic
- Exclusion of an area from other
uses (ie. Protected area)
- Disruption of communities.
- Mining interferes with other
human uses of and area, e.g.,
hiking and hunting,
- development of a land use plan
- Mining tends to be a “boom or
bust” activity which can
alternately stimulate or depress a
host community’s economy.
- Fly-in operations
- Diversifying economies
shareholders for a larger return on their
investments, and the lack of legislation
especially in developing and under developing
countries often lead mining companies astray.
Of all the products that we use in our modern
day society, it is the metals and alloys that are
the most recyclable of all. Yet tons of metals
find their way to the landfill every day. It is our
responsibility as citizens of the world to be
proactive at the community level and beyond.
Finish
this chapter by explaining to your
students that today metals are an integral part of
our society and the thread around which most of
our technology winds. We cannot have metals
without mines. The technology and wisdom
exist to mine in such a way that the impact on
the environment and society are reduced. The
problems arise when mining companies lose
sight of some the fundamental ethical mining
practices. The quest for profit, pressures from
215
Answers to Questions
Check Your Understanding (Page 407)
1. A mineral can be composed of two or more elements such as gold or silver whereas ore is a
geological deposit containing enough of the mineral to make it commercially viable such as iron ore.
2. Industrial minerals are mineral and rock excluding coal, gemstone, fossil fuels, metallic ores, and
materials that are used for building, cement, and gravel production.
3. a) The costs of the two scenarios could include:
(i) If a company decides to build a town near its new mine site, it is the company’s responsibility for
the construction of homes, schools, and roads. The costs are extremely high to the company
since it has to provide all the services to keep this town functioning. Churchill Falls, in
central Labrador, is an example of a ‘company’ town.
(ii) (ii) If the company uses a fly in fly out operation (FIFO), the costs are much lower since they
provide the flights, the housing for the workers at the site, and all the worker’s requirements
like food, medical services, and recreational facilities.
b) The benefits of FIFO are:
(i) more economical in the long term as compared to developing a town; there will be less
environmental concerns with an FIFO since building a town requires large areas of land that
would be disturbed for infrastructure.
c) The drawbacks of an FIFO are:
(i) value to an existing town since the wealth tends to be spread around; and
(ii) the workers who are separated for long period from their families.
For Further Discussion and/or Research (Page 407)
4. The physical environment near a mine site would have fewer impacts if a FIFO was constructed as
compared to a town development. Creating a town requires massive amounts of land to be cleared for
the infrastructure needed to keep the town functioning.
5. Answers will vary. “Once Upon a Mine: The Story of Pre-Confederation Mining on the Island of
Newfoundland” is available on the web (http://www.heritage.nf.ca/environment/mine/default.html)
and provides an overview of early mining. If possible in your area, arrange for a mine tour for your
students.
216
Check Your Understanding (Page 411)
1. Once Upon a Mine: The Story of Pre-Confederation Mining on the Island of Newfoundland” is
available on the web and gives an overview of early mining and should be consulted by students of
answer this question.
The following areas were historically used in Newfoundland and Labrador:
• Bloody Bay Cove where rhyolite was mined to produce stone tools and weapons
• Ramah Bay was used to mine Ramah chert for making tools
• Fleur-de-Lys where the Dorset people mined soapstone which they used for creating cooking
pots, oil lamps, and ornaments.
• L’Anse-aux-Meadows was settled by the Norse people who used bog iron to manufacture nails
and tools.
• The Beothuk people used hematite (red ochre) as a pigment for clothing.
2. Students might want to do some research as electronics, i.e., cell phones, computers, and MP3 players
contain many materials from mining. Students should also be aware of alloys that contain more than
one metal. Answers will vary. See a typical list below:
• desks – iron ore
• whiteboard/chalk board frame – aluminum
• metal window frames – iron/aluminum
• light fixtures - aluminum
For Further Discussion and/or Research (Page 411)
3. Online research will be required to determine the metals used in the construction of a computer. Most
of the metals can come from recycling such as the iron used in the frame and box. Other less common
metals such as antimony, cobalt, platinum, and gold can be derived from the recycling of other
computer parts.
4. The costs of producing aluminum from ore include exploration costs, clearing the site for ore
extraction, purchasing equipment for extracting the ore and transporting the ore to the smelting
facility, constructing the smelting facility, electrical costs of smelting the ore, and all labour costs.
The costs of producing aluminum from recycled cans include the collecting, storage, and
transportation of the recycled cans, the labour costs involved with sorting and transporting the
recycled cans, and energy costs associated with re-melting the cans.
The people/groups that pay the costs for producing aluminum from ore include the mining and
smelting company.
The people/groups that pay the costs for producing aluminum from recycled cans include the
recycling company and the government/local agency that hire personnel to process and transport the
recycled cans. The true costs are hidden when using recycled cans because the consumer who
purchased the cans pays a fee up front. However, the consumer gets a portion of the fee back when
the cans are returned to a designated recycling facility. It is up to the consumer whether or not he/she
wants to reduce his/her fee by either choosing to recycle or not to recycle.
Answers will vary when asked to make a decision on whether to stop recycling cans.
217
5. Answers can vary depending on the materials they use.
Check Your Understanding (Page 422)
1. The four stages in the mining process are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Exploration – prospectors go out to areas collecting samples that are later processed for
their mineral content and concentration;
Extraction – removing the ore from its ore body;
Processing - physically or chemically removing the mineral from its ore; and
Closure/rehabilitation/reclamation – the completion of a mine site such that the site is
returned to its original state as best as possible.
2. Some of the health problems associated with mining dust include emphysema, silicosis, lung cancer,
and asbestosis.
3. Raw ores are ores that contain various concentrations of the mineral, whereas a concentrate contains
a very high concentration of the mineral. A variety of processes are used to concentrate ore.
4. Chemical leaching requires very environmentally hazardous chemicals, such as cyanide, to extract
the mineral from its ore. These chemicals are highly toxic to any animal which comes in contact with
them.
5. Smelting uses heat to separate the valuable metal from the ore concentrate. For metals such
as copper and zinc, the concentrate is heated until it melts and the metal component is
separated from the silica and iron (slag). Because most ores are sulphide compounds, the
smelting process releases sulphur to the air as sulphur dioxide. The sulfur dioxide combines
with water vapour to produce acid precipitation. Also, sulfur dioxide persists at ground level causing
eye and lung irritation. With some people, it causes asthma events to increase.
6. Placer mining removes the mineral/ore from gravel and sand deposits because of its density.
Underground mining uses tunnels to access veins of ore that have the greatest concentration of the
ore. Underground mines are less environmentally destructive due to operations being contained
underground. However, it tends to be more expensive and dangerous to operate. Open pit mining
creates a large hole vertically in the ground following the ore deposit. It will be more damaging to
the environment, less aesthetic, and harder to reclaim following closure.
For Further Research and/or Discussion (Page 422)
7. Factors that make underground mining dangerous include dust, fumes, higher temperatures, and
potential cave-ins.
8. Hydrometallurgy is a preferred processing method to pyromet because of less environmental damage
than traditional smelting and eliminates harmful emissions. The process uses chemicals that react
and dissolve the metal from its ore, enabling the metal to be separated at lower temperatures.
Hydrometallurgy allows for future processing of other metals other than what it was originally
designed for.
9. Scrubbers are installed in exhaust gas stacks to remove, as much as possible, the environmentally
damaging gas such as sulfur dioxide and particulate matter.
218
10. The major factors would be (i) its proximity to a port, rail, or roads network for getting the ore or
concentrate moved; (ii) the concentration of the mineral in the ore deposit; (iii) the value of the
mineral on the world market; and (iv) the availability of the mineral from other countries at a less
expensive extraction/processing operation.
11. The INCO ‘super stack’ is a very tall structure that exhausts the gases from its pyromet process. The
tall structure was installed to prevent the gases from settling over the city of Sudbury. But the stack
did enable the exhaust gases to travel greater distances from the mine and smelter.
12. Google Earth can be a valuable teaching tool. Students should have no problem finding the mines
listed in the text. Remind them that although the ‘footprint’ of the mine is small, the environmental
impacts might go well beyond as toxins can be transported in the air and water. Teachers may prefer
to capture a set of images and project them on a white board.
•
Students may have to search for mine locations on the internet in order to get the name of a
specific mine site. Then they can search Google Earth for that specific mine site.
•
Open pit mining will be the most visible along with tailings from both open pit and underground
mining operations.
•
Students will find the ‘footprint’ of mining is very small when compared to other activities like
agriculture, forestry and urbanization.
Check Your Understanding (Page 435)
1. Tailings (also known as slimes, tailings pile, tails, leach residue, or slickens) are the materials left
over after the process of separating what is valuable from what is worthless in an ore. Some
environmental problems inherent in tailings include where to store them (surface versus subsurface,
in water or out of water), how to prevent subsequent leaching into surface and groundwater, radiation
release, and possible atmospheric release of dust and gases which could include toxins.
2. The preferred method of dealing with tailings in Newfoundland and Labrador is to use a water
containment system, which limits water and atmospheric exposure.
3. Rambler Mines used earthen dams in man-made water basins. The water leaked out, polluting local
waterways and subsequently allowed the tailings to be moved by wind. Nugget Pond utilized a preexisting lake basin that prevents leakage by modifying the waterway. New water habitats were
established and a fish ladder was built. Tailing were and still are successfully contained.
4. The purpose of the Occupational Health and Safety Guidelines in the mining sector is to protect the
health and welfare of the miners in the industry.
5. The consultation process is important for several reasons:
•
•
•
•
Allows for stakeholder input
Makes the process transparent and public
Ensures safety concerns are met
Exposes economic and ecological concerns
219
6. Some of the parameters examined include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Air quality, including dust management and emission reduction
Tailings and site water management
Potential effects of contaminants in the environment
Impacts on freshwater fish
Impacts on marine fish and mammals (including polar bears)
Impacts on terrestrial wildlife and birds
For Further Discussion and/or Research (Page 435)
7. Answers will vary, but students could research Aeromagnetics, radiometrics, digital elevation,
satellite imagery, remote sensing, and GIS.
8. Students will have to do research and may want to focus on the storage of only one hazardous
chemical.
220
Case study and Activity Notes
Core Lab Activity - Simulating a Surface Mining Operation (Page 430)
This activity is meant to simulate the mining process rather than environmental issues associated with
mining. The link between operations and dealing with environmental issues is the availability of
generated funds to do so.
Teachers should provide a list of minerals to students. Some examples of minerals are galena,
pyrite, chalcopyrite, magnetite, sphalerite, and bauxite. A complete list is found in this guide as a
blackline master.
Teachers and students could decide which object represents which mineral. For example,
marbles could represent the mineral galena. As an additional example, beans could represent the
mineral pyrite. Teachers could use objects other than those listed in the table in the course
textbook as well as below (i.e. Data Sheet) since some students could be allergic to certain
substances (e.g. peanuts). Some examples of objects are: marbles, beans, beads, fishing bobbers,
pebbles, and Lego blocks. Using other objects will require the table in the course textbook as
well as below to be slightly modified.
Teachers should have students refer to the background sheet to learn the values associated with
each of the objects. For example, the background sheet indicates that 1 bean = $1.
Teachers should assemble groups based on class size. Six students in each group is appropriate;
however, small class sizes may mean that either students can be assigned multiple roles or
certain roles can be omitted.
Each mining site is unique. All sites are plastic containers each 3/4 filled with sand. Each mine could be
different based on the types of minerals included, the number of each type of mineral, and the
location of each mineral. As a result students should not expect the same costs and profits for
each of the mine designs.
Students should be given some required mining equipment as well as some starting capital. The
required mining equipment could include three small dump trucks, one large dump truck, one
drill rig, one earth remover, one crane, one separator, and one milling plant. Students should
realize that the goal is to accumulate more mining equipment as more profit is accumulated.
More mining equipment should mean more minerals recovered, processed, and sold. The starting
capital for each group could be $10. This value is small enough to ensure that they need to act
diligently in order to make a profit.
Students must take part in the reclamation process in efforts to restore the mining site to its
original form.
221
Students should calculate their profits and losses and include them in the table (i.e. Data Sheet).
They must also return their equipment as directed by the teacher or information on the
background sheet. Student data and information sheets can be found on BLM 12-2 and 12-3.
Analyze and Conclude (Page 431)
1. Students’ summaries will vary.
2. Answers will vary. Students should identify issues with costs in terms of purchasing equipment,
environmental permits, etc. Other issues include those associated with exploration, lost time,
extraction, etc.
3. Since this activity is meant to illustrate what is involved in the operation of a mine including costs of
exploration, production, milling/smelting, and the issues around time of operation, environmental
protection, etc., it is in some ways reflective of such an operation. On the other hand, because it is
only a model, the actual scale of the venture does not fully represent a mining model.
4. Companies could invest in better concentration processes to refine the ore and thus be able to extract
more from the initial ore.
5. Issues include:
•
•
•
•
Exploration – ground disturbance
Removal and storage of overburden – habitat destruction
Removal of ore and processing of ore – atmospheric dust and/or groundwater contamination
Using the mineral to make products – toxin release
6. Answers will vary.
7. Answers will vary.
8. Answers will vary. They could include what to spend initial monies on, where to explore, how best to
extract the ore, how to process it, etc.
9. Answers will vary. They could include careful exploration planning, what equipment would be best
and when to acquire it, etc.
10. The site would require the removal of trees and overburden such as soils and other organic matter.
11. The company would need to identify what organisms are affected, what water routes could be altered,
how can groundwater be impacted, to what degree soil disturbance will affect erosion and weathering,
and, in general, how the local ecosystem can still survive and operate.
12. Answers will vary.
13. Answers will vary.
14. Answers will vary.
222
Case Study- Voisey’s Bay Environmental Assessment Page (433)
Analysis
1. The Voisey’s Bay Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is unique because it was largely driven
by aboriginal interests and the potential value of the resource/socio-economic benefit to all
Canadians.
2. The process lasted approximately six years – three years of investigations and a subsequent three
years of reviews.
3. The four elements in the environmental assessment (EA) are:
•
•
•
•
Issues of environmental co-management
Decommissioning, reclamation, and rehabilitation plans upon cessation of mining
Monitoring efforts
Procedures for incorporating traditional community knowledge in environmental assessments
223
BLM 12 – 1 List of Common Minerals
u
Arsenic
Asbestos
Barium
Beryllium
Bismuth
Boron
Bromine
Cadmium
Cement
Cesium
Chromium
Clays
Coal
Cobalt
Columbite/tantalite
Copper
Diamond
Diatomite
Feldspar
Fluorite/Fluorspar
Gallium
Garnet
Germanium
Gold
Graphite
Gypsum
Hafnium
Halite (salt)
Helium
Indium
Iodine
Iron Ore
Kaolin
Kyanite
Galena (lead)
Limestone
Lithium
Manganese
Mercury
Mica
Molybdenum
Nickel
Nitrogen
Peat
Perlite
Phosphate Rock
Platinum Group
Potash
Pumice
Pyrite
Quartz
Rare Earth
Elements
Rhenium
Rubidium
Salt
Sand & Gravel
Scandium
Selenium
Silica
Silver
224
Sodium Carbonate/Soda
Ash
Sodium Sulfate
Stone- Crushed
Stone- Dimension
Stone - Traprock
Strontium
Sulfur
Talc
Tantalum
Tellurium
Thallium
Thorium
Tin
Titanium
Tungsten
Rutile
Vanadium
Vermiculite
Zeolites
Zinc
Zirconium
BLM 12 – 2 Simulating a Surface Mining Operation
(Procedure and Data Table)
1. Each company should choose a name and job functions as noted below. Use
teams of 4. The field geologist is also the accountant. Every person has a job -field geologist (looks for the ore); accountant (bookkeeper); miner (digger);
process engineer (prepares ore for sale); environmental engineer (cleans up). In
teams of 6, add a utility worker who helps out.
2. Each day will last 60 seconds and work must come to a halt at the end of 30
seconds. During the working hours (we operate in daylight hours only) the
company can explore, mine, process, dump waste, etc. During the overnight hours
(30 seconds), the company will prepare for the next day, while the accountant
brings records up to date and the environmental engineer cleans the site. We will
play for about 15 days. You may be fined for breaking labor laws.
3. All removal of overburden, trees, houses, minerals, etc. must be done using tools
provided --no fingers. Animals can be moved with fingers.
4. Before you start, you should spend about 5 minutes sketching your site so that
you remember what it looked like. The site must be restored when you are done.
5. At the end of the game, calculate your profits and losses. Return equipment as
directed.
225
BLM 12 – 3 Background Sheet
PLEASE NOTE: Check for peanut allergy and substitute if necessary
Objects Price List
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
1 bean = $1 = Pyrite
1 peanut with shell = $2 = Galena
1 peanut piece with no shell = $2 = Galena
1 marble = $2 = Chalcopyrite
1 bead = $1 = Magnetite
1 fishing bobber = $5 = Sphalerite
1 pebble = $2 = Bauxite
Mining Equipment Costs and Additional Charges
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Purchase a mine site - $5
Purchase of reclamation bond - $5 (returned at end) – piece of blank white paper
Purchase of dump truck - $1 - nut cups
Purchase of large dump truck - $2 - 50 mL beaker
Purchase of drill rig - $1 - straw
Purchase of crane - $3 - forceps
Purchase of pump - $2 - pipette
Purchase of bulldozer - $2 - plastic spoon
Purchase of earthmover - $5 - soup spoon
Purchase of steam shovel - $10 - very large spoon (e.g. wooden spoon)
Purchase of grinding machine - $15 - nutcracker
Purchase of milling plant - $3 - large cup
Purchase of separator - $10 - screen
Cost to a dump truck with waste - $1
Reclamation to government satisfaction (return of bond)
Fines for breaking labour laws - $1
Legal Fees - $1
226
BLM 12 – 4 Mining Sites and Quarries
227
Source http://www.heritage.nf.ca/environment/mine/map1.html
228
BLM 12 – 5 Partial List of Companies Incorporated to Work
Minerals in Newfoundland and Labrador
The Newfoundland and Labrador Registry of Deeds contains a complete list of
companies incorporated in Newfoundland after 1900 to work, develop, etc. minerals in
Newfoundland and Labrador. Some documentation of mining companies incorporated in
Newfoundland before 1900 exists in the Newfoundland and Labrador Provincial
Archives, GN 2/37; these listings, however, are incomplete.
Table 1. List of early mining companies incorporated in Newfoundland
Company
Advocate Mines Ltd.
American Newfoundland Flurospar
Company Ltd.
Atlantic Coast Copper Corporation
Ltd.
Atlantic Gypsum Ltd.
Avalon Gold Mining Company Ltd.
The Bay de Verde Mining Company
Ltd.
Bay of Islands State Syndicate Ltd.
Bear Cove Mines Company Ltd.
Betts Cove Mining Company
Betts Cove Mining Company Ltd.
The Brick and Tile Manufacturing
Company Ltd.
Buchans Mining Company Ltd.
C. and M. Pelly Ltd.
Cape Broyle Gold Mining Company
Ltd.
Cliff Silver Mines Company Ltd.
Consolidated Rambler Mines Ltd.
Dominion Limestone Division
Dominion Wabana Ore Ltd.
The English Ridge Mining Company
Date of
Incorporation
31 December
1954
11 May 1937
Place of
Incorporation
Ontario
15 May 1956
Ontario
Newfoundland
7 February 1952 Newfoundland
27 February 1886 Newfoundland
9 February 1901 Newfoundland
1902?
1907-08
1874?
1878?
27 October 1890
Britain
Maine
Britain
Britain
Newfoundland
29 January 1927
9 January 1953
5 March 1899
Newfoundland
Newfoundland
Newfoundland
1883?
20 January 1961
31 March 1949
31 March 1949
24 November
1856
Goldenville Mining Company Ltd.
17 July 1903
Great Northern Copper Company Ltd. 1906?
Green Bay Mining Company Ltd.
8 June 1973
Gullbridge Mines Ltd.
14 November
1950
Halifax Asbestos Company Ltd.
1892?
Halifax Chrome Company Ltd.
1896?
Britain
Ontario
Nova Scotia
Nova Scotia
Newfoundland
229
Newfoundland
South Dakota?
Newfoundland
Ontario
Halifax
Halifax
Humber Consolidated Mining &
Manufacturing Company Ltd.
Industrial Minerals Company of
Newfoundland Ltd.
La Manche Mining Company
La Manche Mining Company Ltd.
Long Range (Newfoundland) Slate
Quarries Ltd.
Newfoundland &Canadian
Exploration Trust Ltd.
The Newfoundland Brick and
Manufacturing Company Ltd.
The Newfoundland Consolidated
Copper Mining Company Ltd.
The Newfoundland Copper Company
Ltd.
Newfoundland Exploration Syndicate
Newfoundland Flurospar Ltd.
Newfoundland Lime Manufacturing
Company Ltd.
Newfoundland Mining Association
Newfoundland Mining Company Ltd.
Newfoundland Molybdenum
Company Ltd.
Newfoundland Oil Company
Newfoundland Oil Company Ltd.
Newfoundland Oilfields Ltd.
Newfoundland Petroleum Company
Ltd.
The Newfoundland Petroleum Ltd.
Newfoundland State Company Ltd.
New World Island Mining Syndicate
Ltd.
North American Talc Company
North Star Cement Ltd.
Notre Dame Mining Company
Notre Dame Mining Company Ltd.
Pelly-Shaw Newfoundland Ltd.
Pilleys Island Pyrites Company
Pioneer Mining Syndicate Ltd.
Placentia Bay Lead Company
Port au Port Asbestos Company Ltd.
The Pyrites Company Ltd.
Quidi Vidi Copper Company Ltd.
The Silver Cliff Mining Company
Ltd.
Southwest Arm Mining Company
The Standard Pyrites Company Ltd.
22 September
1902
8 October 1941
New Jersey
1863?
18 November
1875
16 December
1906
19 March 1891
United States?
London, Eng.
13 May 1904
Newfoundland
23 September
1880
8 March 1898
New York
17 November
1900
21 December
1939
24 August 1912
West Virginia
16 May 1857
1872?
2 May 1936
London, Eng.
London, Eng.
Newfoundland
27 March 1894
19 January 1900
1910?
22 April 1902
Newfoundland
Newfoundland
London, Eng.
Newfoundland
1 May 1905
1902?
1892
Newfoundland
New Jersey
Britain
1903?
21 August 1951
1869
19 January 1900
11 February 1966
1902?
11 June 1898
1860?
6 April 1894
1891
6 February 1909
26 June 1922
Maine
Newfoundland
Newfoundland
Newfoundland
Newfoundland
New York
Newfoundland
United States?
Newfoundland
Britain
Newfoundland
Newfoundland
1876?
8 June 1889
Newfoundland
Newfoundland
230
Newfoundland
London, Eng.
London, Eng.
London, Eng.
Newfoundland
Newfoundland
St. George's Coal Fields Company
Ltd.
St. Lawrence Corporation of
Newfoundland Ltd.
Terra Nova Company
Terra Nova Mining Company
Terra Nova Properties Ltd.
Terra Nova Properties Ltd.*
Trinity Brick Products Ltd.
Trinity Brick Products (1972) Ltd.
The Turks Head Mining Company
29 July 1918
23 November
1931
1903?
3 April 1860
1908
22 May 1926
11 February 1966
28 April 1972
29 November
1856
Tilt Cove Copper Company Ltd.
4 April 1888
Union Mining Company
1864?
The Western Copper Company Ltd. 26 September
1902
Western Oil Company Ltd.
1898?
York Harbour Copper Company Ltd. 7 March 1899
York Harbour Mine (Newfoundland) 7 October 1909
Ltd.
Newfoundland
Newfoundland
New York
Newfoundland
London, Eng.
Newfoundland
Newfoundland
Newfoundland
Newfoundland
London, Eng.
Britain?
Newfoundland
New Brunswick?
London, Eng.
London, Eng.
*
reincorporated
Source http://www.heritage.nf.ca/environment/mine/appendix1.html
231
Unit 3 Sample Review Items
1.
Describe four roles that forest ecosystems play in supporting life in the biosphere.
2.
Give an example of each of the following uses of NL forests.
i.
Recreation
ii.
Harvesting
iii.
Economic
iv.
Social
3.
What is the name of the department that was created in 1974 to take control of
forest management?
4.
What is the name of the law created in 1990 that required forest management for
timber AND other forest uses such as hunting and recreation?
5.
List 3 specific tree species in boreal forests.
6.
List 4 specific animal species in boreal forests.
7.
Surviving in the harsh environment of boreal forests is difficult as organisms are
faced with cold temperatures, long winters, short growing seasons, poor soil
drainage, and low biodiversity.
8.
Describe at least three adaptations of coniferous trees to surviving in this harsh
environment.
9.
List and briefly describe the three main paradigm shifts in forestry management
that have occurred.
i.
1800’s forestry approach
ii.
1930’s forestry approach
iii.
What does AAC stand for?
10.
What was the forest first used for in the early days of European settlement?
11.
What are two COMPONENTS of sustainable forest management?
12.
Define clear-cutting.
13.
List one positive effect of clear-cutting.
14.
List one negative effect of clear-cutting.
15.
How much wood in NL is harvested by clear-cutting?
232
16.
How much wood in Canada is harvested by clear-cutting?
17.
Define selection cutting.
18.
List one positive effect of selection cutting.
19.
List one negative effect of selection cutting.
20.
Define pre-commercial thinning.
21.
How does pre-commercial thinning help improve the growth of the remaining
trees in an area?
22.
Pick two OLD harvesting technologies in NL and describe how they were
utilized in forestry.
23.
Pick two NEW harvesting technologies in NL and describe how they are utilized
in forestry.
What is one positive effect and one negative effect of forest fires?
24.
25
Nain is the neighbouring remote and rural Labrador community to the huge
Voisey’s Bay mining project. In relation to the Voisey’s Bay project, answer the
following questions:
a)
b)
c)
d)
What are 2 substances that are mined?
What is 1 economic benefit to the residents of Nain?
What are 2 social concerns of Nain community members?
What are 3 environmental concerns of the Nain residents?
26.
What does LIA stand for? How did the LIA secure a good deal for Nain residents
with the VALE INCO Company? Explain.
27.
Give a brief definition of each of the following 4 stages of the mining cycle:
a)
exploration
b)
excavation
c)
processing
d)
reclamation/closure
28.
Which stage of the mining cycle would produce the MOST environmental
damage to the surrounding ecosystem? Justify your answer by providing AT
LEAST 3 REASONS why you think so.
29.
List 3 DIRECT JOBS/CAREERS in the mining industry:
30.
WHO carries out most of the EXPLORATION in mining?
233
31.
List 4 TYPES of EXPLORATION methods for mining.
32.
What is 1 factor in choosing the TYPE OF EXTRACTION METHOD?
33.
Why is raw ore converted into ore concentrate?
34.
What are 2 WAYS that mining sites are RECLAIMED/REHABILITATED after
closure?
35.
What are SCRUBBERS used for?
36.
What is 1 POSITIVE ENVIRONMENTAL RESULT of using PLACER and/or
OPEN PIT MINING?
37.
What are 2 NEGATIVE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS of PLACER and OPEN
PIT MINING?
38.
What is 1 POSITIVE ENVIRONMENTAL RESULT of using UNDERGROUND
MINING?
39.
What are 2 NEGATIVE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS of UNDERGROUND
MINING?
40.
How can TAILINGS have a NEGATIVE IMPACT on the environment?
41.
How can EMISSIONS from mining have a NEGATIVE IMPACT on the
environment?
42.
What are 2 minerals that have been mined in NEWFOUNDLAND AND
LABRADOR that have been associated with major human health problems?
43.
What
is
the
difference
PYROMETALLURGY?
44.
What is at least ONE SPECIFIC REASON why VALE INCO chose
hydrometallurgy?
45.
What are 2 BENEFITS of using Sandy Pond as the tailings dump site as opposed
to a man-made pond?
46.
What are 2 NEGATIVE ASPECTS of using Sandy Pond as the tailings dump site
as opposed to a man-made pond?
47.
If you could make the decision about using Sandy Pond as the dump site, what
would you do? State your case and list at least 2 SPECIFIC POINTS to back up
your choice.
between
234
HYDROMETALLURGY
and
48.
State at least 1 effective action that citizens can take to help protect Canadian
water bodies from becoming dump sites for pollutants. Explain why you think this
action is effective as well.
49.
Why would pulp and paper companies encourage the growing of Christmas trees?
50.
Why are moose a problem in agricultural areas and how can it be lessened?
51.
Explain one way to improve silage production in Newfoundland and Labrador.
52.
Why do farmers need to use plastic mulch for certain crops?
53.
Describe how raising livestock could have an environmental impact.
54.
Describe two ways that climate change could impact agriculture in Newfoundland
and Labrador.
55.
List three components of soil management.
56.
Describe how one agricultural pest impacts crop production in Newfoundland
and Labrador.
57.
How could a farmer make a profit from manure?
235
236