Unit 1 Syllabus: The Ottoman Empire from the early 19th to the early 20th Century
Summary:
This section focuses on developments in the Ottoman Empire both internally and externally. The condition of the
declining empire meant that there was great interest in the region. It also meant that there was demand for change
within Turkish and Ottoman lands. This section also focuses on the extent to which the Ottoman Empire changed over
the course of the 19th and early 20th centuries.
Objectives:
 Analyze the problems in the early 19th century: Greek War of Independence
 Examine Muhammad Ali in Egypt: establishment and maintenance of power; impact; Ottoman and European
responses
 Explain the attempts at internal modernization: causes, aims and effects of Tanzimat reforms; Abdul Hamid:
reaction and reform
 Describe the Crimean War (1854‑ 6): causes and consequences
 Describe the Eastern Question; European challenges and Ottoman responses (mid 19th century to 1913); decline
of the Ottoman Empire
 Evaluate Lebanon: levels of Ottoman control; communal tensions and Civil War 1860; extent of autonomy after
1861
 Examine the growth of the Committee of Union and Progress to 1908/09; reforms of the Young Turks; Balkan
Wars
Readings:
Zurcher, Palmer, Quataert, and others to be assigned.
Critical Vocabulary and Content:
Greek War of Independence:
Greek Revolt 1821, 1823 Communication between Sultan and Muhammad Ali, Syria as a Reward, Ibrahim Pasha,
Suppression of the Revolt, Russian Sympathy for Greece, George Canning, British Sympathy for Greece, French Interests,
Treaty of London 1827, Battle of Navarino Bay, Russo Turkish War 1828-29, Treaty of Adrianople 1829, Greek Autonomy,
London Protocol (Second Treaty of London) 1830, Russian Support of Turkey, British and French Fleets in Mediterranean,
Pressure for peace, Nicholas I, Russian Influence in Region, Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi 1833
Mehmet Ali in Egypt:
French Influence in Egypt, Lord Palmerston, London Convention 1839, Mamluks, Egypt as a hereditary holding of
Muhammad Ali, British Bombing of Beirut 1840, Straits Convention 1841.
Tanzimat Reforms:
Rescript of Rose Chamber of 1939, Bank Notes and Financial Reform 1840, Post Office 1840, Civil and Criminal Code
1840, creation of Parliament (Meclis-i Maarif-i Umumiye), Reorganization of Army – recruiting, funding, duration of
service 43-44, Ottoman Flag 1844, First Census only males 1844, identity cards, Public Instruction 1845, Ministry of
Public Education 1847, Abolition of Slavery and Slave Trade 1847, Establishment of universities, academies, teacher
schools 1848, Ministry of Healthcare 1850, Commerce and Trade Code 1850, Establishment of Academy of Sciences,
Creation of the Municipality of Istanbul 1854 and City Planning Council 1855, Hatt-I Humayun - full legal equality for
citizens of all religions 1856, Non-Muslim military service 1856, first telegraph networks 1847-55, Railway 1856, creation
of factories, Ottoman Central Bank 1856, Ottoman Stock Exchange 1866, Land Code 1857, private printing and
publishing 1857, Civil Service School 1859, School of Economics and Political Science 1859, Press and Journalism
Regulation Code 1864, Nationality Law of 1869 common Ottoman Citizenship regardless of religion and ethnicity.
Abdul Hamid II, 1876-1908: Constitutional Era 76-77 – creation of a constitution at the Constantinople Conference 1876.
Ended with dissolution of Parliament in 1878 after war ended with Russia. Ottoman Disintegration: Treaty of San
Stefano, Congress of Berlin, Cyprus rented to Britain, British Invasion of Egypt 1882, Bulgaria 1885, Crete and Greco
Turkish War 1897. Armenian Question 1892-93, 300,000 killed. Default on Debt in 1875 – 1881 European control of tax
(Ottoman Public Debt Administration)
Education, Military, Political and Social Reform: Hijaz (Baghdad) Railway 1899, Modern Law School 1898, 18 Professional
schools, Organization of the Sublime Porte (Ottoman Government), Reduction of Ministers to secretaries, use of secret
police, Pan-Islamism,
Crimean War
Causes: Disputes the Holy Places, Russian Protection of Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire, British and French
Fleets to Besika Bay, Rejection of the Vienna note 1853, Battle of Sinope 1853, British French Turkish Alliance 1854,
Declaration of War 1854. Ottoman belief in British and French support, Russian hardline on influence in Balkans
Effects: Treaty of Paris 1856 ends war, reorganization of alliances in Europe. Balkan control ceded to Austria during war,
foundation for the Russo Turkish War of 1877, Loans needed for war led to unpayable debt, Reinforcement as the “Sick
Man of Europe,” Further isolated from Europe, European Balance of Power altered.Balkan Rivalries (autonomy of Serbia
and Romania as Balkan principalities) Eastern Crisis 1875-78
Decline of the Ottoman Empire
The Eastern Question; European challenges and Ottoman responses (mid-19th century to 1913); decline of the Ottoman
Empire. British Maintenance of status quo, Russian desire for warm water port, Russian influence in the Balkans,
Austrian Influence in the Balkans, French protection of territories in North Africa (Syria). European interest in trade,
European loans to Balkan Empire. Lebanese civil tension and French intervention, French role in the Suez Canal 1869 –
increased European Influence in region, British control of economic/strategic importance for Suez (India), Disraeli
purchase of Suez Canal in 1875. Greek Independence 1829-1830, Egyptian Affairs and European involvement with
Muhammad Ali, Crimean War, Russo-Turkish War 1877, Treaty of San Stefano, Congress of Berlin, Bulgaria revolts (April
Uprising) and independence 1878/1885, Cyprus rented to Britain, British Invasion of Egypt 1882, Crete and Greco
Turkish War 1897, Balkan Wars
Eastern Crises 1875-78: Congress of Berlin, Bismarck’s Concern with peace in Europe, Russia and Austria Hungary
influence, Bosnia Herzegovina, Turkish Internal Reforms (Tanzemat), Bulgarian Independence. Impact of Major Powers:
weakening of Ottoman Empire, Maintenance of Empire to preserve great power interests
Lebanese Civil War:
Lebanon: levels of Ottoman control; communal tensions and Civil War 1860; extent of autonomy after 1861. Ottoman
Control:Ibrahim Pasha, military conscription of all, Treaty of Balta and convention of commerce 1838, Treaty of London
1841, Bashar III, Division of Mount Lebanon in Christian North and Druze South, British Support of Druze, French support
of Christian, responsibility to Beirut. Communal Tension: Druze, Maronites, Shia Muslim, Sunni Muslim, 1860 Druze
Maronite Conflict, Tension that existed between groups, economic disparity between peasants and landlords, influence
of French traders on Maronite wealth, Ottoman weakness in area, British and French impact on tensions. Deir al Qamar.
Communal tension (Christian and Muslim) in addition to individual religions (Shia and Sunni), Weak governance and
control, Great Power influence.
Montassarifiah Settlement 1860, Establishment of Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate (autonomous region) with Christian
governor and multi-communal council (each religion had respresentatives). Taxation, police, British and French
protection of Maronites and Druze,
Role of Young Turks (CUP)
The aims of the CUP were to strengthen the Empire and end the corrupt inefficient government of Abdul Hamid II.
Impact could include the succession of Mehmet V in 1909, the restoration of the constitution, elections were held, some
reforms of the tax system, some secularisation. However after the Enver Bey coup the CUP became more authoritarian –
so reforms were limited. In terms of the Empire’s international position the CUP was unable to prevent further
disintegration of the empire, virtually all European territories were lost in the Balkan Wars. Thus the empire remained
weak and the government authoritarian in nature.
Assignments will be announced in class. Major assessments will be announced at least 2 weeks ahead when possible.
No later than 1 week before the date.
Possible End of Unit Exam Questions: (this is a comprehensive but not complete list)
How and why did the major powers intervene against Muhammad Ali in the 1830s? M13
Assess the Ottoman Empire’s role in the outbreak of the Crimean War (1854–1856). M13
Assess the effectiveness of the settlement of 1861 in reducing the tensions which had led to civil war in Lebanon. N12
“Abdul Hamid II is best described as an enlightened despot.” To what extent do you agree with this statement? N12
Assess the importance of the Eastern Question for major European powers between 1850 and 1880. M12
Analyse the impact of the Committee of Union and Progress on the Ottoman Empire between 1908 and 1914. M12
Assess the impact of the Tanzimat reforms on the Ottoman Empire. M11
“The Lebanese Civil War (1860) was caused by religious tensions rather than economic differences.” To what extent do
you agree with this statement? M11
Assess the reasons why Greece had gained independence from the Ottoman Empire by 1831. N10
Examine the impact of the major European powers on the Ottoman Empire between 1850 and 1880. N10
Assess the impact of Muhammed Ali on Egypt in the first half of the nineteenth century. M09
Analyse the reasons for, and the consequences of, European involvement in Ottoman affairs between 1830 and 1878.
M09