Latin 3b 2016 Word Study Compilation 1
As you read through each word study, evaluate each
element on the following scale:
1=100% (truly excellent) I’m humbled and amazed
2=92% (pretty good—there was something great that
got my attention)
3=84% (neither here nor there—got the job done but
barely)
4= 76% (not a good job— there was something poorly
done that got my attention in a big way)
5= (68%) evaluation element is extremely poor or
missing entirely
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classmates create scholarly assessments. This is best done by providing helpful remarks and avoiding
overly-inflated praise or thoughtless, generic commentary.
I, your trusty Latin teacher, will also be providing feedback as well. Feedback from all of us SHOULD
accurately reflect the work and thought put into each study.
These are the things you’ll be ranking:
·
·
·
·
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Provided good examples so that I better understand how the word is used
Provided good, useful, and accurate translations and citations so that I can go and find it
Defined the word clearly based on examples (adapted well to the data presented)
Analysis of the word was helpful -- made good observations and drew relevant and appropriate
conclusions
Final overall impression of this word study – a “gut feeling” response to this work
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sentences of written feedback to help each writer improve his or her word study next time. Such
comments should be primarily polite and useful critiques not fluff like “this is really great.”
Note: I changed formatting on some word studies to help these all fit.
Any unnecessary spacing was deleted—authors who added extra spaces or used an incorrect size of
font have been notified in red italics at the beginning of their study.
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Word Study 1, Latin 3b 2016
Word Study 1A
Revolvere, A Revolution!
Revolvere is a fairly wide spread word with a single meaning, but many subtle nuances in
shading. The word means, at its core, to repeat or turn – but this is a very basic overview. Revolvere has
many descendants spread out over several languages. Among these are English, with “revolve” and
“revolution”: Spanish and Portuguese, with the same word (“revolvere”), but with slightly different
meanings both from each other and from the original Latin form: and Italian's “rivolgere”, which means
to turn away, divert, or reflect on a matter.
The first example to demonstrate this word's meaning is from Vergil, the poet who wrote the
Aeniad. Nec requievit enim, donec, Calchante ministro— sed quid ego haec autem nequiquam ingrata
revolvo? / For he did not rest, until, with the servant of Calchas - but why do I however unfold this
disagreeable tale (Vergil Aeniad Book 2:77).
In this sentence, Virgil can be seen using revolvere as roughly meaning “to unfold”. Outside of here,
Palamedes is spreading stories about Ulysses and claiming that is an evil man, and then makes a call to
action with why the king is sitting here listening to him and not attacking Ulysses – and the word works
well because unfold or unwind is exactly the kind of meaning Palamedes is going after. Revolvere implies
that there is much more to be said or that it would be a great trial to fully tell his tale.
Second, there is an example by the poet Martial. Martial is most known for writing harsh and
biting epigrams, and this is no exception. Ipse etiam tanto dominus sub pondere rerum non dedignatur bis
terque revolvere Caesar. / He himself too so much the master under the weight of matters Caesar does not
think it unworthy to return two and three times (Martial Epigrammata Book 6:64).
Martial's sentence means that his writing is popular to such an incredible degree that even the Caesar, a
man who is very busy and has little time for trivialities, regularly returns to read his epigrams twice or
even three times over. Revolvere subtly shifts its meaning from last time – rather than implying there's a
great deal to be said, it implies a degree of regularity. That is to say that the Caesar (already the most
powerful man in the world at this time) reads his writings with a regular and repeated frequency, and to
do that he would have to hold Martial (or at least his writing skills) is high esteem indeed. Much like a
revolving door, the regularity underlying this word is why Martial chose it.
Third is a piece from the senator Tacitus, in which he pokes fun at humanity. Mihi quanto plura
recentium seu veterum revolvo tanto magis ludibria rerum mortalium cunctis in negotiis obversantur. /
For my piece, the wider my reflection on the present and past, the more I am impressed by their joke of
human plans in every cycle (Tacitus Annales Book 3:18).
What Tacitus is saying is that it amuses him how no matter how clever the plan or famous the person may
be, it seems as though fate always turns those who attempt to control it. Here, revolvere means a cycle,
and is yet again different from the other two examples. The first demonstrated depth and the second
repetition, and this sentence fragment has a little of both: Tacitus believes that this has always been the
case, and that he is only witnessing yet another instance of a very long lived pattern, and that is why he
chose revolvere over another word.
And finally, Ovid's Metamorphoses. Iamque iterum moriens, non est de coniuge quicquam questa
suo (quid enim nisi se quereretur amatam?), supremumque ``Vale'', quod iam vix auribus ille acciperet,
dixit revolutaque rursus eodem est. / And now dying, she did not complain against her husband (what
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could she complain except that she was loved?) She said one last "Farewell", which barely reached the
ears of her husband, and returned to where she had come from (Ovid Metamorphoses line 63).
Ovid's use of the word is to signify a return back to or into something. This is the Greek tale in which a
husband is allowed to retrieve his wife out from the Underworld, but must not look at her on his way out.
He cannot resist and does so anyway, and so she only has a moment before being trapped again in Hade's
domain. Revolvere demonstrates quickness or swiftness here – just as she almost made it out, a feat
nobody manages, she just as quickly went back into the Underworld.
Revolvere has a very long legacy, with a wide impact on many languages, and is a deep and
complex word, heavily tied to the situation it is in. The meaning is best imagined as a turning wheel, in a
metaphorical way – just as a wheel may spin for a very long time, just as it may spin very quickly, or just
as it repeats the same motion over and over, the word can be any or all of these.
Word Study 2A
Dear Author: Please be sure that you remove the spaces after paragraphs.
Fingo, fingere
Word: Fingo, fingere, finxi, fictum: touch, fashion, mold, imagine, pretend, invent.
The Latin word, fingo, was used by the Romans for a multitude of purposes. Although it seems like a
simple verb, it actually carries many meanings and translations, interpreted in vastly different ways.
According to Wheelock’s reader, fingo is translated to mean “fashion, mold, imagine, pretend, and
invent.” While most of these meanings have to do with the physical side of artwork and creating, it also
carries over to other actions, such as pretending or putting on an act.
While it carries these two types of meanings, it most commonly refers to physical actions. The first
simple example comes from Ovid’s passage of King Midas and the Golden Touch.
Example 1: Vix spes ipse suas animo capita aurea fingens omnia : (Wheelock, Ovid’s
Metamorphoses, line 118).
Translation 1: He hardly seizes with his spirit the hopes themselves, as he was molding everything to
gold.
In this sentence, the translation of the word simply focuses on physical touch. Translated as “molding”
we see that it is an action that can apply to sculpture, artwork, or in the case of King Midas, whom the
passage speaks of, simply touching turning his final product into an extravagant golden masterpiece.
Example 2: Duces tamen intellexerunt fingere ((Minkova and Tunberg, Latin for the New Millennium,
chapter 5, line 8)..
Translation 2: The leaders nevertheless understood to pretend.
Example 3: Deinde is illum planetam fingere debuit (Minkova and Tunberg, Latin for the New
Millennium, exercise 6, line 6).
Translation 3: Thereupon, he ought to pretend that the planet is his own.
Here, we see fingo translated slightly differently, however, both of these excerpts share similar
meanings of the word. Instead of a translation such as touching or molding, they are translated as
“pretend”, a meaning slightly different from the others. This passage shows the diversity of the word and
how it can be interpreted differently; still physical actions, rather than thinking, however they are still
different from molding or fashioning.
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Word Study 1, Latin 3b 2016
A slightly more modern example of this word comes from a scientist, Isaac Newton, who conducted
experiments a couple of centuries ago.
Example 4: Hypotheses non fingo (Holton, “Newton’s Law of Motion”, 9.3).
Translation 4: I do not feign hypotheses.
This statement was written by Newton in his laboratory notebook during a failed experiment.
Dedicated to his work, he refused to record an artificial hypotheses unsupported by sufficient evidence,
thus his final conclusion he wrote was the previous Latin statement. This translation goes alongside the
second example, of pretending. Newton’s final point was that he does not write fake, or pretend,
hypotheses, thus showing once again that this word has a double meaning; that of touching, creating, etc.,
and that of pretending.
A substantial amount of words in the Engish language are derived from this Latin word as well. First, a
quite obvious one, is fingers. The two words share nearly identical spelling, and as fingo may refer to
handwork, this is how the word fingers came about to be. Some others are figure, disfigure, or
configuration. These terms all share similar spelling to the word fingo, as well as similar definitions, of
course. These words all relate to physical or art work, or putting something together, as well as mentally
“figuring something out”, applying to the mental aspect of the word fingo.
The word fingo has several different means of translation, ranging from molding and fashioning, to
pretending and inventing. As seen in Example 4, with scientist Newton, the word is still often relevant,
especially by inventors or artists, and has greatly contributed to the English language.
Word Study 3A
The Wonda of Unda
At first glance there seems to be no connection between the Latin noun unda and its English
meaning, wave or water. Upon digging deeper, however, it is realized that there are many derived links
between the words, some immediately clear upon scrutiny, such as undulate and inundation, and others
more subtle, like abound. Unda has a long and important history, and has been used repeatedly over the
years by some of Rome’s most famous minds. Its meaning appears simple, with little room for
interpretation, but after thousands of years of usage, this word has surprising depth.
Unda eiecit alteram. / At in vadost, iam facile enabit. eugepae, / viden alteram illam ut fluctus
eiecit foras? The water threw out the other. And it now easily goes in the shallows. Well done! Do you
see that other thing so the wave may throw it forth (Plautus, Rudens 1.2)? Sed quis hic est quém ego huc
advenientem conspicor, / suam qui undantem chlamydem quassando facit? But who do I perceive is
coming to this place, who must violently shake his own loosely hanging woolen garment? (Plautus,
Epidicus 3.3) Plautus wrote his works around 200 BC. In the first example, featuring Rudens, he uses
unda as a simple noun meaning the sea. In the second example, however, he uses udantem, a present
participle form of the verb undare, which literally means surging or waving, but can also be translated as
loosely hanging.
Hi summo in fluctu pendent; his unda dehiscens / terram inter fluctus aperit; furit aestus harenis.
These hang on the highest waves; the sea lays bare the gaping earth between the waves; it rages on the
seething sands (Virgil, Aeneid 1.106-7). These lines were written sometime between 29 and 19 BC,
almost a hundred years after Plautus. Here the meaning of the word is simple; Vergil uses the word as sea,
and there is little room for other interpretation.
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Dicam et Alciden puerosque Ledae, / hunc equis, illum superare pugnis / nobilem; quorum simul
alba nautis / stella refulsit, / defluit saxis agitatus umor, / concidunt venti fugiuntque nubes / et minax,
quia sic voluere, ponto / unda recumbit. I will talk of Alcides and the boys of Leda, and this man with
horses, that noble man was above fights; the white star immediately shines for the sailors; the sea, having
been put into motion, flows down the stones; winds destroy and flee the overhanging cloud, because to
wish thus, the flat-bottomed boat reclines on the wave (Horace, Carmina 1.12). In his Odes, written
between 23 and 13 BC, Horace uses the word unda to mean sea, using it as a plain noun just as Vergil and
Plautus did.
Qua vicina pluit Vipsanis porta columnis / Et madet adsiduo lubricus imbre lapis, / In iugulum
pueri, qui roscida tecta subibat, / Decidit hiberno praegravis unda gelu: Where it rains near the gate of
the Vipsanis pillars and the deceitful, constant wetness streams down the stone onto the neck of the boy,
who was passing under the dewy cover, and he cut down the very heavy, wintry, freezing icicle (Martial,
Eppigrammata 4.18). Martial wrote most of his works around 100 AD, three hundred years after Plautus
and a hundred years after Horace and Virgil. In the above passage unda is translated as icicle, which drips
water down onto the boy Martial is speaking about. Martial introduces readers to the knowledge that it is
cold and icy by using words like hiberno and gelu, and since it is known unda means water, itcan than be
concluded that he is referring to frozen water—an icicle.
Et quoniam illi rex cum praefata loci possessione omnes, qui ibidem erant, facultates cum agris
et hominibus donauit, omnes fide Christi institutos, unda baptismatis abluit; And since that king, having
spoken, gave possession of the land and all powers with the fields to men, who were in the same place, all
took the undertaking of Christ with faith, and washed in the water of baptism (Bede, Historiam
ecclesiasticam gentis Anglorum 4.13). St. Bede wrote the above lines in the beginning of the 8th century
AD, several centuries after all of the Roman authors. He is writing in what is often called Church Latin,
yet he uses unda the same as the others before him to mean water.
Unda comes from the Proto-Indo-European root word wed, which means water or wet. Other
words which come from the same root include Sanskrit udrah, Old Prussian wundan, Old Church
Slavonic and Russian voda, Lithuanian vanduo, and Gaelic uisge. Other Latin words which are derived
from unda include undare (to rise in waves, surge, undulate); undulatus (wavy, undulated); undula (a
wavelet, ripple); undulation, undulationis (curling, a Church Latin adjective dating from the 15th century);
inundare (to overflow); abundare (to overflow, be in abundance); and redundare (to overflow, be in
excess). Unda left many derivatives in its wake, and not only in English; French has the words onde and
abonder; Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish onda; and Romanian undă. Derivatives in English include
words such as undulation, redundant, inundation, and abound.
Unda has a long and important history, able to be traced back from its Indo-European roots all the
way to its modern derivatives. It has been used by many famous Roman authors, from Cicero to Martial,
from Horace to Virgil, and can also be found in parts of the Bible. Even today, thousands of years after it
was used by the Romans, forms of it still remain in many langauges.
Word Study 4A
Light After Darkness
Post Tenebras Lux was one of the few Latin phrases which arose in my daily life that stumped
me. Mortifyingly, I was clueless as to the meaning of tenebras. Though I immediately resolved to look it
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up, it slipped my mind until I stumbled across it again in Pyramus et Thisbe. It was a sign; I was meant to
discover the secrets of this fascinating word. At first glance, tenebra seems to have only one simple
meaning: darkness, as pertains to night; however, it can mean far more. Depending on the context and the
author, tenebra can mean darkness in reference to death, blindness, swooning, and even the brain.
Through studying many uses of the word, one can understand the different ways in which tenebra is used,
and the overall meaning they all have in common.
Ovid’s use of tenebra in Pyramus et Thisbe will start the study of excellently, as he uses it to
convey the simple meaning of nighttime darkness. “Callida per tenebras, versato cardine,
Thisbe egreditur fallitque suos… Skillfully opening the door, Thisbe came out through the darkness and
deceived her parents… (Ovid, Metamorphoses 4.93).” Possibly, Ovid also used tenebra here to highlight
the darkness’ help in the deceit; only in complete darkness could Thisbe avoid her parents’ watchful eyes.
Tenebra as used to mean the darkness of night can also have a slightly different meaning as well. From
the Vulgate: noctem verterunt in diem et rursum post tenebras spero lucem. They turn night into day and
I hope for light again after darkness (Job, Vulgate Job 17:12).” In this passage, the “darkness of night” is
used figuratively to convey the sufferings or hard times of life.
Ovid does not limit his use of tenebra to his need for a word for darkness; he also uses it to mean
blindness: tenebras et cladem lucis ademptae obicit. He objects to the darkness and the ruin of the anulled
light (Ovid, Metamorphoses, 3.515).” While taken out of context, it sounds as if a man who has gone
blind is lamenting the “darkness” of his vision- the lack of light. Vergil assists us in our perusal of
tenebra’s meanings as well: tenebris nigrescunt omnia circum, All around became black with the
darkness (Vergil, Aeneid 823-4).” This passage refers to the darkness that occurs when one is fainting or
swooning. Finally, tenebra can be employed to describe darkness or obscurity of the mind: vestram
familiam, obscuram e tenebris in lucem evocavit. He calls forth your dim family out of the darkness into
the light (Cicero, speech to Archias, 6.14).” Here, darkness means mental obscurity rather than literal
darkness.
While the versatile uses of tenebra make it difficult to pinpoint a specific definition, a general one
can certainly be attained. Taking into consideration all of the many different uses of the word, we can
present a final definition for tenebra, -ae: “lack of sight or understanding”, or more concisely, “lack of
perception.” As far as English derivatives, tenebra is one of the few words for which I have found none
at all. However, tenebra does have a verb version, tenebro, which means to make dark. Also, from
tenebra comes Spanish’s tinieblas, French’s tenebres, and Italian’s tenebre, all of which of course mean
darkness.
By studying tenebras, we have discovered the many different definitions and connotations of the
word, as used by three of the greatest Latin authors as well as the Vulgate. It can be used to describe
nighttime darkness, blindness, hard times, swooning, and mental obscurity. Though the word has quite a
few meanings, we also established the one they all have in common, “lack of perception.” While oddly it
does not have any English derivatives, Spanish, French, and Italian all benefitted from tenebra.
Hopefully, this detailed, but by no means complete, study of tenebra can add to your understanding of the
word and by extension of the wonderful Latin language.
Works Cited
"Latin Word Study Tool." Latin Word Study Tool. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Feb. 2016.
Quaere!" Latin Definitions For: (Latin Search). N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Feb. 2016.
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Word Study 1, Latin 3b 2016
"Read and Study the Bible Online - Search, Find Verses." Bible Study Tools. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Feb.
2016.
"MyMemory - Machine Translation Meets Human Translation." MyMemory - Machine Translation Meets
Human Translation. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Feb. 2016.
Simpson, D. P. Cassell's Latin Dictionary: Latin-English, English-Latin. London: Cassell, 1977. Print.
Word Study 5A
Dear Author: Please be sure that you use 1.15 spacing
A waxy word
The Latin word “Cera, -ae” is a first declension feminine noun. In Cassell’s Latin Dictionary, it
means “wax”. It is originally a noun, but can also be an adjective translated “waxed”. This word has been
used different authors such as Cicero, Vergil, and Ovid. Each author individually shows different forms of
the word “Cera”, and the meaning may change, according to its context. In our terminology of the word
“wax”, it is a sticky substance produced by bees, and recognized by different names such as “honeycomb”
or “beeswax”. This word study will focus on the etymological history and analyzing the uses of the word
“Cera” in several translations by Roman authors.
“Cera” has an interesting etymological history, because it originated in different places. First, it
originated in the late 15th century, where it came from the French word “cire” which means, “waxed”, for
it is an adjective. Second, it came from the Greek word “κηρός” (“keros”) which simply means
“beeswax”, however, the actual origin of this word is unknown. What is interesting about this word is that
it is actually the name of an island located in the Cyclades of the Ancient Greeks time. In English, “keros”
is a root for the word “kerosene” which is a type of oil used for lighting lamps during the time of the Wild
West. There is an interesting history of the meaning “wax”. In everyday life, there are different meanings
for the word “wax” like “beeswax”, “earwax” and “wax paper”. For example, Ovid used the word “wax”
in the story of Daedalus and Icarus to connect the feathers on his newly invented wings. Several of the
Roman authors discussed in this word study will use different meanings of the word.
The first author we will be looking at to understand the usage of the word is the Roman poet
Ovid. His first major work was Amores (The Loves) which were poems based on an imaginary woman
Corinna. His most famous work in his time was Metamorphoses, which was a serious of poetic stories. He
spent the rest of his life in exile, but still writing some famous works. His Metamorphoses show some
examples of the word “cera”.
Puer Icarus una stabat et, ignarus se tractare pericla, ore renidenti modo, quas vaga moverat
aura, captabat plumas, flavam modo pollice ceram mollibat, lusuque suo mirabile patris impediebat
onus. The boy Icarus was accustomed to stand together with his father, and not knowing that his own
perils attracted him, with a beaming face, he was snatching at feather, which were moved by a passing
breeze, now he was softening the yellow wax with his thumb, and with his marvelous play, he hindered
the work of his father. (Ovid’s Metamorphoses 8.195-200).
This statement is from the story of Daedalus and Icarus: The first Flight. Ovid describes earlier
in the story that Daedalus uses “wax” to line up the feathers on the flying contraption. In this passage, the
use of “cera” is straightforward for it is an accusative singular. What Ovid is saying here is that the wind
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is blowing and the feathers are flying away, so Icarus has to catch them, while he is actually softening the
wax with his thumb.
Rapidi vicinia solis mollit oderatas, pennarum vincula, ceras. His earness to the sun quickly
softened the fragrant wax, holders of the feathers. (Ovid’s Metamorphoses 8.225-226).
Before this passage, Daedalus warns Icarus not to fly too high or too low. However, Icarus flies
too high and the sun softens the wax. The wax is what holds the entire flying contraption together, so
when it melts, the contraption immediately falls apart. Here, “cera” is actually an accusative plural, but is
translated as singular. The “ceras” and “odoratas” are in apposition with “vincula” and are translated
“fragrant wax”. Ovid translates “ceras” as “wax” and the main idea is that it is used to attach feathers to
the flying contraption.
Cetera fert blanda cera notata manu. He carries the rest in his hand, with flattering waxen
inscriptions. (Ovid, Amores 11.14-15).
This statement is from Ovid’s Amores. Since the title means “love”, Ovid makes it clear to us that
this poem will be about love. This is part of a poem, where a man is writing a letter to a woman. He must
be describing the inscriptions as being “waxen”, which means it certainly looks like wax.
Pan primus calamos cera coniungere pluris instituit. Pan first taught us to join more reeds with
wax. (Vergil, Eclogues 2.32-33).
Vergil is a Roman poet from the Augustan period. The main subject of this passage here is Pan.
Pan is the god of the wild, hunting and companion of the nymphs. He is depicted to be half man, half
goat, or a faun. He plays a set of reed pipes, which possibly contained magic. Here, Vergil is saying that
Pan teaches us to connect reeds with wax. Like in the Daedalus and Icarus legend, “wax” is an important
bond. Instead of connecting feathers, it is connecting reed pipes.
Ut enim, si omnis cera commutabilis esset. For just as, if all wax were capable of change (Cicero,
de Natura Deorum 3.30).
Cicero is a Roman philosopher, lawyer, politician, orator, etc. The title of this pass is translated
“On the Nature of the Gods”. What Cicero is saying in this passage is that if wax were capable of change,
then everything thing that is non-wax is not capable of change. Every living thing on this earth is liable to
death, however wax is something that has the ability to change. The “cera” here is a nominative singular,
and is the main idea of this passage.
Sources:
th
Cassell’s Latin Dictionary 6 Edition
“Perseus Digital Library”. Perseus Digital Library. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Feb. 2016
Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper., 2001-2006. Web. 21. Feb 2016
Word Study 6A
Light as Aether, Stiff as a Board
Aether, aetheris is a masculine noun generally meaning the heavens, or sky. It also can signify the
“brightness” or “ethereal matter surrounding a deity” in Roman mythology. The word is often used by
Roman poets such as Ovid, and in later religious writings such as the Bible. It does not just describe the
sky, it also describes where deities or gods reside, and can be used anywhere from religious to scientific
context. By studying ancient texts using the word aether, and exploring the etymology and cognates of
the word itself, a better understanding of the word should become apparent.
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Aether comes from the Ancient Greek word αἰθήρ, or aithḗr meaning simply “air”, or in some
cases “god of upper air or light.” In Greek mythology, there was a primordial god called Aether, meaning
light. He was the personification of the “bright, glowing upper air of heaven.” Knowing this, it makes
sense that the Greek word αithḗr would come from the base of another Greek word, αἴθω, or aíthō,
meaning to burn or shine. Cognates of Aether include the English Ether, meaning many different things
including the air regarded as a medium for the radio, an elastic substance used in physics, and a volatile
liquid used as anesthetic in chemistry. A Portuguese cognate is éter, with the same meanings. An apparent
trend that the cognates have is that they are usually used to describe different scientific terms.
The most common use of the word is demonstrated in Ovid’s, a Roman poet, Metamorphoses,
through the story of Daedalus and Icarus. Daedalus and his son, Icarus, were entrapped in the Labyrinth in
Crete. Daedalus, one of the first inventors, created wings made of wax and feathers to escape. The scene
shows them flying through the sky, and aethera is used to accentuate the unbelievable scene. Because
men are flying, it’s not simply a normal sky; Ovid wanted to show specifically the heavens to dramatise
the situation.
Hos aliquis, tremula dum captat harundine pisces, / aut pastor baculo stivave innixus arator / vidit et
obstipuit, quique aethera carpere possent, / credidit esse deos. Meanwhile, a shepherd leaning on his staff
or a plowman the handle of his plow, someone shaking then catching fish with his rod, sees them and is
astounded, and they who were able to pass through the heaven, believing them to be gods
(Ovid Metamorphoses 8.217-20).
Another use of aether is shown in book one of Cicero’s De Natura Deorum. These books are
philosophical dialogues that focuses on different schools of thoughts, and their opinions on what a god is.
In the 36th part of the first book, Cicero’s character is showing Zeno’s, founder of Stoicism, thoughts on
whether aether is a god. Aether is used as a personification of the sky, the personification being the
primordial god mentioned before, Aether.
Atque hic idem alio loco aethera deum dicit—si intellegi potest nihil sentiens deus, qui numquam nobis
occurrit neque in precibus neque in optatis neque in votis; (Zeno) says in another place that aether is a
god - if there is any meaning in a god without sensation, a form of god that never presents itself to us
when we offer up our prayers and supplications and make our vows (Cicero De Natura Deorum 1.36).
Aether is also used twice in Martial’s Epigrammata. By itself, aether has relatively the same
meaning in both poems; but in the sentence as a whole, what both poems are attempting to get across is
completely different. Martial’s epigrams are usually biting, but living in a time where if you said
something against the emperor was considered as treason, he had to keep the emperor at that time,
Augustus, happy. The first poem is praising Augustus’ palace and how it is greater than even the
pyramids in Egypt; but of course, at the end, he claims that “it is not as great as it’s lord”. Aether is
portrayed in this context as “impenetrable” and impossible high.
Aethera sic intrat, nitidis ut conditus astris / Inferiore tonet nube serenus apex / Et prius arcano satietur
numine Phoebi, / Nascentis Circe quam videt ora patris. It penetrates the heavens so, that its pinnacle,
surronded by the shining stare, is not disturbed by thunder from the clouds below, and receives the rays of
Phoebus before the hell illumined, and even before Circe beholds the face of her rising father (Martial
Epigrammata 8.36).
In Martial’s next epigram, he is portraying snow falling on the head of the emperor Domitian.
Domitian’s son died when he was young, and in an almost pitying tone, Martial claims it was probably
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his son sending the snow to him, playing in the sky. Aether here is being used as heaven itself, where
Domitian’s dead son is frolicking.
Quis siccis lascivit aquis et ab aethere ludit? / Suspicor has pueri Caesaris esse nives. Who frolics with
the dry water and plays in heaven? I suspect the snow is from this boy of Caesar.
Aether has one general meaning, sky, which can be interpreted in many different ways. It can be
used unbelievably to create a whimsical moment, as it did in Ovid’s Metamorphoses, referred to as the
heaven where the dead’s souls go or as the home of the gods, or even be used as a personification of the
sky as a god. It is used in many different contexts, whether scientific or mythological, and tons of
cognates have come from this simple 3rd declension Latin noun. So if one would ever see a beautiful
sunset and wish to write a Facebook post in Latin about it, they should always use aether.
Word Study 7A
Not All That Glitters Is Gold
“All that is gold does not glitter, not all those who wander are lost; the old that is strong does not
wither, deep roots are not reached by the frost” (“Famous”). Though J. R. R. Tolkien states in his book
The Lord of the Rings that not all that glitters is gold, the Romans certainly respected the substance, for it
was the purest and most valuable method of currency in their empire. Their word for gold, aurum, auri, is
a second declension neuter noun that famous authors such as Ovid have often employed to paint the
image of the glittering, gilded yellow metal that was held in such high regard. Often in Roman tales, gold
is either used as a goal or warning, for it was and still is highly sought after by humanity. King Midas
warns us against greed while Jason and the Argonauts illustrate a positive picture of gold, but throughout
all these stories there is one similarity: the word aurum and the translation of “glittering gold.”
In his short story Midas and the Golden Touch, found in Metamorphoses 11.85-145, Ovid tells
the tale of a king, Midas, to whom Bacchus grants the opportunity to wish for anything he wants,
anything in the world. However, destined to make a greedy decision, Midas requests that Bacchus “Effice
quidquid corpore contigero fulvum vertatur in aurum.” Let whatever I touch with my body be turned into
yellow gold (Ovid, Metamorphoses 11.102-3). Sadly, Bacchus grants him his request, and Midas joyfully
tests his new power. However, it does not take long for the king to realize that his blessing is truly a
curse, for he can neither eat nor drink, and in some versions of this tale he even mistakenly turns his
daughter into solid metal. Traumatized by the unforeseen results of his wish, he runs away, “Ad
caelumque manus et splendida bracchia Tollens… inquit,” And raising his hands and shining forearms to
the sky, he cries (Ovid, Metamorphoses 11.131) out for Bacchus to relieve him of his burden which even
now has begun to turn Midas himself into solid gold. Bacchus takes pity on him, and tells him how to
atone for his greedy sin; soon after, Midas washes the wicked metal from his pale skin. Throughout this
story, Ovid uses a particular meaning behind the word aurum: that of solid gold. It is possible for aurum
to mean the “hue or luster of gold,” but Ovid obviously refers to the complete and absolute, solid
substance. When he speaks of Midas spitting out his food, disgusted at its hardened, yellow state, he is
pointing out that the food and drink have turned entirely into gold, not the mere appearance. If the feast
had merely turned the color gold, then Midas would be able to eat and drink without hesitation and the
moral of the story would not be effective. Overall, Ovid clearly means to define the word aurum as a
substantial and solid mineral, establishing for centuries the negative impacts of being selfish and greedy.
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Not only does Ovid continually use gold as a warning against greed, but other authors, including
himself, have used gold as a symbol of beauty, health, and luster. In Psalm 19:10, the Vulgate compares
the fear of the Lord to gold saying, “desiderabilia super aurum et lapidem pretiosum multum et dulciora
super mel et favum redundantem” More desired than gold and much fine stone, and more delicious than
honey and the overflowing honeycomb (Psalm 19.1). In this instance, the word aurum is used in a
metaphorical sense, comparing its marvelous beauty and true value to fearing God. In another story quite
opposite his tale of the unfortunate king Midas, Ovid himself uses gold as a symbol of health in the
narration of Jason and the Argonauts. In this story, Jason sets out to find the golden fleece, the coat of a
sheep which has unimaginable healing powers. One excerpt from the tale tells how a Jason gives the
guard, a great serpent, a sleeping draught so that “Somnus in ignotos oculos sibi venit, et auro / heros
Aesonius potitur spolio…” Sleep comes into its forgiven eyes, and the hero Jason grasps the golden
fleece, (Ovid, Metamorphoses 7.152-7). In this instance, Ovid employs the beauty and reverence behind
the word to apply it to a powerful healing symbol, the golden fleece; this is a much more symbolic and
positive use of the word in comparison to Midas’ tale of greed. Finally, the word gold is often employed
metaphorically as the glittering sheen that so many people admire. One example of this is when C. Valeri
Flacci writes in his Argonauticon Liber Quintus how “Magis asperat ignes / Sirius et saevo cum nox
accenditur auro / luciferase crinite faces,” Sirius (the star) excites more fires and the night is lit with fierce
gold, the long-haired, light-bringing comets (C. Valeri Flacci, Argonauticon 5.368-370). In this instance,
aurum is used in reference to the radiant, yellowish sheen that many people see on a particularly starry
night. In the end, Ovid shows readers that aurum, auri, “gold,” can either be a blessing or a curse, a
physical substance or a metaphorical luster.
In the ancient Roman world, aurum had many uses: a symbol, a setting, and a coin. To many
ancient civilizations because gold never corroded, it represented a symbol of immortality and power.
During the time of the Roman Empire, goldsmiths used this popular metal as a setting for other
gemstones, such as emeralds, sapphires, aquamarines, peridots, diamonds, or even pearls. Gold was a
sought after resource and was in great demand to many important officials of the Roman society
(Cartwright). In fact, one of the highest level togas, the toga picta, was a special all-purple toga
embroidered with gold thread; it was worn primarily by a Roman general during a triumphal parade, but
Julius Caesar adopted it as part of his regular dress. In this instance, the gold thread represented high
social class and power (“Ancient Roman Clothing”). Another use for this lasting, valuable aurum was in
coins. The bezant or solidus was a very popular coin used by Romans, made of gold (Cartwright). In more
recent history, gold is still highly sought after for its scarcity and value. But not only has the value
remained, but the Latin word itself also has a few interesting relationships to modern etymology. For
example, the English word auriferous, an adjective, means “containing gold” and obviously has the root
aur- within it. Pronounced like “Aw-room,” the Latin word aurum has flowed down into the other
romance languages as well. In Portugese, ouro is pronounced very similarly, and the same is the case in
French with or, sounding very much like aur-. Italian and Spanish both use the word oro for gold, also
pronounced very much like auro. The closest relationship however is most likely the Romanian word for
gold, aur, which is the root of the original Latin word itself. One final intriguing relationship that ties the
past to the present can be found in science. On the periodic table of elements, the element gold is labelled
with the abbreviation “Au,” a direct reference to original Latin word: aurum.
Ovid demonstrates that gold can be a goal or a warning, a blessing or a curse. It can be defined
metaphorically or realistically, and today it still has many ties in modern society. Every time a student
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studies chemistry, the Latin root is visible in the “Au” symbol, and whenever someone sees a piece of
gold it still attracts them due to its value and beauty. Though “Not all that glitters is gold,” aurum itself is
certainly still glittering across all continents and languages and will forevermore hold its position as one
of the most valuable Latin words in history.
Works Cited
"Ancient Roman Clothing." UNRV History. UNRV, 2016. Web. 23 Feb. 2016.
<http://www.unrv.com/culture/ancient-roman-clothing.php>.
Cartwright, Mark. "Gold in Antiquity." Ancient History Encyclopedia. Ancient History Encyclopedia
Limited, 4 Apr. 2014. Web. 23 Feb. 2016. <http://www.ancient.eu/gold/>.
"Famous Quotes." BrainyQuote. Xplore, 2016. Web. 23 Feb. 2016. <http://www.brainyquote.com/>.
"Parallel Latin/English Psalter, Psalm 18 (19)." Medievalist. Mediavalist, 2014. Web. 23 Feb. 2016.
<http://www.medievalist.net/psalmstxt/ps18.htm>.
"Perseus Digital Library." Perseus Digital Library. Perseus, 2016. Web. 23 Feb. 2016.
<http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/>.
Styron, Elizabeth. "Metamorphoseon." Ovid Metamorphoseon - University of Virginia Library. Rector
and Visitors of the University of Virginia, 1999. Web. 23 Feb. 2016.
<http://ovid.lib.virginia.edu/metamorphoseonUVA.html>.
<http://www.domesdaybook.co.uk/faqs.html#1).>.
"What Is the Doomsday Book?" The Domesday Book Online. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Nov. 2015.
<http://www.domesdaybook.co.uk/faqs.html#1).>.
Word Study 8A
Throwing Weapons and Insults
Cassell's Latin Dictionary defines obicio as “to throw in the way”. However, Roman authors
used the word for many different purposes. Indeed, a log of the Gallic Wars, a history of Rome, and a
translation of the Bible all use distinct meanings for obicio. This raises the question, therefore, of how the
Romans interpreted the word. Many Latin words have meanings that would be expressed as several
completely different English words but that represent some common idea. As a result, it is necessary to
analyze various examples of each word's usage to determine what meanings it can take on.
One early usage of obicio is from Caesar's De Bello Gallico, a set of books written by Caesar and
sent to Rome describing the events of the Gallic wars. “Ad multum noctem etiam ad impedimenta
pugnatum est, propterea quod pro vallo carros obiecerunt et e loco superiore in nostros venientes tela
coiciebant, they also fought to the baggage through much of the night, for they flung baggage-wagons
into the rampart, and from the higher ground threw spears at us (Caesar De Bello Gallico 1.26.3)”. In this
case, obicio takes on a common literal meaning: To throw a physical object. Caesar is portraying a battle,
and is describing the enemy army throwing spears at the Romans. In this example, it is clear that “to
throw” is the best translation of obicio.
Another author who used this word was Livy, in his Ab Urbe Condita Libri, or Books from the
Founding of the City. In his writing, Livy uses obicio to describe two consuls hurling insults at each
other. “Inde rursus sollicitari seditione militari ac discordia consulum Romana castra, cum Paulus
Flaminii temeritatem Varroni, Varrio Paulo speciosum timidis ac segnibus ducibus exemplem Fabium
obiceret, from there, the Roman camps were disturbed by the rebellion of the military and the discord of
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the consuls, with Paulus throwing in Varro's teeth the rashness of Flaminius, and with Varro throwing in
Paulo's teeth that he is a beautiful example of a fearful and sluggish leader (Livy, Ab Urbe Condita
22.44.5-6).” While obicio can still be translated as “to throw”, in this example, words are being thrown,
not weapons. This represents a key difference between uses of obicio: In Caesar's passage, obicio
represents throwing a physical object, whereas in Livy's, it represents “throwing” insults. As a result, we
see that obicio can be used to describe the action of throwing both in a physical and a metaphorical sense.
Livy used obicio several other times throughout his history of Rome. “Cum alii negarent nosse,
alii nunc proba nunc humilitatem sordidamque inopiam et pudendae artis aut quaestus genus obicerent,
when some denied to know him, others taunted him, now with a shameful act, now with foul poverty or
the lowness of the art of his family (Livy, Ab Urbe Condita 23.3.11).” In this segment, Livy uses obicio
once again to describe the act of taunting or insulting someone. The passage this is drawn from describes
the Roman people discussing the fate of various senators and, if they must remove a senator from office,
selecting a new one. As the senators are led out, they were jeered by the Romans, but none could think of
anyone better to put in their places. The sentence quoted here describes the taunting of one man proposed
for the new senate. As a result, “to taunt” is the best possible translation for obicio, despite the fact that it
clearly has previously been used for a very different meaning (to throw a weapon).
Jerome was another author who used obicio in his work. It appears in his Vulgate, a Latin
translation of the Bible, in the following sentence: “volensque scire causam quam obiciebant illi deduxi
eum in concilium eorum, and wishing to know the reason they were accusing him, I led him into their
meeting (Jerome, Vulgate, Acts 23.28).” In this case, obicio is used to describe the idea of an accusation
as opposed to a physical concept (that of throwing an object). In particular, based on context from the
rest of the passage, it describes a legal charge. This is a relatively similar idea to the second quoted
segment from Livy, in which obicio is used when a person is being accused of being a lower-class citizen
of Rome.
To throw an object, to insult, and to accuse are three very different ideas, however, and the task
remains to determine what each has in common. “To throw” is the commonly accepted definition, so it is
likely that the core meaning of the word is at least somewhat similar to that. Indeed, we can think of
insulting as “throwing” harsh words at a person. A similar principle applies for making accusations.
Clearly, a definition as “to throw” works for Caesar's usage, in which obicio refers to the act of throwing
weapons. Thus, “to throw” seems to be a correct definition of obicio, and it simply needs to be tweaked
so that it can express more clearly the action of throwing non-physical objects. As a result, an ideal way
to define obicio would be as “to throw a physical or nonphysical object at somebody.”
Word Study 9A
Not submitted.
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