Republic of Iraq
Ministry of Higher Education
and Scientific Research
University of Baghdad
Effect of domestic sewage on water
quality of Al-Gharraf River in AlHaay city
A Thesis
Submitted to the University of Baghdad, College of Science,
Biology Department in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the Degree of
Master of Science
in
Ecology and Pollution
By
Wisam Thamer Jabbar Al-Mayah
B.Sc. Microbiology- 2009 University of Wasit
Supervised by
Prof. Dr. Muhammed Nafea Ali Al-Azzawi
Tho Al-Huja 1434
October 2013
‫ِ‬
‫ﺖ‬
‫ﺒ‬
‫ﺴ‬
‫ﻛ‬
‫ﺎ‬
‫ﻤ‬
‫َ‬
‫)ﻇَ َﻬ َﺮ اﻟﻔَ َﺴ ُ‬
‫ﺎد ﻓﻲ اﻟﺒَ ﱢﺮ واﻟﺒَ ْﺤﺮِ ﺑ َ َ َ ْ‬
‫أَﻳﺪي اﻟﻨـﱠﺎِ‬
‫س ﻟﻴ ِﺬﻳﻘَﻬﻢ ﺑﻌﺾ اﻟَ ِﺬي ﻋَ ِ‬
‫ِ‬
‫ﻠﻮا‬
‫ﻤ‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ ُ ْ َْ َ‬
‫ِ‬
‫ﱠ‬
‫ﻮن (‬
‫ﻌ‬
‫ﺟ‬
‫ﺮ‬
‫ﻳ‬
‫ﻢ‬
‫ﻬ‬
‫ﻟَ َﻌﻠ ُ ْ َ ْ ُ َ‬
‫&‬
‫ﺻﺪق اﷲ اﻟﻌﻠﻲ اﻟﻌﻈﻴﻢ‬
‫اﻟﺮوم )‪(٤١‬‬
Supervisor's certification
We certify that this thesis was prepared under our supervision at the
Department of Biology, College of Science, University of Baghdad for the
degree of Master in Biology / Ecology and Pollution.
Signature:
Supervisor: Dr. Muhammed Nafea Ali Al-Azzawi
Scientific degree: Professor
Address: University of Baghdad - College of Science
Department. of Biology.
Date: 1/ 9 /2013
Certification of the head of Biology Department
In view of the available recommendations of the supervision, I
found this thesis for discussion by the examining committee.
Signature:
Name: Dr. Sabah N. Alwachi
Scientific degree: Professor
Address: University of Baghdad - College of Science
Head of Biology Department.
Date: 1/ 9 /2013
Certification
I certify that the thesis entitled "Effect of Discharging Sewage
of Al-Haay City on the Water Quality of Al-Gharraf River" was prepared
by Wisam Thamer Jabber has been evaluated. It was written in a
good English language therefore, it is accepted for debate by
scientific committee.
Dr. Sedik Ahmed Kasim
Reviewer
Environmental Researches Center
University of Technolog , Baghdad, Iraq.
Committee certification
We the Examining committee, certify that we have read this thesis
entitled " Effect of domestic sewage on the water quality of Al-Gharraf
River in Al-Haay city " and as examined committee we examined the
thesis of the student (Wisam Thamer Jabbar Al-Mayah) in its context
and that in our opinion it is adequate for awarding the degree of Master in
Biology / Environmental and Pollution.
Signature:
Name: Dr. Khalid A. Rasheed
Scientific degree: Assistant Professor
Address: University of Al-Nahrain –
Biotechnology Researches Center
Date: 17 /11 /2013
Chairman
Signature:
Name: Dr. Hashim H. Kareem
Scientific degree: lecturer
Address: University of Wasit College of Agriculture
Date: 19 /11 /2013
Member
Signature:
Name: Dr. Adel M. Rabee
Scientific degree: Assistant Professor
Address: University of Baghdad - College
of Science
Date: 17 /11/2013
Member
Signature:
Name: Dr. Muhammed N. Ali Al-Azzawi
Scientific degree: Professor
Address: University of Baghdad - College
of Science
Date: 17/11/2013
Member Advisor
Approved by the College Committee of post graduate studies.
Signature:
Name: Dr. Saleh M. Ali
Scientific degree: Professor.
Dean of College of Science.
Date: / /2013
Dedication
I dedicate all my efforts to……
Whom I worship……...For my merciful Allah
The leader of my Life..…Prophet Mohammed
And his family Mohammed……
To my life love……..…..……….My parents
The candles those I honor….…...My Brothers
To everyone help me to do this work……
I introduce my work with respects
Wisam Al-Mayah
2013
Acknowledgement
Praising to Allah who gave me health, strength, and facilitated the
way for me to accomplish this work.
Sincerely, I would like to thank my advisor Dr. Muhammad Nafea
Ali Al-Azzawi for their continuous confidence, advice, patience, and for
their encouragement.
My real gratitude and special thanks to Dr. Ahmed J. Al-Azawi and
Dr. Adel M. Rabee for providing me valuable advices and right guidance
along all the study years.
I extend warm thanks to Dr. Nabeel Raheem and Dr. Nasr Noori for his
assistance in statistical analysis of the data and encouragement in
completing this work.
Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to the all teams and
individuals who supported me throughout this study:
·
College of Science and Department of Biology Stuff for their
cooperation and practical help, specially my friend, the PhD student
Ali Kareem, Mahmood Basil and Salam Al-Helaly.
· College of Science and Department of Chemistry Stuff, specially
Miss Munira K. Ahmed.
· The central environmental laboratory Stuff in the Ministry of
Environmental, especially Mrs Siham Ibraheem.
· The water laboratory Stuff in Directorate Wasite of Water.
· Last but not least, I gratefully acknowledge the encouragement of all
my friends, and other people who are not mentioned here, my
deepest gratitude goes to my beloved parents and brothers for their
love, moral support, invariable care and encouragement throughout
the study period.
Wisam Thamer Al-Mahay
[email protected]
Summary…
The aim of the present study is to know the effect of raw sewage from the Al-Haay city
on some of the chemical, physical and bacteriological properties of Al-Gharraf River. The
Al-Gharraf River located in the south-eastern sector of Iraq and surrounded by vast and
agricultural lands. The river receives most of the wastewater coming from many activities
including industrial, agricultural, and domestic wastewater. Associated with the development
of the area, the increase of pollutants into the river has been a recent cause for alarm.
Five sampling stations were selected along the Al-Gharraf River .The first is located at
2 km of AL-Haay City as a control. The second is situated at a distance of 2 km away from
the first and represented sewage discharge station.The Station 3 was about 2 km from station
2 represented the raw water uptake of AL-Bashaer station for drinking water.The station 4
was about 4 km from station 2 and the last station is located at 8 km apart from the second
station.
Monthly sampling was carried out from October 2012 till July 2013,two samples were
taken each month .
The results obtained showed that the values of turbidity , Electrical conductivity, salinity,
total dissolved solid, total suspended solid, dissolved oxygen , biological oxygen demand ,
total Hardness , chlorides, sulphate , nitrate, phosphate , total bacterial count, total coliform
bacteria, Faecal coliform, total Streptococcus and faecal Streptococcus in the river were
found to be higher at autumn and winter and lower at spring and summer.
I
This study has found that: Air and water temperature values varied from 16-42 and 11-31
0
C respectively. Also,water current values were varied from 0.37-0.81 m/sec, electrical
conductivity values varied from 825-1450 µs/cm with Salinity 0.52-0.93 ppt, The total
dissolved solid 545.3 – 957 mg / L, Total suspended solid values ranging from 38-278 mg /
L with turbidity 30-177 NTU. It was found that the waters of Al-Gharraf River is alkalinity
with pH ranged between 7.03 - 8.3 with a reasonable ventilation as the oxygen values
recorded varied monthly at winter months 6.3-10.38 mg / L . The biological oxygen
demand values were found to be higher at some stations 1 -7.01 mg / L . The total hardness
ranged between 306- 496 mg/L, The chlorides values varied from 89-184.6 mg / L, the
sulphate values ranged between 172.42 - 360 mg/L. Nitrate values varied from 5.7 -15. 76
mg/L, and the phosphate values ranged between 0.50 -0.13 mg/L.
The study results also showed that the heavy metals concentrations (cadmium, lead and
zinc) were 0.001-0.099 ppm, 0.004- 0.32 ppm and 0.025- 1.1 ppm, respectively.
Concentrations of these metals of Al-Gharraf River showed seasonal variations during the
study period and they are exceeding permissible limits for Iraqi standard specifications and
WHO standard for drinking water except Zn .
This study has shown that the highest total bacterial count was recorded at the fifth station
during winter 2013 was 75000 cell/1ml , whereas the lowest value was found during summer
2013 was 100 cfu/1ml. Total Coliform and Fecal Coliform bacterial counts were ranged
between 290-34000 cfu /100 ml and 220-33000 cfu/100 ml , respectively. However, total
streptococcus and faecal streptococcus counts were 230 -32600 cfu/100 ml and 200-21000
cfu/100 ml , respectively.
II
List of contents
No.
1.1.
1.2.
1.3.
1.3.1.
1.3.2.
1.3.2.1.
1.3.2.2.
1.3.2.3.
1.3.2.4.
1.3.3.
1.3.4.
1.3.4.1.
1.3.4.2.
1.3.5.
1.3.5.1.
1.3.5.2.
1.3.5.3.
1.3.5.4.
1.3.5.5.
1.3.6.
1.3.6.1.
1.3.6.2.
1.3.6.3.
1.3.6.4.
1.3.6.5.
Title
Summary
List of contents
List of figures
List of tables
List of appendices
List of abbreviation
Chapter One
Introduction and literatures review
Introduction
Aims of the study
Literatures review
Water pollutants
Types of water pollutants
Domestic Sewage
Industrial waste
Agricultural waste
Other pollutants
Organic Pollution in the Rivers
Domestic Sewage
General Concept
Chemical structure of raw sewage
Heavy Metals
General Concepts
Heavy Metals in Aquatic Systems
Cadmium (Cd)
Lead (Pb)
Zinc (Zn)
Bacteriological Indicators of Fecal Contamination
General Concepts
Total Bacterial Count (TBC)
Total Coliform (TC)
Fecal coliforms (FC)
Total Streptococci(TS) and Fecal Streptococci(FC)
III
Page
I
III
VI
VIII
IX
IX
1
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
7
9
9
10
11
12
13
14
14
15
15
16
17
No.
2.1.
2.1.1.
2.1.2.
2.1.3.
2.1.3.1.
2.1.3.2.
2.1.3.3.
2.1.3.4.
2.1.3.5.
2.2.
2.2.1.
2.2.2.
2.2.3.
2.2.4.
2.3.
2.3.1.
2.3.2.
2.3.2.1.
2.3.2.2.
2.3.2.3.
2.3.2.4.
2.3.2.5.
2.3.3.
2.3.3.1.
2.3.3.2.
2.3.3.3.
2.3.3.4.
2.3.3.5.
2.3.3.6.
2.3.3.7.
2.3.3.8.
2.3.3.9.
2.3.3.10.
2.3.3.11.
2.3.4.
2.3.4.1.
Chapter Two
Materials and methods
Study Area
AL-Haay City
Al-Gharraf River
Sampling stations
First station
Second station
Third station
Forth station
Fifth station
Materials
Apparatus and Instruments
Chemical Material
Culture Media
Reagents
Methods
Sample collection
Field measurement
Air and Water temperature
Water Currents
Hydrogen ion concentration
Electrical conductivity (EC)
Dissolved oxygen (DO)
Laboratory measurement
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5)
Salinity
Turbidity
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
Total Suspended Solids (TSS)
Total Hardness(T.H)
Chloride ion (Cl-)
Sulphates (SO4)
Nitrate (NO3)
Reactive Phosphate (PO4)
Heavy metals tests
Microbial Tests
Total Bacterial Count(TBC)
IV
Page
18
18
18
20
21
22
23
23
24
25
25
26
26
27
28
28
29
29
29
29
29
29
30
30
30
31
31
31
31
32
32
32
33
33
33
33
2.3.4. 2.
2.3.4.3.
2.3.4.4.
2.3.5.
No.
3.1.
3.1.1.
3.1.2.
3.1.3.
3.1.4.
3.1.5.
3.1.6.
3.1.7.
3.2.
3.2.1.
3.2.2.
3.2.3.
3.2.4.
3.2.5.
3.2.6.
3.2.7.
3.2.8.
3.2.8.1.
3.2.8.2.
3.2.8.3.
3.3.
3.3.1.
3.3.2.
3.3.3.
3.3.4.
3.3.5.
Total Coliform count(TC)
Thermotolerant (Faecal) Coliform Bacteria(FC)
Streptococci and Faecal Streptococci(TS & FS)
Statistical analysis.
Chapter Three
Results and discussions
Physical Characteristics .
Air and Water Temperature.
Water Currents.
Electrical Conductivity E.C. and Salinity.
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS).
Turbidity.
Total Suspended Solids (TSS).
Hydrogen ion concentration (pH).
Chemical Characteristics.
Dissolved Oxygen (DO).
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5).
Total hardness (TH).
Chlorides (Cl-).
Sulphate (SO4).
Nitrate(NO3-2).
Phosphate (PO4-3).
Heavy metals.
Cadmium (Cd).
Lead (Pb).
Zinc (Zn).
Bactriological Characteristics.
Total Bacterial Count (T.B.C).
Total Coliform (TC).
Faecal Coliform (FC).
Total Streptococcus (TS).
Faecal Streptococcus (FS).
Conclusions and Recommendations
Conclusions
Recommendations
References
Appendices
V
34
34
34
34
Page
35
35
39
40
42
44
46
47
49
49
51
53
55
57
59
61
63
63
66
68
70
70
73
75
77
79
81
82
84
119
List of figures
No.
Title
Page
1
Map of Al-Gharraf River in Haay city .
20
2
Sampling stations on Gharraf Rive at Haay city.
21
2-a
Station 1.
21
2-b
Station 2.
22
2-c
Station 3.
23
2-d
Station 4.
24
2-e
Station 5.
24
Seasonal variation of air temperature (oC) in AL-Gharraf
3
36
River during study period.
Seasonal variation of water temperature (oC) in AL-Gharraf
4
River during study period.
36
Seasonal variation of water currents in AL-Gharraf River
5
40
during study period.
Seasonal variation of electrical conductivity in AL-Gharraf
6
7
42
River during study period.
Seasonal variation of salinity in AL-Gharraf River during
42
study period.
8
Seasonal variation of total dissolved solids in AL-Gharraf
44
River during study period.
9
Seasonal variation of turbidity in AL-Gharraf River during
45
study period.
Seasonal variation of total suspended solids in AL-Gharraf
10
47
River during study period.
Seasonal variation of pH values in AL-Gharraf River during
11
49
study period.
VI
12
Seasonal variation of dissolved oxygen in AL-Gharraf River
51
study period.
Seasonal variation of biochemical oxygen demand in AL13
53
Gharraf River during study period.
Seasonal variation of total hardness in AL-Gharraf River
14
55
during study period.
Seasonal variation of chloride ions in AL-Gharraf River
15
16
57
during study period.
Seasonal variation of sulphate ions in AL-Gharraf River
59
during study period.
Seasonal variation of NO3 in AL-Gharraf
17
River during
61
study period.
Seasonal variation of PO4 in AL-Gharraf River during study
18
63
period.
Seasonal variation of cadmium in AL-Gharraf River during
19
65
study period.
Seasonal variation of lead in AL-Gharraf River during study
20
68
period.
Seasonal variation of zinc in AL-Gharraf River during study
21
70
period.
Seasonal variation of total bacterial count in AL-Gharraf
22
72
River during study period.
Seasonal variation of total coliform in AL-Gharraf River
23
75
during study period.
Seasonal variation of faecal coliform in AL-Gharraf River
24
77
during study period.
Seasonal variation of total streptococcus in AL-Gharraf
78
25
River during study period.
26
Seasonal variation in faecal streptococcus in AL-Gharraf
VII
80
River during study period.
List of tables
No.
Title
Page
1
The percentage for the household waters uses.
8
2
A list of instruments that were used in field and lab work
25
3
A list of chemical material that were used in lab work.
26
4
A list of culture media that were used in lab work.
27
5
A list of reagents that were used in lab work.
27
6
Minimum and maximum ( First Line), mean and standard
37
deviation ( Second Line), for physical and chemical
characteristics at study stations during 2012-2013.
7
The correlation among water parameters.
38
8
Minimum and maximum (First Line), mean and standard
65
deviation (Second Line), for heavy metals studied (Cd, Pb,
and Zn) at study stations during 2012-2013.
9
The correlation among some water parameters and heavy
66
metals.
10
Minimum and maximum (First Line), mean and standard
deviation (Second Line), for Bacteriological characteristics
at study stations during 2012-2013.
72
11
The correlation among some water parameters and bacteria
number.
73
VIII
List of appendices
No.
Title
Page
1
Comparison between some water quality parameters of AlGharraf River with the Iraqi and international standards.
Comparison between some water quality parameters of AlGharraf River with the local and international Rivers .
Water Quality according to United State stander (ASCE) for
raw water quality .
Comparison between concentrations of dissolved heavy
metals in Al- Gharraf River water with world and Iraqi
standards by ppm unit.
Comparison between concentrations of dissolved heavy
metals in Al- Gharraf River with local and international
Rivers by ppm unit (ND: Not Detected ) .
Comparison between bacteriological characteristics of AlGharraf River with with local and international Rivers.
119
2
3
4
5
6
120
122
122
123
124
List of abbreviations
Acronyms
Meaning
ACS
American Cancer Society
APHA
American Public Health Association
APEGBC
Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists
British Columbia
CFU
Colony forming unit
EPA
Environmental Protection Agency
EEA
European Environment Agency
EQS
Environmental Quality Standards
USEPA
United States Environmental Protection Agency
USGS
United States Geological Survey
UNEP
United Nations Environmental Programme
WHO
World Health Organization
WASC
Waterwatch Australia Steering Committee
IX
Chapter one
Introduction and Literature Review
Chapter one
Introduction and Literature Review
1.1. Introduction.
Water is the most important natural resource and essential for life,
as it provides habitat for diverse type’s of aquatic life in rive rs, lakes and
oceans, and it covered about 70% of the earth surface. It constitutes more
than 2.5 times that of the earth main land. Also it is known the water
constitutes about 70% of the human body. Availability of water resources
in countries is a principal factor for the development. Therefore, it is
necessary to protect it from the pollution problems and manage it uses.
(Cheepi, 2012; Ahmed and Kheder, 2009)
Approximately, 20% of the world’s population lacks safe drinking
water and nearly half the world population lacks adequate sanitation. This
problem is acute in many developing countries, which discharge an
estimated 95% of their untreated urban sewage directly into surface
waters. Iraq which is one of the nine middle eastern countries have
insufficient fresh water (Pimental et al., 2004).
Surface water bodies are affected because they received water
from wastewater (point source), irrigated drainage and runoff (non-point
source). Impacts depend on the extent that wastewater has been in contact
with soil, on that type of water body, and their use, as well as the
hydraulic retention time and the part played within the ecosystems
(Jimenez, 2006).
The unscientific disposal of the wastewater (sewage) has caused
immense environmental problems not only to the aquatic environment but
also to human beings world wide. This problem started long back but
intensified during the last few decades, and now the situation has become
alarming in Iraq (Mohammed et al., 2012). During the past three decades,
1
Chapter one
Introduction and Literature Review
the effects of municipal sewage and effluents, the point source pollution,
on the water quality of canals, streams and rivers have received some
attention but very little has been reported about the temporal effects of the
sewage on the water quality of the receiving water bodies (Kumar and
Reddy, 2009).
The term "sewage" means gray water that generated by man activities
in the process of meeting his various living requirements. The sewage can
be described as wastewater from a community. Wastewater refers to
spent or used water containing dissolved or suspended matter.
Wastewater from residential areas is referred to as domestic sewage
(Porteous, 2000; EPA, 2012; Kamusoko and Musasa, 2012).
It consists of pollutants such as human wastes (faeces and urine) and
sludge. The term sludge refers to wastes arising from food preparation
and cleaning of kitchen utensils, laundry and floor drain wastes. Sewage
from various homes and institutions (private and public) in a community
constitute municipal sewage (Girija et al. 2007; Uwidia and Ademoroti,
2011).
1.2. Aims of the study.
The current study was designed to achieve the following objectives:
1. Determination the effect discharge of sewage of the Al-Haay city on
physical, chemical and biological characteristics of Al-Gharraf River.
2. Determination of some bacteria numbers included Total Bacterial
Count, Total Coliforms, Fecal Coliform, Total streptococci and Fecal
streptococci) as indicators for water pollution of Al-Gharraf River.
3. Determination of some heavy metals levels (cadmium, lead, and zinc)
as indicators for water pollution of Al-Gharraf River by heavy metals.
4. According to determined above parameters complete evolution of
river pollution.
2
Chapter one
Introduction and Literature Review
1.3. Literature Review.
1.3.1.Water pollutants.
Aquatic environment exposed to various types of pollutants such as
heavy metals , pesticides, detergents, petroleum products , and other
materials, in additional to industrial, agricultural and medical wastes
may lead to a negative impact on public health and biodiversity (Maitera
et al.,2010; Osibanjo et al.,2011).
The danger of industrial waste being substances toxic to humans and
other organisms , and lve made many studies identify toxic these residues
using methods used in Environmental toxicology , which deals study the
harmful effects of pollutants and knowledge effects chemicals in
environmental regulations and the reasons and magnitude of these affects
to take preventive and remedial measures possible (Kanu and Achi, 2011;
Kenneth and William, 2012 ).
World health organization (WHO), has reported that 2.3 billion people
in 2025 would suffer from an acute shortage of potable water unless
significant steps have to be considered at least reduce water pollution
(WHO, 1996a; WHO, 2004).
1.3.2.Types of water pollutants.
1.3.2.1. Domestic sewage wastes.
This type of wastewater originates from residential locations and
other municipal activities such as water are heavily contaminated with
various organic and inorganic pollutants (Reddy et al.,2011; Geetu and
Surinderjit, 2012 ).
1.3.2.2. Industrial wastes.
This type of wastewater including different types of pollutants
which are :
3
Chapter one
v
Introduction and Literature Review
Physical contaminants, such as some remnants of paper
mills, dyes, tanning and textiles which cause change in color of water
(ICIMOD, 2007; Kenneth & William, 2012).
v
Chemical contaminants, such as solid waste, hydrocarbons,
oil products and inorganic chemicals such as heavy metals and
dissolved gases which affect on values of hydrogen ion (pH) and
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) in water (Jay and Keely,
2005; Sultana et al.,2013).
1.3.2.3. Agricultural wastes.
This type of wastewater includeing nutrients, chemical fertilizers
and organic pesticides which reach into rivers and lakes through irrigation
and drainage water in soils adjacent to water bodies (Bradl , 2005; Sada,
2010).
1.3.2.4. Other pollutants.
There are other types of pollutants as radioactive pollutants and
thermal pollutants and acid and alkaline pollutants and gases pollutants as
chlorine and ammonia and negative ion as fluorides and sulfate (EEA,
2012).
1.3.3. Organic pollution in the rivers.
The term "Organic pollution" refers to the pollution that is
happening to the water and resulting from organic materials
biodegradable naturally by microorganisms, and which can pose serious
environmental health problems (Al-sarwi, 2008; Uwidia and Ademoroti,
2011).
Natural organic matter (NOM) found in all the surface water such as
aromatic and large allophatic compounds. These materials differ due to
weather changes, water system and a number of other environmental
factors (Young and Ulrich, 2008; Matilainen and Sillanpaa , 2010).
4
Chapter one
Introduction and Literature Review
The most important source of organic matter in the water is municipal
sewage due to human biological activity and other organic household
wastes such as detergents and wash liquids releasing various nutrients
(Goel, 2008) .
High nutrients concentration leads to eutrophication,a condition
characterized by significant diurnal variation in dissolved oxygen
concentration and excessive algal growth (Sengupta, 2006; Wang et
al.,2013).
Studies indicate that most of the world rivers are contaminated , but
to varying degrees. For example the Rhine River becomes polluted even
called the longest stream of dirty water in the world (Cited inAlHaidarey, 2003).
Many millions more suffer from frequent and debilitating water borne
diseases. About half of the inhabitants of developing countries do not
have access to safe drinking water and 73% have no sanitation, some of
their wastes eventually contaminate their drinking water supply leading to
a high level of risks (Maitera et al., 2010 ; Charity et al., 2012).
In Iraq proved study Al-Mayaly (2000) and Al-Rubai'y (2007) that the
Diyala River has significant effect on Tigris River due to high levels of
organic pollution introduced from sewage station such as Al-Rustumiya
station and Al-Jaish canal.
1.3.4.Domestic Sewage.
1.3.4.1.General Concept.
The impact of sewage disposed on the environment has become a
threat to the existence of plant, animals and ultimately human life.
Pollution is causing widespread concern and has become an important
area of interest in the field of modern research (Longe and Ogundipe,
2010; Mishra, 2012 ).
5
Chapter one
Introduction and Literature Review
Discharge of untreated sewage water into water body is a common
practice in many countries. This is the common cause for pollution of
surface and groundwater due to lack of proper wastewater plants in Iraq.
In general, the municipal wastewater is a combination of the water and
carried wastes removed from residential, institutional and commercial
establishments together with infiltration of water, surface water and
runoff water(Gautam et al.,2012; APEGBC, 2013).
The domestic sewage contains a large variety of inorganic and organic
impurities and pathogens bacteria and viruses resulting in waterborne
diseases. Water is organically polluted by high molecular weight
compounds such as sugars, fats, oils, proteins released from domestic and
industrial wastes and causing unpleasant odor, color, taste and algal
growth (Chavan and Dhulap, 2012 ; Puerari et al., 2012).
Sewage effluents are often the main factors responsible for
deterioration of water quality as they have a major impact on the
chemical loads received by surface water bodies ( Drolc et al., 2007;
Picot et al., 2009). High levels of nitrogen and phosphorus are generally
found in sewage effluents, and contribute to high eutrophication levels
and reduce river functionalities (David et al., 2012).
Discharge points of industrial and municipal wastewater are
continuous sources of pollution for rivers, where making the rivers not
always able to absorb them and, compromising their quality. Since flow
discharges vary with the hydrological conditions, the dilution may or may
not occur. This is important because the dry season can last several
months in arid and semi-arid areas and intermittent rivers and sewage
effluents can contribute up to 100 % of the inflow during dry periods
(David et al., 2011; Garcia et al., 2012).
6
Chapter one
Introduction and Literature Review
1.3.4.2. Chemical structure of raw sewage.
It means the water previously used or resulting from population
centers and industrially , are not suitable for consumption and classified
according to their source :wastewater ,domestic, industrial and
agricultural( Kumar et al., 2012).
Agricultural wastewater is chemical fertilizers and organic used in
agriculture such as pesticide spraying and fertilizer application, which
arrive to rivers through drainage. Also, detergents consist of different
chemical components such as surfactants, soaps, bleaches and enzymes
that reach rivers through sewage (Geetu and Surinderjit, 2012;
Zelenakova et al., 2013).
Industrial processes are causing the production of large amounts of
toxic and stable pollutants, which are all collected into the water out
coming from the plant. The disposal of these contaminated effluents into
receiving waters can cause environmental damages, directly influencing
the aquatic ecosystem and even human being (Spina et al., 2012; Sultana
et al., 2013). Also, textile and pharmaceutical effluents are usually
recalcitrant to the standard biological treatments, due to the complex
aromatic compounds, the extreme chemico-physical parameters and the
presence of an autochthonous bacterial microflora (Hai et al., 2008;
Rosales et al., 2011).
The domestic and municipal wastewater are composed of 99.9 %
water and remaining 0.1 % suspended, colloidal and dissolved solids
(EPA, 2005; Gautam et al.,2012).
These contaminants consist of solids is 30% inorganic materials and
70% of organic materials include 65% proteins and 25% carbohydrate
and 10% fat (Amer , 2006) .
These components vary depending on the purpose of the water uses, as
in the following table (Al-Saadi , 2006):
7
Chapter one
Introduction and Literature Review
Table (1): The percentage of the household water uses.
No. Use type
Percentage
1.
Drinking
1%
2.
Food cooking
3%
3.
Clothes wash
13%
4.
Dishes wash
13%
5.
Toilet
30%
6.
Bathes
40%
Domestic sewage contains on a number of pollutants causing bacterial
diseases such as cholera, salmonella, shigellas ; viral diseases such as
hepatitis, enteroviruses, poliovirus, and other parasites diseases such as
protozoan's, helminthes. All these diseases lead to physiological and even
psychological problems that may lead to death in some cases (Kahun and
Yardley , 2007; Adingra et al., 2012).
Also domestic sewage may contain phosphorus and nitrogen which
allows the growth of some undesirable algae species particularly in
locations where water static terms lead to the formation of a layer of the
algae on the surface of the water emit unpleasant odors and change the
taste of water , as well as lead its growth to increased demand for oxygen
and therefore reduce its concentration in the water (EPA 2012a; Loe et al.
2012) .
However, sewage may contain heavy metals at considerable levels
which gives rise to toxic concentrations in the body. Some of these metals
such as arsenic, cadmium and chromium may act as carcinogens while
such as mercury and lead are associated with developmental
abnormalities in children (Adekunle et al., 2012; Preeti and Fazal, 2013).
8
Chapter one
Introduction and Literature Review
1.3.5. Heavy Metals.
1.3.5.1. General Concepts.
The term "heavy metals" refers to any metallic element that has a
relatively high density and is toxic or poisonous even at low
concentration (Duruibe et al., 2007) also “Heavy metals” are defined as
all metals of atomic weight greater than sodium with specific gravity of
more than 5.0 g/cm3 (Beasley & Kneale, 2007; Rahimi et al., 2013).
The presence of heavy metals in the aquatic environment has been of
great concern because of their toxicity at lower concentrations (Uba et al.,
2009; Nasrabadi et al., 2010).
According to Richardson & Niebaer (1980), these metals can be
divided into three main groups (Raikwar et al. , 2008):
· Macro elements, which includes a group of elements that are needed
by living organisms for catalyzing their biological systems and
represent as important factors for metabolism, such as calcium (Ca),
sodium (Na), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), chloride (Cl), and
phosphor (P).
· Essential elements, which includes a group of elements that are
needed by living organisms in trace amounts and play significant
roles in the biological systems but have toxic effects if they one
present in concentrations more than organisms needing, such as
chromium (Cr), zinc (Zn)، iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu),
cobalt (Co), and selenium (Se).
· Non-essential elements, which includes a group of elements haven’t
exact roles in biological systems and consider as toxic agents, such
as arsenic (Ar), barium (Ba), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), lithium (Li),
mercury (Hg), and nickel (Ni).
9
Chapter one
Introduction and Literature Review
In case of toxicity, these metals can be classified into three groups
according to Neis (1999):
· Low toxic elements, which include molybdenum (Mo), iron (Fe),
and manganese (Mn).
· Middle toxic elements, which include zinc (Zn), nickel (Ni),
chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), cobalt (Co), vanadium (V), as well as
tungsten (W).
· High toxic elements, which include mercury (Hg), lead (Pb),
cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), silver (Ag), antimony (Sb), and
uranium (U).
1.3.5.2. Heavy metals in aquatic systems.
Heavy metals in aquatic system can be in the following forms
(Valois et al., 2010; Idriss and Ahmad, 2012):
1. Dissolving form. This form of metals in case of
free ionic,
organic, or non-organic, and can pass through the filters with
pouring equal to 0.45 micron.
2. Suspending form. This form of metal with diameter more than
0.45 microns and it may be biotic such as Zooplankton or
Phytoplankton or abiotic such as organic or non organic
compounds.and can be divided to follow:
v Residual metals. Including elements which be within silica parts
such as silver and mercury .
v Exchangeable metals. Including undissolved heavy metals and not
be within silica parts.
10
Chapter one
Introduction and Literature Review
1.3.5.3. Cadmium(Cd).
Cadmium (Cd) is a soft, silver-white metal, and is always associated
with zinc. It has number is 48, atomic weight 112.411, density quality
8.64 g/cm3, melting point 320.9°C and boiling point 765°C. It is usually
found as a mineral combined with other elements such as oxygen
(cadmium oxide), chlorine (cadmium chloride), or sulphur (cadmium
sulphate, cadmium sulphide) ( Raikwar et al. , 2008; Lawrence and Alex,
2012 ).
Cadmium was used firstly as a fungicide for golf courses and home
lawns, after that it has been used widely by many industries such as
pigments, metal coatings, paints, plastics, as well as fertilizers which is
used to grow food that may contain cadmium. In addition to all of these
industries, the manufacture of nickel-cadmium batteries represents the
most frequently used of cadmium (Faulkner and Schwartz, 2009; AbdulTalib et al., 2013).
Inhaling high levels of cadmium can cause irritation, with shortness
of breath, cough, chest pain, abdominal pain or a choking sensation and
severe lung damage as well as a buildup of fluid in the lungs (Toman et
al. ,2005; Harber et al., 2010).
On the other hand, ingested cadmium at high levels in foods or water,
can cause stomach irritation, nausea, vomiting, high blood-pressure,
diarrhea, convulsions, liver disease, brain damage, headache, fever,
weakness, and kidney problems which can be fatal, and sometimes death
(Mascilak, 2011; Lawrence and Alex, 2012)
In Japan the discharge of wastewater into Jintsu River in Toyama city
from fluxing and mining factory and used the river water in irrigation rice
fields lead to increase Cd in 1947 causing Itai itai disease and mortality
for more than hundred people late in 1965 and syndromes appeared in
bones (Al -Saadi, 2006)
11
Chapter one
Introduction and Literature Review
1.3.5.4. Lead (Pb).
Lead (Pb) is a bluish or silvery grey soft metal with atomic number
82 ; atomic weight 207.19; specific gravity 11.34, melting point 327.5 °C
and boiling point 1749°C. It is the most common industrial metal that has
become widespread in air, water, soil and food. Lead is slightly soluble in
water and is transported mainly through the atmosphere. It behaves like
calcium in the body and accumulates in bone, liver, kidney and other
tissues ( Raikwar et al. , 2008; Singh et al., 2012).
Lead can be considered as one of the four metals represent extreme
seriousness on human health. It has been used in various industries such
as paints, ceramics, shots, water pipes, food storage cans, solders,
gasoline, electrical batteries, and cosmetics such as kohl. Lead was also
used in pesticides before the 1950s. The half-life of lead differs in each
organ, ranging from 25–40 days in erythrocytes, 40 days in soft tissues,
and along half-life in the bone reach to 28 years (Hocking, 2005 ;
Faulkner and Schwartz, 2009).
Lead is a cumulative tissue poison and gets stored in different parts
of the body especially in bones, liver, kidney and brain. Besides, direct
ingestion of lead leading to increased blood levels, vomiting, higher
blood pressure, headache, weakness, and coma. Accumulated lead in the
body also acts as a significant source of blood lead burden. Lead may
cause irreversible neurological damage, renal disease, cardiovascular
effects, and reproductive system toxicity (Swarup et al., 2005; Yen et al.,
2010).
Recently, there are evidences that lead is carcinogenic. In addition to
all these effects, lead may cause changes in gene expression if child has
been exposed to it as well as other health problems for the later in life
(ASC, 2010; Dekhil et al., 2011)
12
Chapter one
Introduction and Literature Review
1.3.5.5. Zinc (Zn).
Zinc (Zn) is the metallic element bluish-white in color ,subject to
form when heated,, its atomic number (30), atomic weight 65.409,
density 7.14, melting point 419.53°C, boiling point 907°C, a white or
blue in color (Trunk et al, 2011).
It is one of the most elements prevalent on soil, air and water. Also it
may necessary in food being an essential element and small amount
would be required for human beings to organize biological physiology.
Also, it is used in the process of making protein a catalyst for many of
the enzymes that regulate cell growth and the level of hormones , and also
contributes to the regulation of gene expression (Dimirkou , 2007 ).
Health and environmental impacts of zinc toxicity are very common
such as nausea, vomiting and damaging of
the pancreas. However,
toxicity of zinc becomes more severe when present with other heavy
metals, such as cadmium, in water because it has synergistic effect with
these metals (Hussoun, 2006; EPA, 2012).
The main sources of zinc are mining operations, secondary metal
production, plastics, coal combustion, ceramic, batteries, rubber tire wear
and phosphate fertilizers, also enters in some alloys such as bronze ,
pesticides and cosmetics protection against sunburn and inhibitors
sweating and some types of medicines (Salim et al., 2003; Solberg,
2009).
13
Chapter one
Introduction and Literature Review
1.3.6.Bacteriological Indicators of Fecal Contamination.
1.3.6.1.General Concepts.
Fecal indicator bacteria are used to assess the microbiological quality
of water. Although these bacteria are not typically disease causing, they
are associated with fecal contamination and the possible presence of
waterborne pathogens. The density of indicator bacteria1 is a measure of
water safety for body-contact recreation or for consumption. Fecal
material from warm-blooded animals may contain a variety of intestinal
microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, and protozoa that are
pathogenic to humans resulting in several types of diseases including
gastroenteritis, typhoid fever, cholera, hepatitis and dysentery (Myers et
al., 2007; WHO, 2010).
Bacteriological tests for specific indicator bacteria are used to assess
the sanitary quality of water and sediments and the potential public health
risk from gastrointestinal pathogens carried by water. The suitability of
indicator organisms for fecal contamination in water is ranked according
to a specific set of criteria, described below (Bitton,2005; Zheng et
al.,2013):
1. It should be a member of the intestinal microflora of warm-blooded
animals.
2. It should be present only when pathogens are present, and absent in
uncontaminated samples.
3. It should be present in greater numbers than the pathogen, and
densities correlated with fecal contamination.
4. It should be at least equally resistant as the pathogen to
environmental factors and to disinfection in water and wastewater
treatment plants.
5. It should be survives as long as, or longer than, pathogens.
14
Chapter one
Introduction and Literature Review
1.3.6.2. Total Bacterial Count (TBC).
The total bacterial count represent
the content of the bacteria
generally in the waters, but does not clarify the presence of all species of
bacteria in the waters except the able to growth, and producing the clear
colonies in the culture media under suitable examining circumstances
included time and temperature (WHO, 2004).
Usually account the number of colonies after the incubation period at
temperature 22 °C and 37 ° C for 24 hours to assessment the numbers of
the bacteria presence naturaly in water and that is not related to fecal
contamination, and the bacteria derived from human and warm-blooded
animals(Olutiola et al.,2010), therefore account the numbers of bacteria
at temperature 22 °C are to have little health importance but useful in
evaluating the efficiency of water treatment, while the numbers of
bacteria growing at temperature 37 C° represents an early indicator of
pollution, because the organisms growing in this degree to the external
source (WHO, 1996; Al-Fatlawy, 2007).
1.3.6.3.Total Coliform (TC).
The term “coliform bacteria” refers to the bacterial species in the
family Enterobacteriaceae genera such as Escherichia, Klebsiella,
Enterobacter and Citrobacter that live in the intestines of warm-blooded
vertebrates (mammals and birds), (WHO,2008).
They are including the aerobic and facultative anaerobic, gramnegative, non-spore forming, rod-shaped bacteria that ferment lactose
with gas production within 48 hours at 35 ºC (Oliver et al., 2012 ;
Nzung’a et al., 2013).
Therefore, total coliform counts are not necessarily a measure of fecal
pollution but useful for determining the quality of potable water, shellfish
harvesting waters, and recreational waters(WHO,2008; Christensen, et
al., 2013)
15
Chapter one
Introduction and Literature Review
1.3.6.4. Faecal coliforms (FC).
Faecal coliform is a subgroup of total coliforms that include all
coliforms that ferment lactose and produce gas at 44.5 °C within 24
hours. This group comprises thermotolerant strains such as Escherichia,
Klebsiella and Citrobacter (Gilpin and Devan, 2003).
Faecal coliforms are usually associated only with human or animal
waste.The enteric bacterium Escherichia coli, is the member of this
subgroup most commonly cited as an exclusive indicator of faecal
contamination ( Gilpin and Devan, 2003).
The presence of faecal coliforms indicates the presence of fecal
material from warm-blooded animals. Outside of a warm-blooded host,
faecal coliforms are short-lived compared to the coliform bacteria that are
free-living and not associated with the digestive tract of man or animals
( Bitton,2005).
A high faecal coliform counts have been positively related to urban
development, agriculture, and the amount of erodible soils (Mehaffey et
al., 2005). Faecal coliforms is considered as an index of fecal
contamination and therefore contaminated with pathogenic organisms
(Sankararamakrishnan and Guo, 2005; Bastholm et al.,2008).
Faecal coliform concentrations are not evenly distributed in surface
waters. Their densities vary in relation to season, climate, tidal cycles,
and other environmental factors such as temperature, pH, salinity,
turbidity, nutrients, and solar radiation intensity. Faecal coliforms in
surface waters are peaked after a rain event. Subsequently, they decrease
or disappear from the water column with time, through death and
sedimentation processes, but may concentrate in sediments at high
densities. Coliform bacteria in sediments can be resuspended in shallow
waters by tidal movements and winds, dredging, storm surge, increased
16
Chapter one
Introduction and Literature Review
stream flow, and recreational activities such as boating(Nollet,2007;
Jolley et al., 2008).
1.3.6.5.Total Streptococci(TS) and Faecal Streptococci(FC).
This group are Gram-positive, catalase-negative, non spore forming
cocci that to grow at 6.5% NaCl, high pH (pH=9.6) and high temperature
(45°C), and includes many species of bacteria in the genus Streptococcus
such as, S. faecalis, S. bovis, S. equines, S. avium, S. faceium, and S.
gallinarum (Abbas et al., 2007 ; WHO, 2008).
Faecal streptococci are considered as Streptococcus spp. that
normally occur in faecal matter, were used instead of Faecal Coliform
because Faecal streptococci survive well in the environment and are
found in all potential pollution sources such as composted poultry litter
(Wiggins,1999 ; Abbas et al , 2007).
Faecal streptococci have been used as indicators of water faecal
contamination in water due to presence consistently in the feces of all
warm-blooded animals and in the environment associated with animal
discharges (APHA,2005). Members of this group survive longer than
other bacterial indicators but do not reproduce in the environment
(Bitton,2005).
17
Chapter two
Materials and methods
Chapter two
Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area.
2.1.1.AL-Haay City.
AL-Haay is Iraqi city and center of distract in Wasit province. It
is a large city ancient there is one of the most followers of the Ahl AlBayt (peace be upon them) Saeed bin Jubair AL-Asudai, and there lot
of families ancient and home to a group of Iraqi tribes originally
located on the both sides of AL-Gharraf river, which divides the city
into the state and Karrada in term of the orchards and fruit , is located
in the southern province of wasit and mediates AL-Haay city among
the cities of Al-Kut from the north and the Qalat Sukkar from the
south, and away from the for the Kut city (Wasit province) with 45 km
and from Qalat Sukkar (Dhi Qar province) at 35 km and from
Baghdad by 220 Km and area 111 square km and population number
about (125000) people (DWS, 2009).
2.1.2.Al-Gharraf River.
Historically, the Al-Gharraf river is an artificial canal built
during Urnamekina the King of Lagash (2395- 2425 BC). Its name in
Arabic means that it has much water taken from Tigris; it had other
names like the Red river for the much silt during spring flooding (AlHaidary, 2006).
It is the largest branch of the Tigris River, and was thus derives
its properties from the Tigris River. It branches at north of the Al-Kut
city towards the south passes through these cities: Al-Muafakiah, AlHaay (study area), Al-Basha'er in the Wasit and Al-Fajer, Qalaat
Sekar, Al-Refaee, Al-Naser then Al-Bada'a district in
18
where it
Chapter two
Materials and methods
branched to Al-Bada'a river and Al-Shatrah river in the Dhi-Qar (AlGizzy, 2005), (Figure 1).
Al-Gharraf river is the main water source for agriculture and
public requirements and has impacts certain on the socio-economic
aspects of that area. The river receives most of the wastewater from
many
cities
including
industrial,
agricultural,
and
domestic
wastewater. Associated with the development of the area, the increase
of pollutants into the river has been a recent cause for alarm (ALZamili, 2007).
The length of the main river is about 230 km, 50- 90 m width and
7-13 m depth, the river sector in this study is about 165 km extending
from Al-Kut city to Al-Bada'a north of Al-Shatrah . Its basin
populated by more than million people using about 432000 m³ /year of
refined water and passing through an agricultural area of about
215019 ha in the south west of Iraq within the sediment plain
(MOA&I, 1991; Jawad, et al. 2009).
Considered Gharraf rivers mission in Iraq, where exploits the
river for agricultural purposes and the generation of electric power and
a source of water supply for treatment drinking water plant.
The geographical position lies between the north latitude (32 Â
27 º - 31 Â 2 º) and east longitude (45 Â 45 º - 46 Â 4 º). This position
gives the area climate features like ; the high rate of sun radiation,
high temperature, few rain occasions , low moisture, and high rate of
evaporation ( Swady , 2005).
19
Chapter two
Materials and methods
Figure (1): Map of Al-Gharraf River in Haay city
2.1.3.Sampling stations.
The study area divided into five main stations in the area
between the north latitude (32 Â 11 º - 32 Â 07 º) and east longitude
(46 Â 01 º - 46 Â 10 º) and along approximately 8 km before entering
the river to AL-Haay city and even leaving them, according to
population density and the possibility of contamination, the positions
of stations were determined by the Global Positioning System (GPS)
(Figure 2) .
20
Chapter two
Materials and methods
Figure (2): Sampling stations on Gharraf Rive at Haay city
2.1.3.1. First station.
Represents the control station and located before entering the
River to AL-Haay city before bridge No.1distance 1km in the north
latitude (32 Â º 11) and east longitude (46 Â º 01), and the river is
characterized in this area by little growing plants on its banks and
large width and high water level (Figure, 2-a) .
Figure (2-a): Al-Gharraf River at the first station
21
Chapter two
Materials and methods
2.1.3.2. Second station.
This is located at 500 m away from the bridge No.1 at the
north latitude (32 Â º 10) and east longitude (46 Â º 01), and
represents
discharge
point untreated sewage transformed by 9
pipelines with the rate operation of 8 h/day. Also, this site is recived a
significant quantity of solid and liquid wastes either directly or
indirectly (Figure 2-b) .
Figure (2-b): Al-Gharraf River at the second station
22
Chapter two
Materials and methods
2.1.3.3. Third station.
This location is about 2km of second station in the north
latitude (32 Â º 09) and east longitude (46 Â º 02). This station
characterizes by large population density and represents a raw water
uptake of AL-Bashaer station its belong to directorate AL-Haay of
Water that give drinking water to AL-Haay city and their distracts for
the number of large population of this and the river is characterized in
this region by growing plants on the both side of the river, and it
occurred under the influence of human activity (Figure 2-c) .
Figure (2-c): Al-Gharraf River at the third station
2.1.3.4. Forth station.
It is about 4km of second station in the north latitude (32 Â º
08) and east longitude (46 Â º 02). This station characterized by large
of population density and groves of orange and other citrus trees as
well as dense aquatic plants such as Phragmites australis and Typha
sp. and Ceratophyllum demersum on the banks of the river and is a
good area for fishing (Figure 2-d) .
23
Chapter two
Materials and methods
Figure (2-d): Al-Gharraf River at the fourth station
2.1.3.5. Fifth station.
It is about 8km of the first station in the north latitude (32 Â º 07)
and east longitude (46 Â º 10). This station characterizes by
agricultural fields and villages on the banks of the river and also
features river in this area with increased the width and presence of
some small stream this get the waste from the around agricultural
fields (Figure 2-e) .
Figure (2-e): Al-Gharraf River at the fifth station
24
Chapter two
Materials and methods
2.2. Materials.
2.2.1. Apparatus and Instruments.
The following apparatus and instruments that were used in the
experiments of the study.
Table (2): Apparatuses and equipments used in the study.
No. Apparatus & Instruments
Company
1
2
3
4
5
Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
Autoclave
Colony Counter
Distillation system
Electrical oven
Perkin-Elmer (USA )
Retsch (Germany)
Memmert (Germany)
Difco (USA)
Gallenkamp (England)
6
7
8
Flow meter
EC meter
Global Positioning System (GPS)
General Oceanic
WTW (Germany)
Garmin Ltd (Taiwan)
9
10
Glass bottles
Hot plate
Volaca (England)
Retsch ( Germany)
11
12
13
14
15
Incubator
Micro Filter paper
Magnetic Stirrer
Micropipette
Muffle Furance
Memmert ( Germany)
Whatman (England)
Gallenkamp (England)
Volaca (England)
Hobersal (Espania)
16
17
18
polyethylene bottles
pH Meter
Refrigerator
Volaca (England)
WTW (Germany)
Ishtar (Iraq)
19
Sensitive electronic balance
Kern (Germany)
20
21
Turbidity meter
Thermometer
HACH (USA )
Zeal (England)
22
UV Spectrophotometer
Optima (Japan)
23
24
Winkler bottles
Water bath
Volaca (England)
Tafesa (Germany)
25
Chapter two
Materials and methods
2.2.2. Chemical Material.
The following list includes all the chemical materials that have
been used in the methods and protocols of this study.
Table (3): Chemical materials used in the study.
No. Chemical Materials
Company
1
Ascorbic acid
BDH(England)
2
Azid sodium ( NaN3)
BDH(England)
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Ammonium molybdate (NH4)6MO7O24.4H2O
Ammonium-nitrogen (NH4+)
Barium chloride ( BaCl2)
Dihydrogen manganese sulfate(MnSO4.4H2O)
Deionized water
Distalled water
Ethanol
Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
Sodium chloride ( NaCl)
Silver nitrate ( Ag NO3)
Sulfuric acid (H2So4)
Nitric Acid ( HNO3)
BDH(England)
BDH(England)
BDH(England)
BDH (England)
Local
Local
BDH (England)
BDH (England)
BDH (England)
Sigma (USA)
Fluka (Switz.)
BDH (England)
BDH (England)
2.2.3. Culture Media.
The following ready cultural medias used in present study Table (4),
were prepared according to the instructions of proper company, which are
fixed on the container of the media. Each one of these culture media has
been sterilized by autoclave (121 °C for 15 min at 15 bar / in2) and
incubated at 37 °C for 18-24hours to ensure their sterilization, then kept
at 4°C until used. all the cultural medias were prepared according to the
standard protocols (Atlas, 2005; APHA, 2005; Einasri et al., 2012).
26
Chapter two
Materials and methods
Table (4): Ready cultural medias used in the study.
No. Culture media
Company
1
Azide Dextrose Broth
Bio life (Italy)
2
Briliant Green Bile Lactose Broth
Merck (Germany )
3
EC media
Merck (Germany )
4
Lauryl Tryptose Broth
Merck (Germany )
5
Macconkey Broth
Bio life (Italy)
6
Nutrient Broth
Himedia (India)
7
Pfizer selective Enterococcus Agar
Himedia (India)
2.2.4. Reagents.
The following Reagents and solutions used in present study (Table, 5),
were prepared and sterilized by autoclave at 121 °C for 15 min at 15
bar/in2, while the other reagents and solutions which may be destroyed by
high temperature were sterilized by filtration with milipore filter (0.22)
μm. All the reagents and solutions were prepared according to the
standard protocols (WHO, 1996b; AOAC,2005; AL- Fatlawy, 2007).
Table (5): Reagents used in present study
No.
Reagent & Solutions
Company
1
Dichromate Potassium (K2Cr2O7)
BDH (England)
2
Dilution Buffer Solution
BDH (England)
3
EDTA (0.1M) Solution
Fluka (Switz.)
4
Eriochrom Black-T(EBT)
Merck (Germany )
5
Phenol Phthalen Reagent
BDH (England)
6
Sodium Thiosulfate Solution
BDH (England)
7
Starch Solution
BDH (England)
27
Chapter two
Materials and methods
2.3. Methods.
2.3.1.Sample collection.
Sampling of physical, chemical and biological variables was
performed from five sites at monthly was carried out from October 2012
till July 2013, to represent all seasons by rate two sample each month
from each site. Sampling usually started at 9 am and was completed at
2pm .
v The samples were taken from mid of the river about 35m from the
shore line.
v Water sample for physical, chemical analysis collected in
polyethylene containers with a volume of 5 litters under water
surface about (20-40) cm after punning the container with water
sample twice before filling, then kept at 15oC in refrigerator
(WHO, 1996b ; Anitha and Sugirtha, 2013).
v Water samples for dissolved oxygen (DO) and biological oxygen
demand (BOD5) were collected in sterile dark Winkler bottles 250
ml, they were washed and sterile by placing them in the oven for
4hr at 200oC. Oxygen fixation was done at field by adding 2ml of
magnesium sulfate, iodide azide and 2ml of sulphuric acid (APHA,
1998; Rajiv et al. 2012).
v Water sample for biological analysis were collected in closed glass
bottles, washed with distilled water and sterile by placing them in
the oven for 4hr at 200oc, then kept in Cool box till carrying to a
laboratory for examination (APHA, 2005; Ell-Amin et al., 2012) .
28
Chapter two
Materials and methods
2.3.2. Field measurement.
2.3.2.1. Air and water temperature.
Air and water temperature were measured in the field with a
mercury thermometer (0-50 oC) graduated up to 0.1 intervals, at the depth
20cm. The measurement was taken after temperature stabilizing for a few
minutes according to APHA (1998). The results expressed as Celsius
degrees
2.3.2.2. Water currents.
Water current was measured directly in the field according to ALZurfi ( 2007), by using Flow meter (General Oceanic).The results were
expressed as m/sec.
2.3.2.3. pH degree.
It was measured directly in the field according to (AOAC, 2005)
by using portable pH-meter model (WTW pH. 720). The instrument was
calibrated before each sampling with standard buffer solution (pH: 4, 7
and 10).
2.3.2.4. Electrical conductivity (EC).
Electrical conductivity of water was measured directly in the field
by using portable EC-meter (WTW EC. 720). The instrument was
supplied with an automatic temperature corrector. The results were
expressed as µs.cm-1 according to APHA (2003).
2.3.2.5. Dissolved oxygen (DO).
It was determined by using azide modification of Winkler method
as described by (USEPA,1986; APHA, 1998), which summarized by
fixing oxygen in field, and then added 2 ml of H2SO4 and bottle was
shake thoroughly to dissolve the precipitate. Then was titrated against
(0.0125 N) Na2S2O3.5H2O (sodium thiosulphate solution) using 2 drops
29
Chapter two
Materials and methods
of starch solution as an indicator. The results were expressed as mg.l-1.
DO values were calculated according to the equation:
DO mg/l= (V2 x 8000 x 0.0125) / (V1-1.3)
V2: volume of titrate
V1: volume of sample
2.3.3.Laboratory measurement.
2.3.3.1. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5).
It was determined as recommended by EPA (2006), after five days
incubation at 20 oC. in dark bottle then measured using Winkler method.
The results were expressed as mg.l-1. BOD5 values were calculated
according to the equation:
BOD5= DO1- DO2
Where:
DO1= dissolved oxygen (mg.l-1) on the first day
DO2= dissolved oxygen (mg.l-1) of sample after 5 days incubation
Whereas, BOD5 for diluted samples were calculated as follows:
BOD5 (mg.l-1) = DO1- DO2 / P
Where:
DO1 = initial DO of the diluted wastewater sample about 15 minute after
preparation.
DO2 = final DO of the diluted wastewater sample after five days.
P = decimal dilution factor.
2.3.3.2. Salinity.
Measurements of salinity depended on EC value (Richards, 1954)
according to the following equation:
Salinity ppt= EC x 0.64 / 1000
30
Chapter two
Materials and methods
2.3.3.3. Turbidity.
Measured by using turbidity meter ( HACH.2100N.).The instrument
was calibrated before each sampling with standard solutions. The results
expressed as NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Unit), according to APHA
(1998).
2.3.3.4. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS).
Total Dissolved Solids were measured according to EPA (2001) by the
following equation, depending on E.C. value:
TDS mg/l= E.C. μS/cm X (2/3)
2.3.3.5. Total Suspended Solids (TSS).
APHA (1998) method was used to determine the suspended
particulate matter by washing millipore filter paper 0.45μm then oven
dried at 105oc for one hour, then cooled and weight. Filter 100ml of
sample and returned again to the oven and cooled then weight and used
the following equation:
TSS mg/l= (A – B) × 1000 / mL of sample
A: weight of filter paper with residue mg
B: weight of filter paper
2.3.3.6. Total Hardness(T.H).
The method described by Lind (1979), was used for the purpose of
measuring the values of total hardness, by taking 10 ml of the sample and
diluted to 50 ml with distilled water, then added one ml of ammonia regulator
solution where the pH is10.
After the addition of a few of dry indicator
(Erichrom black T) use as reagents and titrated against EDTA solution Normaly
0.05, and calculated values often by the following equation:
Total hardness as CaCO3 = A × B × 1000/ml of sample
Where:
A = number of titration moles
31
Chapter two
Materials and methods
B = number of grams of calcium carbonate equivalent 100 ml of EDTA
titrated.
2.3.3.7. Chloride ion (Cl-).
Chloride ion concentration was measured in water samples in a manner
titration using silver nitrate according to APHA (1998) , where 10 ml of the
sample diluted to 100 ml using distilled water, and 1 ml of potassium chromate
solution as indicator was added, the sample titrated against silver nitrate
solution of 0.041normal until convert the colour from yellow to orange , results
expressed as mg /l, then the calculate the concentration of chloride ion from
formula follows:
Cl- mg/l = (A-B) (N) × 35450 / ml of sample
Where A = first reading of the sample
B = first reading of the Blanck
N = normality of silver nitrate.
2.3.3.8. Sulphates (SO4).
The method described by APHA (1985), where 5 ml of the sample diluted
to 100 ml of distilled water, 5 ml of Conditioning Reagent (HCl, NaCl,
Glycerol, alcohol, Distil water) was added to the sample, ,and 0.15 mg of
powder of barium chloride BaCl2 is added, then the absorption is determined by
using UV-spectrophotometer at wave length 420nm, then the absorption is read
on the above mentioned wavelength which makes the barium sulphate minutes
stuck, the amount of sulphates is calculated from the difference between the
two readings after making a trend of calibration from standard sulphuric acid
solution (H2SO4) .The results are expressed in units of mg /l.
2.3.3.9. Nitrate (NO3).
Nitrate ions was measured according to APHA (1999) by using 2ml HCl
(1N) added to the diluted sample (5ml of sample to 50ml deionized water), then
measured by UV-spectrophotometer at wave length 220nm. Results were
recorded in unit mg/l.
32
Chapter two
Materials and methods
2.3.3.10. Reactive Phosphate (PO4-3).
Reactive phosphate is measured by using ascorbic acid method by adding
8ml of combined reagents (H2SO4 5N + Potassium antimony tartrate +
ammonium molybdate + ascorbic acid) was added then shacked and stand for
30min then measured after blue color developed by a spectrophotometer at
wave length 860nm. Blank is zero (APHA, 1999).
2.3.3.11. Heavy metals tests.
The sample preparation was done according to Abbawi and Hassan
(1990),was used by taking 100 ml of water sample in a clean Beaker glass with
distilled water and water sample, and added 5 ml of nitric acid, then it was
evaporated by using a hot plate without boil at 85° C until the volume had been
reduced to approximately 10 mL. The sample allowed to cool and transferred to
a 50-mL volumetric flack, diluted to volume with de-ionized water and let settle
overnight to remove insoluble materials. The solutions were kept in a clean
polyethylene flasks, and stored in a refrigerator until later analysis for the
measurement by using Atomic absorption spectrophotometer , and then the
following equation was applied:
Concentration (mg / L) = reading of device × the volume of the sample
after Concentration / volume of the sample.
2.3.4. Microbial Tests.
2.3.4.1. Total Bacterial Count(TBC).
The pour plate count method used as described by APHA (2005) and
Adam & Allaahmed (2012), by means of Nutrient agar as cultivated
medium. Plates were incubated at 37oC for 24 hrs. Results expressed as
CFU/1ml.
33
Chapter two
Materials and methods
2.3.4. 2.Total Coliform count(TC).
Most Probable Number (MPN) procedure used as described by
APHA (2005) and Ell-Amin et al (2012) using MacConkey broth as
cultivated medium. Tubes incubated at 37±0.5oC for 24 hrs. The results
expressed as CFU /100ml.
2.3.4.3. Thermotolerant (Faecal) Coliform Bacteria(FC).
MPN procedure used as described by APHA (2005) and Ell-Amin et
al (2012), using EC media broth as cultivated medium. Tubes incubated
at 44.5±0.25oC for 24 hrs. The results expressed as cell/100ml.
2.3.4.4. Total Streptococci (TS) and Faecal Streptococci (FS).
MPN procedure used as described by APHA (2005) and Sati et
al.(2013), was followed using Glucose Azide broth and Pfizer Selective
Enterococcus Agar for both streptococci and faecal streptococci bacteria
respectively as cultivated medium. Tubes incubated at 37±0.5oC and
44.5±0.25oC respectively for 24-48 hrs. The results expressed as
CFU/100ml.
2.3.5.Statistical analysis.
All
obtained data
were
subjected
to proper
biometrical
(statistical) analyses were performed by using SPSS software (Ozdamar,
2005), was used to show effect of different factors (Station &
Season) in study parameters. Least significant difference (LSD) test
was used to significant compare between means of this study.
34
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
Chapter three
Results and Discussion.
3.1. Physical Characteristics .
3.1. 1. Air and Water Temperature.
Temperature plays a important role in the physico-chemical and
physiological behavior of biotic components of aquatic ecosystem
(Sawant et al., 2010), and is one of the most important physical factors
that influence species distribution on earth (Krohne,2000). Water
temperature affects the rate of many of the river’s biological and
chemical processes (i.e. self-purification). It affects on dissolved oxygen
(DO) and biological oxygen demand (BOD), the rate of plant growth, and
the metabolic rate of aquatic organisms(Jurgelėnaitė et al., 2012). The
fluctuation in river water temperature usually depends on the season,
geographic location, sampling time and temperature of effluent entering
the stream (Ahipathy, 2006).
The air temperature values in this study were varied from the lowest
value 16 °C which was recorded at station 4 in winter 2013 and the
highest value 42 °C was observed in summer 2013 at station 5. While the
water temperature values were varied from lowest value 11°C at station
2, in winter 2013 and the highest value was 31 °C at station 4 and 5 in
summer 2013 (Figs. 3&4 and Table 6).
The statistical analysis showed that there was a significant differences
in air and water temperature between seasons, while no significant
differences among stations (P˃0.05) in the same season (Table 6).
The significant positive correlation between air and water
temperature (r = 0.983) was observed in present study (Table 7). The
negative correlation was observed between temperature and all the
35
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
parameters except pH and concentrations of studied heavy metals (Table
7 and 9 respectively).
The data of air and water temperature in this study were supported by
the results of Fahad (2006) regarding to the variation of temperature of
air and water were 13-38 °C and 12-36.5 °C, respectively. Wahab (2010)
has reported similar findings for both air and water were 15-40 °C and
11-30 °C, respectively. Hassan, et. al. (2010) found the air and water
temperature values were ranged between 6-40 °C and 10-34 °C,
respectively (Appendix 2).
Mean Air Temperature (oC)
40
35
30
St.1
25
St.2
20
St.3
15
St.4
10
St.5
5
0
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Summer
Figure (3): Seasonal variation of air temperature (oC) in AL-Gharraf River
during study period.
Mean Water Temperature (oC)
35
30
25
St.1
20
St.2
15
St.3
10
St.4
St.5
5
0
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Summer
Figure (4): Seasonal variation of water temperature (oC) in AL-Gharraf River
during study period.
36
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
Table (6): Minimum and maximum ( First Line), mean and standard deviation (
Second Line), for physical and chemical characteristics at study stations during
2012-2013.
Stations
St.1
St.2
St. 3
St.4
St.5
16.5 – 38
27.92 ± 6.964
a
16 – 39
28.42 ± 7.821
a
17 – 39
28.67 ± 7.240
a
16 – 41
29 ± 7.932
a
17 – 42
28.75 ± 8.114
a
11.5 – 29
22.38 ± 5.540
a
11 – 28
21.38 ± 5.820
a
13 – 30
22.29 ± 5.651
a
12 – 31
22.67 ± 6.461
a
12 – 31
22.33 ± 6.213
a
0.41 – 0.81
0.523 ± 0.131
a
825 – 1345
1061 ± 160.4
b
0.52 – 0.86
0.681 ± 0.104
b
545.3 - 887.7
704 ± 106.3
a
30 – 161
56.5 ± 36.23
a
0.37 – 0.67
0.466 ± 0.096
a
888 – 1450
1166 ± 172.2
a
0.57 – 0.93
0.752 ± 0.110
a
586.08 – 957
773 ± 114.7
a
57 – 177
81.8 ± 41.31
a
0.40 – 0.69
0.495 ± 0.087
a
854 – 1385
1076 ± 182.8
a
0.55 – 0.89
0.691 ± 0.118
a
563.64 – 914.1
713 ± 121.2
a
41 – 154
66.8 ± 36.49
a
0.40 – 0.69
0.502 ± 0.085
a
827 – 1369
1068 ± 177
a
0.53 – 0.88
0.686 ± 0.116
a
545.82 - 903.54
708 ± 118.1
a
40 – 163.5
63.3 ± 36.14
a
0.41 – 0.66
0.472 ± 0.073
a
837 – 1340
1066 ± 168.1
a
0.54 – 0.86
0.684 ± 0.110
a
552.42 – 884.8
707 ± 111.8
a
41 – 65.5
65.9 ± 36.01
a
38 – 233
80.8 ± 51.70
a
7.38 – 8.3
7.782 ± 0.366
a
7.1 – 10.38
8.565 ± 1.151
a
1 – 2.5
1.739 ± 0.498
d
310.08 – 430
359.9 ± 46.06
b
89 - 134.9
105.9 ± 18.47
b
86 – 287
114.9 ± 56.53
a
7.03 – 8.0
7.416 ± 0.374
b
6.3 – 8.44
7.255 ± 0.705
c
4.5 – 7.01
5.970 ± 0.806
a
350.88- 496
405.5 ± 37.82
a
103.07 –
184.6
129.3 ± 25.16
a
190.53 – 360
269.7 ± 56.74
a
6.2 – 15.76
9.86 ± 3.742
a
50 – 216
86.8 ± 43.61
a
7.04 – 8.1
7.584 ± 0.392
a
6.8 – 10.31
7.762 ± 1.032
b
1.5 – 5.1
3.509 ± 1.054
b
318 – 432.5
372.4 ± 45.52
b
93.7 – 139
113 ± 18.37
b
52 – 255
97.7 ± 51.98
a
7.07 – 8.2
7.646 ± 0.387
a
7.1 – 9.57
7.55 ± 0.725
b
1.2 – 4.12
2.875 ± 0.850
c
326.4 – 437.5
373.4 ± 43.70
b
90.3 – 139
109 ± 18.36
b
73 – 251
95.1 ± 50.33
a
7.07 – 8.1
7.701 ± 0.330
a
7.2 – 10.11
8.359 ± 0.793
a
1.4 – 3.15
2.076 ± 0.680
d
306 – 407
353.4 ± 39.44
b
90.3 – 132.5
107.4 ± 16.44
b
185.15 – 330.9
264 ± 61.46
a
6.0 – 14.56
8.94 ± 3.336
a
172.42 – 340
244.8 ± 69.24
a
5.7 – 15.69
8.61 ± 3.356
a
174.42 – 320
248.1 ± 60.92
a
6.2 – 12.94
8.09 ± 2.473
a
Parameters
Air
Temperature
◦
C
Water
Temperature
◦
C
Water
Current m/sec
E.C. µS/cm
Salinity ppt
TDS mg/L
Turbidity
NTU
TSS mg/L
pH
D.O mg/L
BOD mg/L
T.H. mg/L
Cl- mg/L
SO4 mg/L
NO3= mg/L
183.5 – 320
260.1 ± 55.06
a
5.7 – 15.09
8.18 ± 3.275
a
37
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
0.13 – 0.35
0.26 ± 0.0771
bc
PO4 mg/L
0.19 – 0.50
0.41 ± 0.097
a
0.27 – 0.40
0.34 ± 0.0605
ab
0.23 – 0.39
0.34 ± 0.0673
ab
0.22 – 0.45
0.37 ± 0.0695
a
*Station that carrying similar character were no any significant difference
between them.
Table (7):The correlation(r) among studid water parameters.
Air
Temp.
Water
Temp.
Sali.
DO
BOD
Turbid.
TDS
TSS
TH
ClSO4
NO3
PO4
Water
curr.
pH
E.C.
Sal.
DO
BOD
Turbi.
TDS
TSS
TH
Cl-
SO4
NO3
**
0.983
Water **
current -0.643
NS
pH
0.423
EC
Water
Temp.
**
-0.649
NS
0.412
*
*
-0.452
-0.559
NS
0.203
NS
0.332
NS
-0.092
*
**
-0.586
NS
0.340
NS
-0.129
**
-0.481
**
**
**
-0.774
-0.752
0.718
NS
0.028
NS
0.343
NS
-0.107
NS
-0.183
NS
-0.256
-0.64
**
**
-0.558
-0.603
NS
0.047
-0.488
NS
-0.422
*
-0.529
NS
0.324
NS
-0.075
**
**
-0.638
-0.716
NS
0.346
NS
-0.307
**
**
*
-0.691
-0.766
0.438
-0.403
**
**
-0.732
-0.783
NS
0.297
-0.468
*
**
-0.519
-0.578
NS
0.184
NS
-0.211
NS
-0.196
NS
-0.155
*
-0.477
NS
-0.056
NS
-0.094
NS
-0.071
**
0.999
NS
0.355
*
*
0.479
0.491
**
**
0.771
0.782
**
**
0.997
0.994
**
**
0.753
0.762
**
**
0.747
0.766
**
**
0.832
NS
-0.387
NS
0.289
**
NS
0.323
*
**
0.48
0.763
NS
0.34
*
**
**
0.485
0.665
0.736
NS
0.356
**
**
**
**
0.595
0.738
0.737
0.847
NS
0.408
**
**
**
**
**
0.847
0.6
0.925
0.818
0.801
0.869
**
**
*
**
**
*
**
**
0.785
0.789
0.442
NS
0.299
0.832
0.786
0.489
0.616
0.797
NS
0.202
NS
0.218
NS
-0.032
*
*
0.662
NS
0.144
NS
0.218
*
0.449
NS
0.201
*
-0.588
0.501
0.54
NS
-0.334
NS
-0.073
NS
-0.063
NS
-0.333
*
NS
0.069
NS
-0.102
NS
0.209
NS
0.199
NS
0.078
NS
-0.31
*
**
0.626
0.469
**= Significant correlation at P<0.01.
*= Significant correlation at P<0.05.
NS= Non-significant correlation.
38
NS
-0.22
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
3.1. 2. Water Currents.
Flow is defined as the volume of fluid (e.g. water) that passes
through a passage of a given section in a unit of time ((USGS, 2007).
Flow affects the dilution properties of a river, an important
measurement for the quantitative analysis of pollution problems.
Discharge of many rivers is often related to seasonality (Mary and
Macrina, 2012). Measurement of surface water flow is an important
component of most water quality monitoring projects. Flooding, stream
geomorphology, and aquatic life support are all directly influenced by
stream flow, and runoff and stream flow drive the generation, transport,
and delivery of many nonpoint sources (NPS) pollutants. Calculation of
pollutant loads requires knowledge of water flow (USEPA,1993).
The results of this study showed that the high value of water current in
winter was 0.81 m/sec at station 1, while the lower value was in autumn
which was 0.37 m/sec at stations 2 (Fig.5; Table 6).
The increase in water flow value in Al-Gharraf River in winter is
probably due to the rainfall that increases the water column and the wind
that increases water movement, may cause high water flow during winter,
while the flow during spring and summer is relatively –moderate, perhaps
due to the increase of aquatic vegetation (WASC, 2002).
The flow in surface waters is a function of many factors including
precipitation, surface runoff, and inters flow, seasonal variations of these
factors have strong effects on flow rates and on the concentration of
pollutants in surface water (Davies et al., 2008).
The statistical analysis showed that there was a significant
differences in water current among seasons, while no significant
differences among stations (P˂0.05) in the same season. (Table 6).
39
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
The results of present study conflicted with that of Alzurfi (2005),
about Kufa River and Al-Haidarey (2009) on Al-Hawizeh Marsh and
Ahmed (2012) on Tigris River. But in agreement other those reported by
Al-Obaidi (2006) on Abu Zirig Marsh , Al-Ghanemi (2011) on the
Euphrates and Al-Kuraishi (2011) on Tigris River (Appendix 2).
Mean Water current (m/sec)
0.8
0.7
0.6
St.1
0.5
St.2
0.4
St.3
0.3
St.4
0.2
St.5
0.1
0
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Summer
Figure (5): Seasonal variation of water currents in AL-Gharraf River during
study period.
3.1. 3. Electrical Conductivity E.C. and Salinity.
Electrical Conductivity is a measure of the ability of water to carry
electric current and it is sensitive to variations in dissolved solids, mostly
mineral salts ( Ezzat, et. al. 2012). The determination of electrical
conductivity helps in estimating the concentration of electrolytes. Its
ability is dependent upon the presence of ions in solution and its
measurement is an excellent indicator of the total dissolved solid in a
matter (Adejuwon and Adelakun, 2012).
Salinity is a dynamic indicator of the nature of the exchange system.
It is expressed as the total concentration of electrically charged ions in
water in part per thousand (ppt) (UNESCO&WHO, 1992).
The obtained results showed that the lowest conductivity value 825
µS/cm with salinity 0.52 ppt was recorded at station 1 in spring, while
40
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
the highest value 1450 µS/cm with salinity 0.93 ppt was recorded at
station 2 in winter (Figs.6&7 ; Table 6). These values are similar to those
recorded in this river by other studies, but are lower than those recorded
in the Euphrates and kufa rivers(Al-Lami et al, 1998 and Alzurfi et
al.,2010) (Appendix 2).
The statistical analysis showed a significant differences among
seasons for E.C. and salinity at (P˂0.05), but no any significant
differences among stations was observed except with station 1 (Table 6).
Conductivity and salinity showed positive correlation with all the
parameters except PO4 and concentrations of studied heavy metals (Cd,
Pb & Zn), (Table 7and 9 respectively).
Increasing levels of conductivity and salinity in winter and decrease in
spring due to the products of decomposition and mineralization of organic
materials (UNEP, 2006). As well as the rain fall and increasing of water
level and river discharge, which revealed an inverse correlation between
E.C. and water temperature (r=-0.559), while the correlation between
salinity and water temperature was also inverse correlation (r= -0.586)
(Table 7). Anthropogenic increases in salinity and E.C. in surface water
are larger due to agriculture, urbanization, and industrial activities (AlNaqshbandi, 2002). The results of E.C and salinity value for Al-Gharraf
river came in accordance with the known EC values for Iraqi inland
waters ( Al-Lami et al, 1999).
Current results are backed by those of Salman (2006) on Euphrates
river and Sabah and Fadhel (2011) on Al-Gharraf river and Khalik et
al.(2013) on Bertam river in Malaysia but not agree with those of Fahad
(2001) on Euphrates river and Al-Helaly (2010) on Al-Gharraf river and
Vaishali and Punita (2013) on Mini river in India (Appendix 2).
41
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
0.9
0.8
Mean E.C. (µS/cm)
0.7
0.6
St.1
0.5
St.2
0.4
St.3
0.3
St.4
0.2
St.5
0.1
0
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Summer
Figure (6): Seasonal variation of electrical conductivity in AL-Gharraf River
during study period.
0.9
0.8
Mean Salinity ppt.
0.7
0.6
St.1
0.5
St.2
0.4
St.3
0.3
St.4
0.2
St.5
0.1
0
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Summer
Figure (7): Seasonal variation of salinity in AL-Gharraf River during study
period.
3.1. 4.Total Dissolved Solids (TDS).
TDS is the term used to describe the inorganic salts and small
amounts of organic matter present in solution in water. The principal
constituents are usually calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium
cations and carbonate, hydrogen carbonate, chloride, sulfate, and nitrate
anions (WHO, 1996b). The concentration and composition of TDS in
natural waters are determined by the geology of the drainage,
atmospheric
precipitation
and
the
water
precipitation) (Phyllis and Lawrence, 2007)
42
balance
(evaporation-
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
The present study results showed that the maximum value of TDS 957
mg/L was found at station 2 in winter 2013, while the minimum value 545.3
mg/L was found at station 1 in spring 2013(Fig.8;Table 6). The statistical
analysis showed a significant differences among seasons at (P˂0.05), but no
any significant differences among stations (Table 6).
The negative correlation was observed between TDS and each of air and
water temperature (r = -0.422 for air temp. and r = -0.529 for water temp.)
(Table 7). The results of TDS values in this study within the range of Iraqi
standards for drinking water in 1998 and WHO water quality standards in 2003
that maximum value was 1500 mg/L (Appendix 1).
High value of TDS recorded during winter period could be related to
increase in the load of soluble salts, mud, increase in the urban and fertilizer
runoff, wastewater, septic effluent, decaying plants, animals and erosion of
river banks. Lower value of TDS recorded in spring period might be due to
dilution factor and sedimentation of suspended solids and slow decomposition
rate during spring period (Imnatoshi and Sharif, 2012).
The study findings are coincided with other results of Al-Saadi et
al.(1999) on Tigris and Euphrates river, Hassan et. al.(20108) on Euphrates
river, Sabah and Fadhel (2011) on Al-Gharraf river, Ezzat et. al.(2012) on Nile
river in Egypt and Saksena et. al.(2008) on Chambal river in India
(Appendix2).
43
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
1000
Mean T.D.S. (mg/l)
800
St.1
600
St.2
St.3
400
St.4
St.5
200
0
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Summer
Figure (8): Seasonal variation of total dissolved solids in AL-Gharraf River
during 2012/2013
3.1.5.Turbidity.
Water turbidity is the measure of fine suspended matter in water, mostly
caused by colloidal particles such as clay, silt, non-living organic particulates,
plankton and other microscopic organisms, in addition to suspended organic
and inorganic matter. The turbidity degree of stream water is an approximate
measure of pollution intensity (Siliem, 1995; Lako, et al. 2012).
Turbidity in water has public health implications due to the possibilities of
pathogenic bacteria encased in the particles and thus escaping disinfection
processes. Turbidity interferes with water treatment (filtration), and affects
aquatic life (UNEP, 2008).
In this study the highest value of turbidity recorded in winter season at
station 2 which was 177 NTU while the lowest value of turbidity was recorded
in spring season at station 1 which was 30 NTU (Fig.9 ; Table 6).
The statistical analysis showed a significant differences among seasons at
(P˂0.05), but no any significant differences among stations (Table 6). The
results of present study showed positive correlation between turbidity and total
suspended solids and water current (r= 0.665 and r= 0.047 respectively)
(Table7).
44
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
The increased turbidity during rainy seasons was attributed to soil erosion
in the nearby catchment and massive contribution of suspended solids from
sewage. Surface runoffs and domestic wastes mainly contribute to the increased
turbidity (Gangwara et al., 2012 ).
High turbidity can decrease the amount of available sunlight, limiting the
production of algae and macrophytes. Turbid waters may also damage fish
directly by irritating or scouring their gills, also harm some benthic
macroinvertebrates (Owens et al., 2005)
Generally, turbidity is widely concerned as an important parameter for
drinking water. However, the observed value were higher than the permissible
level recommended by the Iraq, WHO and CCME for drinking water for all
seasons according to (Al-Janabi et al., 2012).
These results didn't correspond with those of Al-Lami et. al. (1996b) ;
Sabri et. al. (1997) and Al-Kuraishi (2011) studies in Iraq and Manjare et al.
(2010) and Srivastava et al.(2011) and Vaishali and Punita (2013) studies in
Indi (Appendix 2).
120
Mean Turbidity (NTU)
100
St.1
80
St.2
60
St.3
40
St.4
St.5
20
0
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Summer
Figure(9): Seasonal variation of turbidity in AL-Gharraf River during study
period.
45
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
3.1. 6.Total Suspended Solids (TSS).
The term “total suspended solids” (TSS) applies to the dry weight of the
material that is removed from a measured volume of water sample by filtration
through a standard filter (UNEP&WHO, 1996). The total suspended solids may
be organic and inorganic, that are suspended in the water. These would include
silt, plankton and industrial wastes. Source of total suspended solids include
erosion from urban runoff and agricultural land, industrial wastes, bank erosion,
bottom feeders, algae growth or wastewater discharges (Bamakanta et al.,
2013).
Present study findings showed that maximum value of TSS recorded was
in winter season at station 2 which was 287 mg/L while the minimum value
was recorded in spring season at station 1 which was 38 mg/L (Fig.10; Table
6). The statistical analysis showed a significant differences among seasons at
(P˂0.05), but no any significant differences among stations (Table 6 ). A
negative correlation with air and water temperature (r=-0.638 and r=-0.716
respectively) also was finding, while found a positive correlation with water
currents was also found (r=0.346), (Table 7).
High concentrations of suspended solids may alter water quality by
absorbing light. Waters then become warmer and lessen the ability of the water
to hold oxygen necessary for aquatic life. Because aquatic plants also receive
less light, photosynthesis decreases and less oxygen is produced. (Lawson,
2011). Also high TSS in a water body can often mean higher concentrations of
bacteria, nutrients, pesticides, and metals in the water because suspended
particles provide attachment places for these other pollutants (Health Canada,
2012).
Also, these results showed clear increase in TSS values in winter season
and decrease in spring season may be due to increase in water level, soil
erosion and rainfall, as well as, other matters such as algae and organic matter .
46
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
These results however, agrees with those of local studies of Al-Saadi et
al. (1989), Al-Lami et al. (2001), Hassan (2004) and Al-Nimrawee (2005) and
international studies of Mary & Macrina (2012), Gangwara et al.(2012) and
Khalik et al. (2013) (Appendix 2) .
160
140
Mean T.S.S. (mg/L)
120
St.1
100
St.2
80
St.3
60
St.4
40
St.5
20
0
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Summer
Figure (10): Seasonal variation of total suspended solids in AL-Gharraf River
during study period.
3.1. 7. pH degree.
The pH value represents the instantaneous hydrogen ion activity and
affects biological and chemical reactions in a water body (Friedl et al., 2004;
Lawson, 2011). The increase in pH in the rivers could be related to
photosynthesis and growth of aquatic plants, where photosynthesis consumes
CO2 leads to a arise in the pH values (Yousry et al., 2009).
Generally, optimal pH range for sustainable aquatic life is pH 6.5-8.2. pH
of an aquatic system is an important indicator of the water quality and the
extent pollution in the watershed areas. (Kumar et al., 2011).
The pH values of Al-Gharraf river stationes never fall below 7, it ranged
from 7.03 in station 1 during autumn 2012 to a maximum value of 8.3 in
station 1 during summer 2013 (Fig.11; Table 6). The statistical analysis
showed a significant differences among seasons for pH at (P˂0.05), but no
47
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
any significant differences among stations was observed except with station 2
(Table 6).The positive correlation between pH and air and water temperature
(r= 0.423 and r= 0.412 respectively) was observed in present study (Table 7).
Ezekiel et al. (2011) associated low pH value to the rise of CO2
production and humic acid formation with bacterial respiration in
decomposition of organic matter. This study agrees with the results of Attee
(2004) on Shatt Al-Arab river, Muath and Muna (2007) on Tigris river and
Sabah and Fadhel (2011) on Al-Gharraf river (Appendix 2).
pH higher than 7 but lower than 8.5 according to Abowei (2010) is ideal
for biological productivity, but pH at <4 is detrimental to aquatic life. pH
may be affected by total alkalinity and acidity, run off from surrounding
rocks and water discharges. pH values in Iraqi inland water lay in the alkaline
condition as it known phenomenon for the due to the presence of carbonate
and bicarbonate (Maulood et al. 1980 and Hassan, 1997).
Some aquatic organisms in the river are sensitive to changes in pH
because most of their metabolic activities are pH dependent and some of
them may not be able to tolerate the changes. Decline in pH can cause
toxicity to many fish and may result to death. For example, a pH of 4 or less
cannot be tolerated by a fish in the river. Low pH can also increase the
amount of heavy metals (Al-Saadi, 1994).
The pH values were within the permissible level set by WHO (1993) and
EEC 464/76 stander for surface water quality (Tebbutt, 1998 ), which were
between 6.5-8.5 (Appendix,1). The present study results
coincided with
other international studies of Shraddha et al. on Narmada river (2011),
Adejuwon & Adelakun (2012) on Agodo river and Munna et al. (2013) on
Surma river (Appendix 2).
48
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
8.5
Mean pH value
8
St.1
7.5
St.2
St.3
7
St.4
St.5
6.5
6
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Summer
Figure (11): Seasonal variation of pH values in AL-Gharraf River during study
period.
3.2. Chemical Characteristics.
3.2. 1. Dissolved Oxygen (DO).
Dissolved oxygen is one of the most important parameters in water
quality assessment and reflects the physical and biological processes
prevailing in the water (UNEP&WHO,1996; Bhattacharya et al., 2012). The
value of dissolved oxygen is remarkable in determining the water quality
criteria of an aquatic system. In the system where the rates of respiration and
organic decomposition are high, the DO values usually remain lower than
those of the system, where the rate of photosynthesis is high (Mishra et al.,
2009).
When the water is polluted with large amount of organic matter, a
amount of dissolved oxygen would be rapidly consumed in the biological
aerobic decay which would affect the water quality; the decreased dissolved
oxygen in water would affect the aquatic lives (Chhatwal, 2011).
Data of DO at the present study area are shown in Figure (12) and listed
in Table (6). The lowest value was 6.3 mg/L in summer 2013 recorded at
station 2, whereas the highest value was 10.38 mg/L in winter 2013 recorded
at station 1.
49
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
The statistical analysis revealed significant differences (P˂0.05) in DO
among seasons and the significant differences (P≤0.05) found among stations
except station 1 with 5 and station 3 with 4 (Table 6). A positive correlation
between DO and water current was found (r=0.718), while negative
correlation was found between DO and water temperature; BOD5; NO3 and
PO4 (r= -0.752; -0.387 ; -0.032 and -0.333 respectively) (Table 7).
This variation in DO values from stations 2 to 4 may be mainly attributed
to the consumption of DO in the oxidation of organic matter from the
domestic waste discharged of the Al-Haay city on the bank of the river. As
there was no more discharge of waste after station 5, the DO values improved
due to atmospheric reaeration. Based on the above results it can be said that
the dissolved oxygen content is within the limits of standards of WHO(2004)
suggested the standard of DO is more than 5mg/L (Appendix 1).
Decrease in the dissolved oxygen content during summer season could
also be attributed to increase in temperature will result in a decrease in the
concentration of dissolved oxygen, photosynthesis and aquatic organisms
respiration also play an important role with fluctuations of dissolved oxygen
concentration in water because self-purification occur when the decomposing
organisms use the dissolved oxygen to degrade the organic matter (Dallas &
Day, 2004 and Toma, 2013). Increasing levels of DO in Al-Gharraf river due
to the self-purification mechanism, good mixing, and larger water volume
(Al-Saadi, 2006).
The results of present study are in agreement with those of Al- Nimrawee
(2005) who found that DO values between 6.8-12 mg/L in Tigris River,
Hassan, et. al.(2008) who recorded in his study DO values was ranged
between 7.1-8.4 mg/l in Shatt Al-Hilla River and Hussein & Fahad ( 2008)
recorded DO values varied between 6.2-9.5 mg/L in Al-Gharraf River
(Appendix 2).
50
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
12
Mean D.O. (mg/L)
10
8
St.1
St.2
6
St.3
St.4
4
St.5
2
0
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Summer
Figure (12): Seasonal variation of dissolved oxygen in AL-Gharraf River during
study period.
3.2. 2. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD5).
The BOD5 is a measure of the oxygen in the water that is required by
the aerobic organisms (Chapman, 1996). The biodegradation of organic
materials exerts oxygen tension in the water and increases the biochemical
oxygen demand (Shivayogimath et al., 2012). BOD5 tests measures only
biodegradable fraction of the total potential DO consumption of a water
sample. High BOD5 levels indicates decline in DO, because the oxygen that
is available in the water is being consumed by the bacteria leading to the
inability of fish and other aquatic organisms to survive in the river (Vaishali
and Punita 2013).
The obtained BOD5 data showed that the maximum value was recorded in
autumn season at station 2 which was 7.01 mg/L while the minimum value
was found in spring season at station 1 which was 1.0 mg/L (Fig.13; Table
6). The results of statistical analysis refer that significant different (P˂0.05)
between seasons and the significant differences (P˂0.05) between stations
except between station 1 and 5 (Table 6).
The increase in BOD5 value in station 2, returned to due to the effluent
discharged enriched with organic matter from Al-Haay city which leading to
51
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
decrease in DO value. This phenomenon was found by Al-Mayaly (2000),
Hussein (2002) and Al-Tameemi (2004). The concentration of BOD5 for
most the study stations was exceed the permissible limit for both Iraqi
standards for water quality 1998, which was less than 5 mg/L, and exceed the
WHO standards (2004), which was less than 3 mg/L.
The high BOD5 value during autumn and winter, was probably linked to
the level of organic matter load from sewage, industrial or urban discharges
as reported by Chapman (1992). On the other hand, BOD revealed high
positive correlations with all bacteriological parameters (P<0.05) (Table 11),
and a no significant negative correlation to water temperature (r = -0.184),
pH and DO (r = -0.635 and r = -0.387 respectively ) (Table 7) , mainly due
to removal of free oxygen by bacteria during decomposition of organic matter
particularly in winter season.
The results of this study were higher than that reported by Fahad (2006)
who registered BOD5 value ranged 1.1- 6.1 mg/L in Al-Garraf river ; AlNimrawee (2005) found the range for BOD5 was 0.9-3.5 mg/L in Tigris river
and Aziz (2006) found the range for BOD5 was 1.3-4.6 mg/L in Greater Zab
river, whereas it was lower than that reported by Al-Rubaiy (2007) found the
range for BOD5 was 1.80-10.41 mg/L in Diyala river, Abed Al-Razzaq
(2011) with a range of 0.006-640 mg/L in Tigris river and Shekha (2008)
found the range for BOD5 was 0.4-38.8mg/L in Greater Zab river
(Appendix2).
Also, present study coincided with international studies of Ezekiel et al.
(2011) on Sombreiro River in Nigeria, El Bouraie et al.(2011) on Nile delta
in Egypt and Dhakyanaika and Kumara (2010) on Krishni river in India but
disagree with Abdo, et. al.(2010) on Nile river in Egypt ; Shivayogimath et
al. (2012) on Ghataprabha River in India and Khalik et al. (2013) on Bertam
river in Malaysia (Appendix 2).
52
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
8
Mean value BOD5(mg/L)
7
6
St.1
5
St.2
4
St.3
3
St.4
2
St.5
1
0
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Summer
Figure (13): Seasonal variation of biological oxygen demand in AL-Gharraf River
during study peroid.
3.2. 3. Total hardness (TH).
Hardness is one of the important chemical characteristics to determine
the suitability of water for domestic drinking and industrial purposes.
Hardness is caused principally due to the dissolved contents of carbonates
and sulphates of calcium and magnesium; at times to a lesser degree,
presence of chlorides, nitrates and sometimes iron and aluminum is effective
in causing hardness. It is expressed as ppm in terms of calcium carbonate
(Cheepi, 2012; Anhwange et al. 2012).
The calcium occurs in water due to presence of lime stone, gypsum,
dolomite and gypsiferrous matters. Calcium and magnesium are the major
scale forming constituents in raw water. Calcium is an essential element for
Human and for plant growth. Magnesium is an essential element for human
beings, but higher levels of magnesium are harmful as they act as cathartics
and diuretics in man (Bamakanta et al., 2013).
The values of total hardness in Al-Gharraf river are shown in Figure
(14) and listed in Table (6). The lowest value was 306 mg/L in summer 2013
recorded at station 5, whereas the highest value was 496 mg/L in winter 2013
53
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
recorded at station 2. The statistical analysis showed a significant differences
among seasons for T.H at (P˂0.05), but no any significant differences among
stations was observed except with station 2 (Table 6).
The positive correlation between T.H and E.C. and salinity (r= 0.747
and r= 0.766 respectively),while the negative correlation between T.H and
air and water temperature (r= -0. 691 and r= -0.766
respectively) was
observed in present study (Table 7).
Higher values of total hardness in Al-Gharraf river at station 2 and 3
due to the major increase occurred after receiving the domestic sewage and
industrial waste of Al-Haay city. The increase levels hardness value in winter
and decrease in spring and summer due to the dilution in salts concentration
in flood period (Al-Lami et al., 1998).
Kevin (1999) had divided water sample into four types depending on total
hardness as: The concentration less than 50mg/L calcium carbonate as nonhard water, the water has values ranged from 50 to 100 mg/L is moderate
hard water, values from 100 to 200 mg/L is hardness water, and more than
200 mg/L calcium carbonate as a very hard water, according to present study
finding, it can be classify Al-Gharraf river water as a hard to very hard water,
but within the permissible limit of Iraqi standards for drinking water No.417
in 1989 and WHO water quality standards in 2003 that maximum value was
500 mg/L (Appendix 1).
These results were supported by those of Taj Al-Deen, 2001 on Al-Hilla
river and Al-Nimrawee (2005) on Tigris river, Hassan et al. (2010) on
Euphrates river, Sabah & Fadhel (2011) on Al-Gharraf river in Iraq and
Khalik et al.(2013) on Bertam river in Malaysia and Bamakanta et al (2013)
on Nagavali River in India but no agreed with the studies of Fahad (2001) on
Euphrates river, AL-Zamili (2007) on Al-Gharraf river, Al-Kuraishi (2011)
on Tigris river in Iraq and Saksena et. al.(2008) on Chambal river and
Vaishali & Punita (2013) on Mini river in India (Appendix 2) .
54
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
450
400
Mean T.H. (mg/L)
350
300
St.1
250
St.2
200
St.3
150
St.4
100
St.5
50
0
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Summer
Figure (14): Seasonal variation of total hardness in AL-Gharraf River during
study period.
3.2. 4. Chlorides (Cl-).
Chloride exists in all natural waters, the concentrations varying very
widely and reaching a maximum in sea water (up to 35,000 mg/l). In fresh
waters the sources include soil and rock formations, sea spray and waste
discharges. Sewage contains large amounts of chloride, as do some industrial
effluents (Ezeribe et al., 2012).
In natural water chloride occurs in widely varying concentration.
Abnormal chloride concentration may result due to pollution of sewerage
waste and leaching of saline residues in the soil. Its desirable limit is 200-250
mg/L beyond this limit, taste, corrosion and palatability are affected; and
deficiency of chloride also an influence of the productivity of the agriculture.
Excess presence of chloride in water leads to gastrointestinal, diarrhea , and
skin allergies (Cheepi, 2012) .
The range of chloride ions values was 89 to 184.6 mg/L (Fig.15 ; Table
6). The minimum value of Chloride (89 mg/L) was recorded at station 1
during spring 2013, while the maximum value (184.6 mg/L) was found in
station 2 during winter 2013. The statistical analysis revealed significant
differences (P<0.05) in Cl- among seasons but no any significant differences
55
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
among stations was observed except with station 2 (Table 6).The positive
correlation between Cl- and E.C. and salinity (r= 0.832 and r= 0.847
respectively),while the negative correlation between Cl-and air and water
temperature (r= -0. 732 and r= -0.783 respectively) was observed in present
study (Table 7).
The increase of Cl- value in station 2 and 3, indicates to pollution by
sewage in the waters of Al-Gharraf river due to the discharged sewage
from the Al-Haay city enriched with organic matter, this phenomenon was
proved by Chapman (1996), Al-Sarraf (2006) and Abd Al-Razzaq (2011).
Many researchers reported that rainfall add chloride directly. It is low in
summer as compared to rainy season and occupying the intermediate position
in winter
(Kalwale and Savale 2012), this agrees with the study findings
which revealed the highest value of Cl- in winter, while lowest value in
spring and summer.
The results of present study agreed with those of Al-Lami et al (1996a)
who found that Cl- values between 73-183 mg/L in Tigris River, Zaidan et al.
(2009) recorded Cl- values varied between 20-189.5 mg/L in Euphrates River
and Sabah & Fadhel (2011)
who recorded in his study Cl- values were
ranged between 95-160 mg/L in in Al-Gharraf River.
But was lower than that reported by Al-Tameemi (2004), who recorded in
his study Cl- values was ranged between 298-648 mg/L in Dyalah river, ALZamili (2007) who recorded in his study Cl- values was ranged between
355-755 mg/l in in Al-Gharraf River and Abed Al-Razzaq (2011), recorded
Cl- values varied between 27.28-237.85 mg/L in Tigris river (Appendix
2).The minimum concentration and the mean concentration of Cl- were
within the permissible limit for both Iraqi standards river water 1967 No.
(25), which was 2000 mg/L, and within WHO standards (1993), which was
250 mg/L (Appendix 1).
56
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
160
Mean Chloride ion (mg/l)
140
120
St.1
100
St.2
80
St.3
60
St.4
40
St.5
20
0
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Summer
Figure (15): Seasonal variation of chloride ions in AL-Gharraf River during
study period.
3.2. 5. Sulphate (SO4-2).
Sulphates exist in nearly all natural waters, the concentrations varying
according to the nature of the terrain through which they flow. They are often
derived from the sulphides of heavy metals (iron, nickel, copper and lead).
Iron sulphides are present in sedimentary rocks from which they can be
oxidised to sulphate in humid climates; the latter may then leach into
watercourses so that ground waters are often excessively high in sulphates.
As magnesium and sodium are present in many waters their combination
with sulphate will have an enhanced laxative effect of greater or lesser
magnitude depending on concentration (EPA, 2001).
Al-Gharraf river stations showed variation in sulphate value (Fig.16 ;
Table 6).The minimum value was 172.42 mg/L in station 4 during spring
2013, and the maximum value of 360 mg/L in station 2 during winter 2013.
The statistical analysis showed a significant differences among seasons at
(P˂0.05), but no any significant differences among stations (Table 6).
Slightly higher concentrations of sulphate were detected at study area in
station 2 and 3, and this may be due to untreated domestic sewage of the AlHaay city.
57
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
The increase in sulphate value in winter and decrease in spring generally
due to discharge of the domestic sewage and agricultural runoff, these ions
can produced from decompositions of organic matters or using chemical
fertilizers in agriculture (Imarah and Munther, 1993; Grasby et al., 1997).
Sulphates are formed due to the decomposition of various sulphur containing
substances present in water bodies.
The sulphate ions (SO4)-2 occur naturally in most water supplies and
hence are also present in well waters (Ezeribe et al., 2012). The values
obtained for each of the locations in
Al-Gharraf river
are exceed the
permissible limit for both Iraqi standards for drinking water (Abbawi &
Mohsen, 1990), which was 2000 mg/L, and within WHO standards drinking
water (2004), which was 250 mg/L (Appendix 1).
The sulphate values recorded in the present study is coincided with
findings of Salih & Jafer (2003), found the sulphate value between 240-300
in AL-Hindia river, Al-Gizzy (2005), found the sulphate value between 231383 in Al-Gharraf river, AL-Zamili (2007), found the sulphate value between
142.35-312.1 in Al-Gharraf river , Al-Fatlawey (2007), found the sulphate
value between 197.3-309.3 in Tigris river and Al-Ghanemi (2011) found the
sulphate value between 19.84-340.6 in Euphrates river.
Also agree with international studies of Abdo et. al.(2010) on Nile river
in Egypt , Munna et al. (2013) on Surma river in Bangladesh and Ramesh &
Selvanayagam (2013) on Kolavoi Lake in India (Appendix 2).
58
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
350
Mean SO4 (mg/L)
300
250
St.1
200
St.2
150
St.3
St.4
100
St.5
50
0
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Summer
Figure (16): Seasonal variation of sulphate ions in AL-Gharraf River during
study period.
3.2. 6. Nitrate(NO3-2).
Nitrate is the most highly oxidized form of nitrogen compounds
commonly present in natural waters. Significant sources of nitrate are
chemical fertilizers, decayed vegetable and animal matter, domestic effluents,
sewage sludge disposal to land, industrial discharge, leachates from refuse
dumps and atmospheric washout. Depending on the situation, these sources
can contaminate streams, rivers, lakes and ground water. Unpolluted natural
water contains minute amounts of nitrate (Foglar, 2013).
High nitrate levels in waters to be used for drinking will render them
hazardous to infants as they induce the "blue baby" syndrome
(methaemoglobinaemia).The nitrate itself is not a direct toxicant but is a
health hazard because of its conversion to nitrite which reacts with blood
haemoglobin to cause methaemoglobinaemia (Robert, 2006; EPA, 2013).
Nitrate values are presented in Figure (17) and Table (6). The highest
concentration of NO3 ions was recorded in autumn 2012 at station 2 which
was 15.76 mg/L, while the lowest value was recorded in spring 2013 at
station 1and 4 which was 5.7 mg/L. The statistical analysis revealed
significant differences (P<0.05) in NO3 among seasons but no any significant
59
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
differences among stations was observed (Table 6 ).The positive correlation
between NO3 and BOD5 and turbidity (r= 0.449 and 0.662 ),while the no
significant negative correlation with DO (r= -0. 032) was observed in present
study (Table 7). Increase in nitrate content in station 2 and 3 could be related
to the the impact of Al-Haay city sewage effluent.
High nitrate level in AL-Gharraf river during autumn and winter is due
to the rainfall and fertilizer runoff as well as bacterial activity which convert
nitrite to nitrate and the decomposition of organic compounds, but the
decreasing of nitrate in spring may be due to the dilution factor and
consumption of nitrate by phytoplankton growth and reduction of nitrate to
nitrite in the bottom (Allen, 2011; Salman and Hussain, 2012).
The results of this study were higher than those observed by Al-Saadi et
al. (1996) who found NO3 values ranging from 0.010-0.13 mg/l in Qarmat
Ali river, Al-Fatlawy (2005) that found the NO3 values ranged between
0.0015-0.360 mg/l in Euphrates river, and Sabah and Fadhel
(2011) ) that
found the range between 1.4-2.5 mg/L in Al-Gharraf river, whereas it was
lower than that reported by AL-Zamili (2007) found the range for NO3 was
3.2-16.41 mg/L in Al-Gharraf river and Abed Al-Razzaq (2011) with a range
of between 0.58-49.551mg/L in Tigris river (Appendix 2).
But this study findings coincided with previous studies of Hassan (1997)
on Hilla river, Kathy (2008) on Al-Gharraf river, Hashim (2010) on Tigris
and Salman (2006) on Euphrates river (Appendix,2). The values of NO3 for
all water samples from selected sites are within the permissible limit for both
Iraqi standards river water 1967 No.(25) and WHO standards drinking water
(2004), which was 50 mg/L (Appendix 2).
60
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
16
Mean NO3 (mg/L)
14
12
St.1
10
St.2
8
St.3
6
St.4
4
St.5
2
0
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Summer
Figure (17): Seasonal variation of NO3 in AL-Gharraf River during study period.
3.2. 7. Phosphate (PO4-3).
Phosphorus is present in natural waters primarily as phosphates.
Phosphates can enter aquatic environments from the natural weathering of
minerals in the drainage basin, from biological decomposition, and as runoff
from human activities in urban and agricultural areas (UNEPA, 2008; Flores
and Zafaralla, 2012).
Phosphorus is the principal growth-limiting nutrient for macroplankton
and phytoplankton growth in freshwater rivers and lakes and is the main
cause of eutrophication in rivers and lakes . Additional phosphorus
encourages algal growth beyond the natural levels. This growth depletes the
dissolved oxygen in the water, causes algal blooms in lakes and fish kills in
rivers (EPA, 2013)
The phosphate concentration in Al-Gharraf river ranged from 0.13-0.50
mg/L (Figure 18 and Table 6). The minimum value was 0.13 mg/L in station
1 during autumn 2012, and the maximum value was 0.50 mg/L in station 2
during spring 2013. The statistical analysis showed a significant differences
among seasons at (P˂0.05) and significant differences among stations except
station 2 with 5 and station 3 with 4 (Table 6).
61
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
The negative correlation between PO4 and DO (r= -0.333), while the
positive correlation with BOD5 (r= 0.469) was observed in present study
(Table,7). Increasing levels of PO4 in Al-Gharraf river may be due to high
concentration of detergents in sewage,
in addition to the high density of
agricultural areas, the phosphate fertilizers raised with high percentage as
result of increased agricultural activity that might be the cause of high
concentrations of phosphate.
Hassan (2001) reported that increase in phosphate concentration during
spring season may be related to rainfall and death of aquatic plants and lesser
consumed phosphate by phytoplankton, while the decline during autumn due
to consumed by plants and phytoplankton in photosynthesis and increase soil
particles adsorption (Lind, 1979). The values of phosphate for most selected
sites are exceed the permissible limit for both Iraqi standards river water
1967 No.(25) ), which was 0.4 mg/L, and WHO standards drinking water
(2004), which was 0.1 mg/L (Appendix 1).
These results agrees with the studies of Hussein & Fahad (2008) found
the phosphate value between 0.03-0.52 mg/L in AL-Gharraf river, Ali (2010)
found the phosphate value between 0.195-0.558 mg/L Greater Zab river and
Al-Kuraishi (2011) found the phosphate value between 0.03-0.97 mg/L in
Tigris river (Appendix 2).
Also these data agree with other international studies of Imnatoshi and
Sharif (2012) found the phosphate value ranging from 0.01-0.5 mg/L on
Doyang river in Nagaland, Kalwale and Savale (2012) on Deoli Bhorus Dam in
India and Ramesh and Selvanayagam (2013) found the phosphate value
between 0.07-0.6 on Kolavoi Lake in India (Appendix 2).
62
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
0.5
Mean PO4 (mg/L)
0.4
St.1
0.3
St.2
St.3
0.2
St.4
St.5
0.1
0
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Summer
Figure (18): Seasonal variation of PO4 in AL-Gharraf River during study period.
3.2. 8. Heavy metals.
The Pollution of aquatic ecosystem by heavy metals has assumed serious
proportions due to their toxicity and accumulative behavior. Unlike organic
pollutants, natural processes of decomposition do not remove heavy metals.
Metals are introduced into the aquatic system as a result of weathering of rocks
and soils in addition to industrial wastewater discharges, sewage as well as
from atmospheric deposition (Leena et al., 2012).
3.2. 8.1.Cadmium (Cd).
Cadmium occurs in sulphide minerals that also contain zinc, lead or
copper, is usually associated with zinc. Cadmium is highly toxic and has been
implicated in some cases of poisoning through food. Minute quantities of
cadmium are suspected of being responsible for adverse changes in arteries of
human kidneys, also causes cancer for human and laboratory animals . A
cadmium concentration of 0.2mg/L is toxic to certain fishes. Cadmium may
enter water as a result the domestic sewage and industrial discharges. The
maximum level for cadmium for drinking water standard is 0.005 mg/L (EPA,
2002; Raikwar et al 2008)
63
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
The obtained results showed that the maximum value of Cd recorded in
summer 2013 at station 2 which was 0.099 ppm, while the minimum value of
Cd was recorded in winter 2013 at station 1 which was 0.001 ppm (Fig.19 ;
Table 8). The statistical analysis of the data showed significant differences
among season at (P≤0.05) and significant differences among stations except
station 1 with 2 and station 2 with 4 & 5 (Table 8).
The significant positive correlation with Pb, Zn and water temperature
(r=0.835; r=0.603and r=0.593 respectively) (Taple 9).The cadmium is very
strongly adsorbed on muds, humus and organic matter, leading to the
possibility 'of entry to the food chain via fish and fish food, and subsequent
accumulation in tissue (EPA, 2001).
The increase of the concentration of Cd during summer season and decrease
during winter due to increased discharge of domestic sewage especialy at
station 2 and urban storm-water runoff containing Cd-laden materials. Also,
using of fertilizer and pesticides that is added to agricultural lands which
causes increase the rate of cadmium in the soil and therefore it transfers into
the river water because of irrigations and the dusty storms (Lawson, 2011;
Ogunfowokan, et al., 2013) .
The study results agreed with those of different works of Al-Khafaji
(1996) on Shatt Al-Arab river, Al-Saadi et al. (2001) on Diyala river, Salman
(2006) on Euphrates river, Hussein & Fahad (2008) on Al-Gharraf river,
Hashim (2010) on Tigris river in Iraq and Rahman (2005) on Shitalakhya
river in Bangladesh, Danazumi & Bichi (2010) on Challawa river in Nigeria,
Amadi (2012) on Aba river in Nigeria, Kumwenda et. al.(2012) on Mudi
river in Malawi and Bamakanta et al. (2013) on Nagavali River in India. All
these were summarized in Appendix (5).
Generally, the values of Cd for all selected sites are exceed
the
permissible limit for both Iraqi standards river water 1967 No.(25) ), which
64
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
was 0.005 ppm, and WHO standards drinking water (2006), which was
0.003 ppm (Appendix 4).
0.08
0.07
Mean Cd (ppm)
0.06
St.1
0.05
St.2
0.04
St.3
0.03
St.4
0.02
St.5
0.01
0
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Summer
Figure (19): Seasonal variation of cadmium in AL-Gharraf River during study
period.
Table (8): Minimum and maximum ( First Line), mean and standard
deviation ( Second Line), for heavy metals studied (Cd, Pb, and Zn) at
study stations during 2012-2013.
Stations
St.1
St.2
St. 3
St.4
St.5
Cadmium
ppm
0.001- 0.011
0.0044 ± 0.0032
ab
0.002 - 0.099
0.0323 ± 0.0408
a
0.004 – 0.095
0.0191 ± 0.0288
a
0.006 – 0.087
0.0190 ± 0.0246
a
Lead ppm
0.004 – 0.05
0.0157 ± 0.0172
d
0.01 – 0.32
0.1593 ± 0.137
a
0.003 – 0.097
0.0104 ± 0.0310
ab
0.015 - 0. 19
0.090 6 ± 0.0644
0.025 – 0.099
0.0651 ± 0.0247
c
0.03 - 0.087
0.0543 ± 0.0207
c
0.025 – 0.07
0.0473 ± 0.0133
d
0.03 – 1.1
0.4674 ± 0.417
a
0.045 – 0.50
0.1871 ± 0.17
c
0.05 – 0. 39
0.1703 ± 0.127
c
Heavy
metals
Zinc ppm
b
0.036 – 0.8
0.3022 ± 0.289
b
*Station that carrying similar character were no any significant difference
between them.
65
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
Table (9):The correlation (r) among some water parameters and heavy
metals.
Water
pH
Temp.
pH
EC
Salinity
TDS
TH
Cl
SO4
Cd
Pb
Zn
NS
0.412
**
-0.559
**
-0.586
*
-0.529
**
-0.766
**
-0.783
**
-0.578
**
0.593
NS
0.354
NS
0.171
NS
-0.091
NS
-0.129
NS
-0.075
NS
-0.403
*
-0.468
NS
-0.211
NS
0.134
NS
-0.176
NS
-0.319
EC
Sal.
TDS
TH
Cl
SO4
Cd
Pb
**
0.999
**
0.997
**
0.747
**
0.832
**
0.785
NS
-0.105
NS
-0.239
NS
-0.351
**
0.994
**
0.766
**
0.847
**
0.789
NS
-0.132
NS
-0.243
NS
-0.338
**
0.737
**
0.818
**
0.786
NS
-0.081
NS
-0.232
NS
-0.352
**
0.869
**
0.616
NS
-0.215
NS
0.012
NS
0.06
**
0.797
NS
-0.361
NS
-0.288
NS
-0.279
NS
-0.355
NS
-0.419
**
-0.516
**
0.835
**
0.603
**
0.897
**= Significant correlation at P<0.01.
*= Significant correlation at P<0.05.
NS= Non-significant correlation.
3.2. 8.2. Lead (Pb).
Lead is one of the very toxic heavy metals that not only accumulate in
individual but also have the ability to affect the entire food chain and disrupt
the health system of human beings, animals and phytoplanktons (David et al.,
2003). The lead reaches the water system through urban runoff or discharges
such as sewage treatment plants and industrial plants. Industrial production
processes and their emissions, mining operation, smelting, combustion sources
and solid waste incinerators are the primary sources of lead. Another source of
Pb is lead paint, batteries, lead piping used in water distribution system
(Singh et al. 2012).
66
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
Al-Gharraf river water samples of all stations showed variation in Pb value
(Fig.20 ; Table 8).The lowest value was 0.004 ppm in station 1 during winter
2013, and the highest value was 0.32 ppm in station 2 during spring 2013. The
statistical analysis of the data showed significant differences among season at
(P≤0.05) and significant differences among the stations except between station
4 and 5 (Table 8 ). The positive correlation with Zn and water temperature
(r=0.354 and r=0.897 respectively), whereas the no significant negative
correlation with pH (r= -0.176), (Table 9).
The pH affects solubility of metal (Pb, Cd and Zn) hydroxide, and most
metals hydroxide has very low solubility under pH conditions in natural water
.Because hydroxide ion activity is directly related to pH, the solubility of
metals hydroxide increases with decreasing pH, and more dissolved metals
become potentially available for incorporation in biological processes as pH
decreases pH (6-7) stimulate metals dissolution and complex formation
(Al-Haidarey , 2009) .
The recorded concentrations of Pb in Al-Gharraf River in all the stations
as a result of the passage of the river through agricultural lands that used
different chemicals that contains Pb , which are used in product of agricultural
crops, these compounds contained which accumulate in the agricultural soils
and find their way to the streams during the raining seasons or as a result of the
erosion of soils (Fahad, 2006). The concentration of Pb for most the study
stations was exceed the permissible limit for Iraqi standards river water 1967
No.(25), which was 0.005 ppm, and WHO standards drinking water (1993),
which was 0.01 ppm and EQA standards water pollution (2001), which was
0.01 ppm (Appendix 4).
The results of this study were higher than those observed by Al-Lami &
AlJaberi (2002) on Tigris river, Salman (2006) on Euphrates river, Al- Awady
(2011) on Al-Masab Alamm and Al-Khafaji (1996) on Shatt Al-Arab river,
while coinciding with Al-Saadi et al. (2001) on Diyala river, Al-Imarah (2002)
67
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
on Shatt Al-Hilla, Farhood (2012) on Euphrates river and Akbar & AL-Khazali
(2012) on Al-Gharraf river (Appendix 5).
Also the results of Pb in current study was lowest than the results of the
international studies of Rahman (2005) on Shitalakhya river, Danazumi &
Bichi (2010) on Challawa river, Idriss and Ahmad (2012) on Juru river and
Kumwenda et. al.(2012) on Mudi river (Appendix 5).
0.35
0.3
Mean Pb (ppm)
0.25
St.1
0.2
St.2
0.15
St.3
St.4
0.1
St.5
0.05
0
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Summer
Figure (20): Seasonal variation of lead in AL-Gharraf River during 2012/2013
3.2. 8.3. Zinc (Zn).
Zinc, in small concentrations, is an essential element for living
organisms. It is essential for the enzymes required for forming red blood cells
in living organisms. It is also essential for plants because it takes part in the
biosynthesis of nucleus acids and polypeptides required for plants. On the other
hand, when concentration of zinc increases above certain a limit, it becomes
toxic to man, animals and plant life (Dojlido and Best, 1993; EPA, 2001).
Toxicity of zinc becomes more severe when present with other heavy
metals, such as cadmium, in water because it has synergistic effect with these
metals. The main sources of zinc to the environment are mining operations,
secondary metal production, coal combustion, rubber tire wear and phosphate
fertilizers (Salim et al., 2003).
68
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
Znic values are presented in Figure (21) and Table (8). The highest
concentration of Zn was recorded in spring 2013 at station 2 which was 1.1
ppm, while the lowest value of Zn was recorded in winter 2013 at station 1
which was 0.025 ppm. The statistical analysis revealed significant differences
(P≤0.05) in Zn among seasons and significant differences among stations
except among station 4 and 5 (Table,8).The positive correlation between Zn
and water temperature (r= 0.171), while the negative correlation with pH (r= 0. 319), (Table 9).
The increase of the concentration of Zn during spring season might be
resulted from the increase of discharge of domestic sewage especially at station
2 and agricultural and industrial discharge along the Al-Gharrafriver as well as
the different population densities as suggested by (Alloway& Ayres, 1997;
WHO, 2006), whereas lowest values during winter may be due to the dilution
factor followed rainfall (Al-Taee, 1999).
The average concentration of Zn for all selected sites in the Al-Gharraf
River were in the permissible range of values reported by the Iraqi standards
river water 1967 No.(25) ), which was 0.5 ppm, and WHO standards drinking
water (2006), which was 3 ppm. While, the mean concentration of Zn was
above the USEPA (2007) recommended maximum values (0.015 ppm).
The results of this study were higher than those found by Al-Khafaji
(1996 ) on Shatt Al-Arab, Salman (2006) on Euphrates River, Al-Helaly (2010)
on Al-Gharraf River, Shukri, et al.(2011) on Tigris river in Iraq and Chavez et.
al. (2006) on Laguna dy Bay River in Philippines, Levkov & Krstic(2002) on
Vardar river in Macedonia (Appendix 5).
On the other hand, these data were much lower than those reported by AlSaadi et al. (2001) on Diyala river, Al-Imarah (2002) on Al-Masab Alamm
river in Iraq and Rahman (2005) on Shitalakhya in Bangladesh, Danazumi &
Bichi (2010) on Challawa river, Nigeria, Salati and Moore (2010) on Khoshk
river in Iran, Idriss & Ahmad (2012) on Juru river in Malaysia (Appendix 5).
69
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
In generally, the results of Zn in current study coincided with the results of
the study of Hussein and Fahad (2008) on the Al-Gharraf River in Iraq, Samir
and Ibrahim (2008) on Nile River in Egypt and Kumwenda et. al.(2012) on
Mudi River in Malawi (Appendix 5).
1.2
Mean Zn (ppm)
1
St.1
0.8
St.2
0.6
St.3
St.4
0.4
St.5
0.2
0
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Summer
Figure (21): Seasonal variation of zinc in AL-Gharraf River during 2012/2013
3.3.Bactriological Characteristics.
Bacteria are ideal sensors for microbial pollution of surface water
because of their fast response to environmental (Kavka and Poetsch, 2002).
The use of bacteria as water quality indicators can be viewed in two ways,
which were suggested by Baghed et al. (2005) as the presence of such
bacteria can be taken as an indication of fecal contamination of water and an
indication of potential danger of health risks.
3.3. 1. Total Bacterial Count (T.B.C).
The total bacterial includes all of the bacterial species that are capable of
growing in or on a nutrient rich solid agar medium. The incubation
temperature and time used were 37°C for 24 hours to encourage the growth
of bacteria derived from humans and warm- blooded animals (APHA, 1998;
WHO, 2004).
The distribution and seasonal variation of the Total Bacterial Count in AlGharraf river are shown in the Figure (22) and Table (10). The highest
70
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
number of total bacterial count was recorded in winter 2013 at station 2
which was 75000 CFU/1ml, while the lowest number of total bacterial count
was recorded in summer 2013 at station 1 which was 100 CFU/1ml. These
results exceeded local and international guidelines ranges .
The statistical analysis revealed significant differences (P≤0.05) in TBC
among seasons but no any significant differences among stations was found
except among station 2 (Table 10).The positive correlation between TBC and
other bacterial number (Table 11), and the positive correlation with BOD5
and salinity (r= 0.533 and 0.447) respectively, while the negative correlation
with DO and water temperature (r= -0. 096 and r= -0. 395), (Table 11).
High number of TBC in Al-Gharraf river was recorded during autumn
and winter ,which might be the consequence of the high level of suspended
solid and nutrients in the drainage water which affected the survival of
aquatic microflora (Hader et al., 1998), also it may be because the high
numbers of bacterial level of the Al-Gharraf River due to receiving the large
amounts of sewage especially in Al-Haay city, as wall as
increase the
agricultural activities have led to increase bacteria number in the waters of
the river (Adams and Kolo, 2006).
On the other hand, low number of bacteria during spring and summer
may be due to flood period which dilutes the organic matter which used as
food for the bacteria, as well as high temperature that caused kill of large
number from the bacteria (Davies et al.,1999; Abdo, et. al. 2010), this results
agree with the results of Mashcor (1986) and Sabae & Rabeh (2006).
In general, present data coincided with those of Mayaly (2000) on Tigris
and Dyalah river, Sabri et al.(2001) on Euphrates river, and Al-Jebouri &
Edham (2012) on Lower Al-Zab river, while disagree with studies of
Niewolak, (1998) on Czarna Haricza river in Poland, AL-Rahbi (2002) on
AL-Habania & AL-Tharthar reservoirs and Ibrahim, et al. (2013) on Tigris
river in Iraq (Appendix 6).
71
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
60000
T.B.C cfu/1ml
50000
St.1
40000
St.2
30000
St.3
20000
St.4
10000
St.5
0
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Summer
Figure (22): Seasonal variation of total bacterial count in AL-Gharraf River
during study period.
Table (10): Minimum and maximum ( First Line), mean and standard
deviation ( Second Line), for Bacteriological characteristics at study
stations during 2012-2013.
Stations
Parameters
Total
Bacterial
Count
CFU/1ml
Total
Coliform
CFU /100ml
Faecal
Coliform
CFU /100ml
Total
Streptococcus
CFU /100
Faeal
Streptococcus
CFU /100
St.1
St.2
St. 3
St.4
St.5
100 – 490
211 ± 159.4
b
740 – 75000
17613 ± 27615
170-1600
757 ± 614.1
b
230-1500
720 ± 390.5
b
130- 1705
645 ± 502.0
b
2300-24000
10921 ± 733
b
2300-18000
7979 ± 5378
b
300-16000
4708 ± 5244
bc
290-5400
1259 ± 1930
bc
a
19600 -34000
25475 ± 5657
a
220-2300
678 ± 797.4
d
19600-33000
24767 ± 4742
a
2100-22500
10679 ± 699
b
2200-17200
6979 ± 5783
c
260-16000
4195 ± 4873
c
230-3500
1246 ± 1162
d
13500-32600
19883 ± 4816
a
9000-25100
11950 ± 567
b
1500-16000
6625 ± 5807
c
260-5400
1694 ± 1877
d
200-1700
673 ± 681.0
cd
3500-21000
12092 ± 6142
a
5100-9200
5005 ± 2934
b
240-16000
4276 ± 5318
b
230-5400
1027 ± 1544
c
*Station that carrying similar character were no any significant difference
between them.
72
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
Table (11):The correlation (r) among some water parameters and
bacterial number.
Water
Current
pH
Salinity
DO
BOD
T.B.C
T.C
F.C
T.S
F.S
Water
Temperature
Water
Current
**
-0.649
NS
0.412
**
-0.586
**
-0.752
NS
-0.184
NS
-0.365
pH
Salinity
DO
BOD5
T.B.C
T.C
NS
0.203
NS
0.339
**
0.718
NS
-0.256
NS
0.139
NS
-0.129
NS
0.028
**
-0.635
NS
-0.275
NS
0.355
NS
0.491
NS
0.447
NS
-0.387
NS
-0.096
*
0.533
NS
-0.325
NS
-0.295
NS
-0.111
NS
-0.147
**
-0.641
**
-0.627
NS
0.414
NS
0.425
NS
-0.313
NS
-0.343
**
0.909
**
0.908
**
0.723
**
0.697
**
0.982
NS
-0.263
NS
-0.243
NS
-0.045
NS
-0.169
**
-0.624
*
-0.525
NS
0.324
NS
0.395
NS
-0.348
NS
-0.307
**
0.829
**
0.784
**
0.638
**
0.738
**
0.917
**
0.813
F.C
T.S
**
0.889
**
0.791
**
0.749
**= Significant correlation at P<0.01.
*= Significant correlation at P<0.05.
NS= Non-significant correlation.
3.3. 2. Total Coliform (TC).
Coliform bacteria had been used historically to assess the microbial
quality of drinking water. Also no consider as indicators of faecal
contamination, but their presence indicates that your water supply may be
vulnerable to contamination by more harmful microorganisms. Some
coliform bacteria may be part of the natural bacterial flora in the water and
intestines of human and warm-blooded animals. Coliforms are also
considered useful for monitoring treatment processes and assessing the
disinfection of new or repaired mains (WHO, 2003).
73
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
As shown in the Figure ( 23) and Table (10), the minimum value of T.C
was recorded in summer 2013 at station 1 which was 290 CFU/100ml, while
the maximum value of T.C was found in winter 2013 at station 2 which was
34000 CFU/100ml. The statistical analysis revealed significant differences
(P≤0.05) in T.C between seasons and significant differences between stations
except between station 1 with 5 and 3 with 4 (Table 10). The sudden increase
in numbers of TC in station 2 may be due to the effluent discharged
enriched with organic matter from Al-Haay city which leading to increase
them .
The results revealed positive correlation between T.C and BOD5 and
salinity
(r= 0.909, 0.414) respectively, while the negative correlation with
DO and water temperature (r= -0. 313 and r= -0. 325), (Table 11).
On the other hand, the number of total coliforms for all the study
stations was exceed the permissible limit for both India standards for water
quality (1975), which was1 per 100ml, and exceed the WHO standards
(1993), which was 10 per 100ml.
Al-khafaji et al. (2012 ) has found that the highest value was 3550 but
much lower those values found in this study. This may be due to the
increased the concentrations of nutrients as nitrogen and phosphorus from
domestic sewage and pollution sources on the riverbanks which agrees with
Al-Abadi (2011).
Olapade, (2012 ) suggested that nature, ratio and degree of pollution by
coliform bacteria in water depend on many factors such as suitable of
temperatures for growth , activity of microorganisms , increased the
concentrations of nutrients from organic materials and salts in surface water
sources and the impact of dust storms that have encouraged to increase
biomass in the water.
The obtained results in this study were higher than those of previous
studies such as Al-Azzawi (2004) who found the mean for T.C was 900
74
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
CFU/100 in Euphrates river and Ibrahim et al., (2013) found the mean for
T.C was 1600 CFU/100 in Tigris river, while Mayaly (2000) found the mean
for T.C was 230600 CFU/100 in Tigris river and Mohammad (2012) found
the mean for T.C was 100085 CFU/100 in Uosifea river, which higher than
of present study. Also the results coincided with international studies of
Hamzah et al.
(2011) on Coastal Water in
Malaysia and Anukool &
Shivani(2011) on Gomti river and Firozia & Sanal (2013) on Pamba river in
India(Appendix 6).
35000
30000
T.C cfu/100ml
25000
St.1
20000
St.2
15000
St.3
St.4
10000
St.5
5000
0
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Summer
Figure (23): Seasonal variation of total coliform in AL-Gharraf River during
study period.
3.3. 3. Faecal Coliform (FC).
The presence of faecal coliform bacteria in aquatic environments
indicates that the water has been contaminated with the fecal material of man
or other animals. At the time this occurred, the source water may have been
contaminated by pathogens or disease producing bacteria or viruses, which
can also exist in fecal material. The presence of fecal contamination is an
indicator that a potential health risk exists for individuals exposed to this
water. Fecal coliform bacteria may occur in ambient water as a result of the
overflow of domestic sewage or nonpoint sources of human and animal waste
(Shivayogimath et al., 2012).
75
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
Current results revealed high value of F.C recorded in winter 2013 at
station 2 which was 33000 CFU/100ml, while the lowest value of F.C was
recorded in spring 2013 at station 1 which was 220 CFU/100ml (Fig.24 ;
Table 10). The statistical analysis revealed significant differences (P<0.05) in
F.C between seasons and significant differences between stations except
between station 4 with 5 (Table 10). The increase in numbers of FC in
station 2 and 3 may be due to the effluent discharged enriched with organic
matter from Al-Haay city which leading to increase in BOD5 value agrees
with Rahbi (2002).
The positive correlation between F.C and BOD5 and salinity (r= 0.908
and 0.425 respectively ), while the negative correlation with DO and water
temperature (r= -0. 343 and r= -0. 295), (Table 11). The values of FC for all
selected sites are exceed the permissible limit for US-EPA (2011) which
established FC concentration limit of (200 CFU/100mL) in the water for
recreational and contact usages and equal to (0 CFU/100mL) for drinking
water.
Byamukama et al. (2005) attributed a gradual increase of faecal coliform
bacteria in water during winter season to higher survival and growth at
suitable temperature. Fecal coliforms are the best indicators for the
assessment of recent fecal pollution, mainly caused by raw and treated
sewage, and diffuse impacts from the farmland and pasture (Kavka and
Poetsch, 2002).
In this study fecal indicator bacteria abundance were measured in samples
collected in river located in Al-Haay city. Results showed that this river
which flowing through urban areas was more contaminated than those rivers
which flowing through agricultural areas.
This study coincided with previous studies of Sabri et al.(2001) on
Euphrates river, Al-Fatlawy (2007) on Tigris river and Al-Abadi (2011) on
Abu-Zariq Marsh , also agree with international studies of Hamzah et al.
76
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
(2011) on Coastal Water in Malaysia and Anukool & Shivani (2011) on
Gomti river in India. But disagree with studies of Maghrebi et al.(2010) on
Jajrood river in Iran, Christensen et al. (2013) on Drinking Water in
Switzerland and AL- Tameemi (2004), Al-Aney (2012) and Ibrahim,et al.
(2013) on Tigris river in Iraq (Appendix 6).
35000
F.C cfu/100ml
30000
25000
St.1
20000
St.2
15000
St.3
10000
St.4
St.5
5000
0
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Summer
Figure (24): Seasonal Variation of faecal coliform in AL-Gharraf River during
study period.
3.3. 4. Total Streptococcus (TS).
Streptococcus spp. that
normally occurs in faecal matter, were used
instead of Fecal Coliform because Fecal streptococci survive well in the
environment. Presence of Streptococcus faecalis in the all selected locations
confirms faecal pollution of the river water. The sources of effluents in AlGharraf river include herbicides and pesticide application by farmers around
and near the river and human and animal faeces, sewage and industries waste
from mechanic workshops (Wiggins,1996; Abbas et al , 2007).
The total streptococcus average in Al-Gharraf river ranged from 124619883 CFU/100ml (Fig.25 and Table 10). The minimum value was 230
CFU/100ml in station 1 during spring 2013, and the maximum value was
32600 CFU/100ml in station 2 during winter 2013. According to WHO
(1996a) this results exceeded local and international guidelines ranges .The
77
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
statistical analysis showed a significant differences among seasons at
(P˂0.05) and significant differences among stations except station 1 with 5
(Table 10). The results revealed the negative correlation between T.S and
water temperature & DO (r= -0.263 & r= -0.348 respectively),while the
positive correlation with BOD5 and salinity (r= 0.324 and r= 0.829
respectively) was observed in present study (Table 11).
Al-Gharraf River vary considerably concentration because of selfpurification mechanism, good mixing, and larger water volume. The increase
in numbers of TS during winter especially at station 2 and 3, may be due to
the organic matter which enters in large quantities to the station 2 and low
water temperature which act on survival of the bacteria for longer period
(Atlas et al., 1996).
Niewolak (1998) found that the average value for T.S on Czarna Haricza
river in Poland was 77501.5 CFU/100ml in winter, while Al-Mayaly (2000)
found the average value for T.S in Tigris River was 230003.5 CFU/100ml in
winter, all the studies revealed higher T.S number than present study. Also
this studies agree with Sabri et al.(2001) on Euphrates river , Al-khafaji et al.
(2012 ) on Abu-Zariq Marsh in Iraq and Hamzah et al. (2011) on Coastal
Water in Malaysia and Firozia & Sanal (20138b) on Pamba river in India
(Appendix 6).
30000
T.S cfu/100ml
25000
St.1
20000
St.2
15000
St.3
10000
St.4
5000
St.5
0
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Summer
Figure (25): Seasonal variation of total streptococcus in AL-Gharraf River
during study period.
78
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
3.3. 4. Faecal Streptococcus (FS).
There are several studies demonstrated that faecal streptococci have
been considered to be useful indicators of faecal contamination of water
resources (Mwakalobo et al., 2013). The presence of faecal streptococci is
evidence of faecal contamination. Faecal streptococci tend to persist longer in
the environment than total or faecal coliforms and are highly resistant to
drying (UNEP/WHO, 1996) .
As shown in Figures (26) and Table (10) the number of Feaecal
streptococcus in Al-Gharraf River. The results revealed high value of F.S was
recorded in winter 2013 at station 2 which was 21000 CFU/100ml, while the
lowest value of F.S was recorded in spring 2013 at station 1 which was 200
CFUl/100ml. The statistical analysis revealed significant differences
(P<0.05) in F.S between seasons and significant differences between stations
except station 3 with 4 (Table 10). According to WHO (1996a) this results
exceeded local and international guidelines ranges .
Negative correlation recorded between F.S and water temperature & DO
(r= -0.243 & r= -0.307 respectively), while the positive correlation with
BOD5, and salinity (r= 0.734 and r= 0.395 respectively) was observed in the
present study (Table 11).
The results showed that the high variability in levels and number of faecal
streptococcus in Al-Gharraf River may be due to the variation of
environmental conditions such as solar radiation, turbidity, temperature,
salinity, dissolved oxygen and organic matter (Yehia and Sabae, 2011). The
minimum values` of the faecal streptococcus were recorded in the warmer
seasons, which might be attributed to the rapid die-off with increasing of
solar radiation and high temperature as well as flood period which dilutes the
organic matter which used as food for the bacteria (El-Shenawy, 2005).
79
Chapter three
Results and Discussion
This study comes in accordance with the studies of Al-Mayaly (2000) on
Tigris River, Al-khafaji et al. (2012 ) on Abu-Zariq Marsh and Al-Jebouri &
Edham (2012) on Lower Al-Zab river, whereas disagree with studies of ALRahbi (2002) on AL-Habania &
AL-Tharthar reservoirs, AL- Tameemi
(2004) on Diyala & Tigris River and Al-Aney (2012) on Tigris River
(Appendix 6).
The current results were less than the international study of Anukool &
Shivani (2011) on Gomti River in India who found F.S number (917707.5
CFU/100ml) and also less than the study of Hamzah et al. (2011) on Coastal
Water in Malaysia, who recorded the value for F.S number (1250750
CFU/100ml). While, the present results were higher than results of Sati et al.
(2011) on Ganges River in India, who recorded the value for F.S number
(16.0 CFU/100ml) and also higher than the study of Mwakalobo et al. (2013
) on Coastal Waters in Tanzania., who recorded the value for F.S number
(39.0 CFU/100ml) (Appendix 6).
16000
14000
F.S cfu/100ml
12000
St.1
10000
St.2
8000
St.3
6000
St.4
4000
St.5
2000
0
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Summer
Figure (26): Seasonal variation of faecal streptococcus in AL-Gharraf River
during study period.
80
Conclusions
Conclusions …
1. It seems clearly that Al-Gharraf river was contaminated by
domestic sewage.
2. The seasonal study is the most effective than monthly study where
changes is in the physical, chemical and biological properties of
water appear clearly through the seasons of the year.
3. The BOD5 values affected clearly by excreta untreated wastewater
because they decrease in non contaminated sites and increase in the
contaminated sites.
4. The station 2 It is most polluted site being subjected to the
influences of city sewage which is discharged directly into the river.
5. The study indicated to spatial and temporal variations in all
characteristics of water studied.
6. Increasing levels of heavy metals in Al-Gharraf
river where
exceed the permissible limit except zinc may give a hint of water
pollution by heavy metals..
7. The organic and bacterial pollution levels were high at the center of
the city and the adopted measures to control is weak and almost
non-existent.
81
Recommendation
Recommendation…
1. There must be a clipart responsible administrative authority for
controlling industries and people to be ensuring continuously the
raises of material in water and compared components of water
with local and international parameters and make sure that
treatment plants are working correctly.
2. There is urgent need to drainage and sewage water to not discharge
in the river by created units to address what poses remnants of
household, agricultural and
industrial to use these wastes in
several ways like organic fertilizer or use for irrigation purposes as
long as the agricultural soils are considered candidates efficient to
remove contaminants from wastewater.
3. Continued follow up the case of the river in terms of bacterial
contamination
and
other
potential
contaminants
such
as
hydrocarbon compounds, pesticides and examine their residuals to
clarify its health effects on humans and animals after what can be
done to reduce this pollution.
4. Determine the important hotbeds pollution sources that cause
higher pollution for the purpose of monitoring and find appropriate
solutions.
5. Support of the laboratories activities and the assurance of the
application of the laws and regulations for the assessment of waste
water and obliging all institutions relationship that to apply before
being discharged into rivers and cooperation to support their
application.
82
Recommendation
6. The attention by environmental sensitization and publications,
programs and courses that transport environmental awareness and
preserving on the environment and maintaining through the
rationalization of consumption of pesticides and detergents.
83
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Fallujah.J. AL-Nbare Unive. sci. vol.3(3),ISSN: 1991-8941.
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Zelenakova, M.; Carnogurska, M.; lezingr, M. S.; Sys, D. and Purcz, P.
(2013). A model based on dimensional analysis for prediction of nitrogen and
phosphorus concentrations at the river station Izkovce, Slovakia. Hydrol. Earth
Syst. Sci., 17, 201-209.
v
Zheng, Y.; Kelly, W.R.; Panno, S.V. and Liu, W.-T. (2013). Identification of
sources of fecal pollution of Karst Waters. Illinois State Water Survey Final
Report for Midwest Technology Assistance Center (MTAC), UrbanaChampaign,IL.
118
Appendix
Appendix…
Appendix(1):
Comparison between some water quality parameters of Al-Gharraf
River with the Iraqi and international standards.
Parameter
WHO
standards for
drinking
water in 2004
Iraqi
standards for
water quality
in 1998
6.5- 8.5
EEC 464/76
stander for
surface water
quality
(Tebbutt,
1998 )
6.5- 8.5
pH
TDS mg/L
500-1500
500-1500
1000
Turbidity
NTU
DO mg/L
0-50
0-25
25
>5
>5
>5
BOD5 mg/L
>3
>5
>3
T.H mg/L
100 - 500
100-500
-
Cl- mg/L
200
200 – 600
200
SO4 mg/L
200
200 - 400
150 - 250
NO3- mg/L
0 – 45
0 – 40
25 –50
PO4 mg/L
0.1
0.4
0.4
119
6.5- 8.5
Present study
Minimum
&
Maximum
7.03 - 8.72
545.3 – 957
30-177
6.3-10.38
1 -7.01
306- 496
89-184.6
172.42 - 360
5.7 -15. 76
0.50 -0.13
Appendix
Appendix(2):
Comparison between physical and chemical characteristics of AlGharraf River with with local and international Rivers .
River
Tigris
Iraq
Tigris
Iraq
Euphrates
Iraq
Euphrates
Iraq
Shatt AlHilla- Iraq
AlGharraf
Iraq
AlGharraf
Iraq
Nile
Egypt
Nile
Egypt
Bertam
Malaysia
Chambal
India
Mananga
Philippine
Noyyal
India
Al –
Gharraf
Water
Temp.
C˚
physical and chemical characteristics
Water
pH
EC
DO
BOD5
Turbi.
Current
µS/cm mg/L
mg/L
NTU
m/sec.
-
-
7.6
530.5
6.55
40.45
9.5
22.5
0.78
7.8
1125
8.35
3.55
61.5
Muath and Muna
(2007)
Al-Kuraishi (2011)
23
-
8.05
750
8.05
4.1
-
Hassan, et. al. (2010)
22
0.175
8.05
605
8.5
3.5
-
24.65
-
7.75
1225
6
-
-
Al –Ghanemi
(
2011)
Hassan, et. al. (2008)
24.25
-
7.2
-
7.85
3.6
47
Fahad
( 2006)
-
-
7.632
1137.7
-
-
-
Sabah and Fadhel
(2011)
26.6
-
7.33
1213.25
4.25
28.75
17.25
Ezzat, et. al. (2012)
24.95
-
7.95
387
11
3.4
-
Abdo, et. al. (2010)
17.35
-
6.54
174.5
6.395
1.815
-
Khalik, et al. (2013)
-
-
8.465
514.8
9.725
3.135
89.5
Saksena, et. al. (2008)
27
0.32
8.45
-
6.0
4.9
-
24.67
-
7.81
-
3.77
9.55
-
Mary and Macrina
(2012)
Usharani, et. al. (2010)
0.59
7.875
1137.5
8.34
4.005
103.5
Present study
21
120
Reference
Appendix
Appendix table (2)
River
physical and chemical characteristics
–
=
Reference
=
-3
TDS
mg/L
TSS
mg/L
T.H
mg/L
Cl
mg/L
SO4
mg/L
NO3
mg/L
PO4
mg/L
Tigris
Iraq
Tigris
Iraq
Euphrates
Iraq
Euphrates
Iraq
Shatt AlHilla- Iraq
Al-Gharraf
Iraq
482.5
67.5
360
59.3
105.5
0.045
0.04
591.5
144.5
341.5
67.5
230.5
5.3
0.5
837.5
29.35
215
-
912.85
0.0655
0.0035
1139.5
33.76
566.5
-
180.22
0.1808
0.00385
808.5
-
700
-
903.3
0.254
0.034
-
-
320
-
-
0.041
0.0027
Al-Gharraf
Iraq
Nile
Egypt
Nile
Egypt
Bertam
Malaysia
Chambal
India
Mananga
Philippines
Noyyal
India
Al –
Gharraf
607
-
443.83
124
139.83
1.88
0.20
386
-
-
51.5
57.1
21.43
0.2
255.42
-
-
-
34.65
0.0207
0.0747
50
260.57
-
-
-
0.825
1.155
380
-
91
48.28
24.25
0.0165
0.027
-
82
-
-
-
9.103
4.819
302.22
132.22
226.66
76.5
-
2.04
1.58
751.15
158
401
136.8
121
266.21
10.73
0.315
Muath and
Muna (2007)
Al-Kuraishi
(2011)
Hassan, et. al.
(2010)
Al –Ghanemi
( 2011)
Hassan, et. al.
(2008)
Fahad
( 2006)
Sabah and
Fadhel (2011)
Ezzat, et. al.
(2012)
Abdo, et. al.
(2010)
Khalik, et al.
(2013)
Saksena, et. al.
(2008)
Mary and
Macrina (2012)
Usharani, et. al.
(2010)
Present study
Appendix
Appendix(3):
Water Quality according to United State stander (ASCE) for raw
water quality (Smehturst,1997)
Parameter
Excellent
source
0.75-1.5
Good
source
1.5-2.5
Poor
source
2.5-4
Rejectable
source
>4
Coliform
CFU/100
pH
50-100
100-5000
5000-20 000
> 20 000
6-8.5
Chlorides
mg/L
Fluorides
mg/L
< 50
5-6
8.5-9
50-250
3.8-5
9-10.3
250-600
< 3.8
> 10.3
> 600
< 1.5
1.5-3
>3
-
BOD5 mg/L
Appendix(4):
Comparison between concentrations of heavy metals in Al- Gharraf
River water with world and Iraqi standards by ppm unit.
Heavy metals
ppm
WHO
standards for
drinking
water in 2006
Iraqi
Present
regulation for study
public water
(Abbawi,1990)
0.003
EEC 464/76
stander for
surface water
quality
(Tebbutt,
1998 )
0.005
Cd
0.005
0.049
Pb
0.01
0.05
-
0.172
Zn
3
3
0.05
0.5625
122
Appendix
Appendix(5):
Comparison between concentrations of dissolved heavy metals in AlGharraf River with local and international Rivers by ppm unit (ND:
Not Detected ) .
Metal concentration ppm
River
Cadmium (Cd)
Lead (Pb)
Zin (Zn)
Tigris
Iraq
Tigris
Iraq
Euphrates
Iraq
Euphrates
Iraq
Shatt AlArab
Iraq
Diyala
Iraq
Shatt Al-Hilla
Iraq
0.002
0.0092
0.0891
-
ND
ND
0.00214
0.0001
0.0105
0.0022
0.022
0.010
0.00019
0.00023
0.00082
0.025
0.21
1.13
0.239
0.095
1.364
Al-Masab
Alamm
Al –Gharraf
Iraq
Nile
Egypt
Khoshk
Iran
Juru
Malaysia
Challawa
Nigeria
Aba
Nigeria
Shitalakhya
Bangladesh
Laguna Bay
Philippines
Mudi
Malawi
Vardar
Macedonia
Al –Gharraf
0.00005
0.00035
0.0121
0.0263
-
0.166
0.044
0.099
0.4636
0.001
-
1.4
0.155
1.175
52.915
-
1.051
2.986
0.002
0.012
3.360
0.06
0.74
2.46
ND
0.01
0.100
0.02
0. 57
0.115
0.00002
0.01231
0.00692
0.049
0.172
0.5625
Iraq
123
Reference
Al-Lami and
AlJaberi(2002)
Shukri,et al.,
(2011 )
Salman
(2006)
Farhood
(2012 )
Al-Khafaji
(1996)
Al-Saadi et al.
(2001)
Al-Imarah
(2002)
Al- Awady
( 2011)
Sadek and
Kamel (2008)
Samir and
Ibrahim (2008)
Salati and
Moore (2010)
Idriss and
Ahmad (2012)
Danazumi and
Bichi (2010)
Amadi A. N.
(2012)
Rahman, Md.
D. (2005)
Chavez et.
al.(2006)
Kumwenda et.
al. (2012)
Levkov and
Krstic (2002)
Present study
Appendix
Appendix(6):
Comparison between Bacteriological characteristics of Al-Gharraf
River with with local and international Rivers.
River
Tigris
Iraq
Tigris
Iraq
Diyala
Iraq
ALHabania
&ALTharthar
Reservoirs
Iraq
Abu-Zariq
Marsh
Iraq
Coastal
Waters
Tanzania
Jajrood
Iran
Coastal
Water
Malaysia
Ganges
India
Gomti
India
Lake Kivu
Rwanda
Czarna
Haricza
Poland
Al –
Gharraf
Bacterial Number
Reference
T.B.C
T.C
CFU/1ml CFU/100
7507500 230600
F.C
CFU/100
230011.5
5064
950
863
8505500
35023000
8505500
2280
7700
1300
-
3550
3000
-
9500
Al-khafaji et al.
(2012 )
-
86.0
56.5
-
39.0
Mwakalobo et
al. (2013 )
-
80085
27010
-
-
-
750125
10075
-
1250750
Maghrebi et al.
(2010)
Hamzah, et al.,
(2011)
16200
167
85.1
-
16
-
958627.7
1108627.7
-
917707.5
108900
67948.333
16683.666
-
220.2667
2600.1
25000.35
8300.15
77501.5
-
37550
17145
11610
16415
10600
124
T.S
F.S
CFU/100 CFU/100
230003.5 120002
Mayaly
(2000)
Ibrahim et al.,
(2013 )
AL- Tameemi
( 2004)
8100
600
AL-Rahbi
( 2002)
Sati, et al.
(2011)
Anukool and
Shivani (2011)
Olapade
(2012)
Niewolak
(1998)
Present study
‫ﺍﻟﺨﻼﺻﺔ‪...‬‬
‫ﺃﺟﺮﻳﺖ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺃﺟﻞ ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﻣﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﺎﺭﻱ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻠﻴﻪ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺪﻳﻨﻪ ﺍﻟﺤﻲ ‪ /‬ﻣﺤﺎﻓﻈﺔ ﻭﺍﺳﻂ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺑﻌﺾ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺨﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﻟﻨﻬﺮ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺍﻑ‪ .‬ﻳﻘﻊ ﻧﻬﺮ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺍﻑ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺠﺰء ﺍﻟﺠﻨﻮﺑﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻗﻲ ﻣﻦ‬
‫ﺕ ِﻣ ْﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺍﻕ ﻭ ﺗﺤﻴﻂ ﻓﻴﻪ ﻣﺴﺎﺣﺎﺕ ﺷﺎﺳﻌﺔ ﻭﺧﺼﺒﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﺭﺍﺿﻲ ﺍﻟﺰﺭﺍﻋﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﻳَﺴﺘﻠ ُﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﻬ ُﺮ ﺃﻏﻠﺐ ﻣﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﻔﻀﻼ ِ‬
‫ﺑﺘﻄﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﻓﺄﻥ ﺯﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﺗﺴﺮﺏ‬
‫ﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻠﻴ ِﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺰﺭﺍﻋﻴ ِﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﻴ ِﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁﺎ‬
‫ﺪﻥ ﺑﻀﻤﻨﻬﺎ ﻣﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﻔﻀﻼ ِ‬
‫ِﻣ ْﻦ ﺍﻟ ُﻤ ِ‬
‫ِ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻮﺛﺎﺕ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﻬﺮ َﻛ ْ‬
‫ﺎﻧﺖ ﺳﺒﺒﺎ ﻟﻠﻘﻠﻖ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻔﺘﺮﺓ ﺍﻷﺧﻴﺮﺓ‪.‬‬
‫ﺃﺧﺘﻴﺮﺕ ﺧﻤﺴﺔ ﻣﺤﻄﺎﺕ ﻟﻠﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻬﺮ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺍﻑ ‪ ،‬ﺗﻘﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻄﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺑﻌﺪ ‪ ۲‬ﻛﻢ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺪﻳﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﻲ ﻟﺘﻜﻮﻥ‬
‫ﻣﺤﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻄﺮﺓ‪ ،‬ﻭﺗﻘﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺑﻌﺪ ‪ ۲‬ﻛﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻄﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻰ ﺗﻤﺜﻞ ﻁﺮﺡ ﻣﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﺎﺭﻱ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﻡ ﻭﺗﻘﻊ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻟﺜﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺑﻌﺪ ‪ ۲‬ﻛﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻭﺗﻣﺛﻝ ﻣﺄﺧﺫ ﺍﻟﻣﺎء ﺍﻟﺧﺎﻡ ﻟﻣﺣﻁﺔ ﺍﻟﺑﺷﺎﺋﺭ ﻟﻣﻳﺎﻩ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﻟﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﺗﻘﻊ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺑﻌﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺑﻌﺪ‪٤‬ﻛﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ‪.‬ﺃﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﻣﺴﺔ ﺗﻘﻊ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺑﻌﺪ ‪ ۸‬ﻛﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﺟﺘﻴﺎﺯ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻨﻬﺮ ﻟﻤﺪﻳﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﻲ‪ .‬ﺃﺧﺬﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺷﻬﺮﻳﺂ ﺍﺑﺘﺪﺍءﺍّ ﻣﻦ ﺷﻬﺮ ﺗﺸﺮﻳﻦ ﺍﻻﻭﻝ ‪ ۲۰۱۲‬ﺍﻟﻰ ﺷﻬﺮ ﺗﻤﻮﺯ ‪ ۲۰۱۳‬ﻭﺑﻮﺍﻗﻊ‬
‫ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺟﻴﻦ ﻟﻜﻞ ﺷﻬﺮ‪.‬‬
‫ﺃﻅﻬﺮﺕ ﻧﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺇﺭﺗﻔﺎﻉ ﺗﺮﺍﻛﻴﺰ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻜﻮﺭﺓ ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻮﺻﻴﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻠﻮﺣﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﺬﺍﺋﺒﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻷﻭﻛﺴﺠﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺬﺍﺏ ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺘﻄﻠﺐ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻮﻱ ﻟﻸﻭﻛﺴﺠﻴﻦ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻌﺴﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻜﻠﻮﺭﻳﺪﺍﺕ‬
‫‪،‬ﺍﻟﻜﺒﺮﻳﺘﺎﺕ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻔﻮﺳﻔﺎﺕ ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻨﺘﺮﺍﺕ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻷﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺒﻜﺘﺮﻳﺎ ‪ ،‬ﻭﺃﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﺑﻜﺘﺮﻳﺎ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻟﻮﻥ ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻘﻮﻟﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﺍﺯﻳﺔ ﻭﺑﻜﺘﺮﻳﺎ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺒﺤﻴﺎﺕ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺒﺤﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﺍﺯﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﺘﺎء ﻭﺇﻧﺨﻔﺎﺽ ﺗﺮﺍﻛﻴﺰﻫﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻒ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺟﺎءﺕ ﻗﻴﻢ ﺩﺭﺟﺎﺕ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻬﻮﺍء ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺎء ﺑﻴﻦ ‪ ٤۲ – ۱٦‬ﻭ‪ْ ۳۱-۱۱‬ﻡ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﻟﻲ‪ ،‬ﻭﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺳﺮﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﺑﻴﻦ‬
‫‪ ۰.۸۱ –۰.۳۷‬ﻡ‪/‬ﺛﺎ ‪،‬ﻭﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻌﻜﻮﺭﺓ ﺗﺮﺍﻭﺣﺖ ﺑﻴﻦ ‪ ۱۷۷ – ۳۰‬ﻧﻔﺜﺎﻟﻴﻦ ﻭﺣﺪﺓ ﻛﺪﺭﺓ ‪ ،‬ﺃﻣﺎ ﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺻﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ‬
‫ﺑﻴﻦ ‪ ۱٤٥۰ – ۸۲٥‬ﻣﺎﻳﻜﺮﻭ ﺳﻴﻤﻨﺰ ‪ /‬ﺳﻢ ‪ ،‬ﻭﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻮﺣﺔ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺑﻴﻦ ‪ ۰.۹۳ – ۰.٥۲‬ﺟﺰء ﺑﺎﻷﻑ ‪ .‬ﺃﻣﺎﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﺩ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺬﺍﺋﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﻓﺘﺮﺍﻭﺣﺖ ﺑﻴﻦ ‪ ۹٥۷ – ٥٤٥,۳‬ﻣﻠﻐﻢ ‪ /‬ﻟﺘﺮ‪ ،‬ﻭﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺑﻴﻦ ‪ .۲۷۸ – ۳۸‬ﺇﻥ ﻣﻴﺎﻩ‬
‫ﻧﻬﺮ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺍﻑ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻗﺎﻋﺪﻳﺔ ﺧﻔﻴﻔﺔ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺳﺠﻠﺖ ﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻵﺱ ﺍﻟﻬﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﻴﻨﻲ ﺑﻴﻦ ‪ ۸.۷ – ۷.۰۳‬ﻭﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺗﻬﻮﻳﺔ ﺟﻴﺪﺓ ﺇﺫ‬
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‫ﺃﻥ ﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻷﻭﻛﺴﺠﻴﻦ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺃﺷﻬﺮ ﺍﻟﺸﺘﺎء ﻣﺴﺠﻠﺔ ﺗﻐﺎﻳﺮﺍً ﺷﻬﺮﻳﺎ ً ﻭﺍﺿﺤﺎ ً ﺇﺫ ﺗﺮﺍﻭﺣﺖ ﺑﻴﻦ‪ ۱۰,۳۸ – ٦.۳‬ﻣﻠﻐﻢ‬
‫‪ /‬ﻟﺘﺮ ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﺭﺗﻔﻌﺖ ﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻄﻠﺐ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻮﻱ ﻟﻸﻭﻛﺴﺠﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻄﺎﺕ ﻭﻗﺪ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻗﻴﻤﻬﺎ ﺑﻴﻦ ‪ ۷.۰۱ – ۱‬ﻣﻠﻐﻢ ‪ /‬ﻟﺘﺮ‪،‬‬
‫ﻭﻭﺟﺪ ﺃﻥ ﻣﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﻬﺮ ﻋﺴﺮﺓ ﺟﺪﺍً ﺇﺫ ﺃﻥ ﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻌﺴﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﻗﺪ ﺗﺮﺍﻭﺣﺖ ﺑﻴﻦ ‪ ٤۹٦ – ۳۰٦‬ﻣﻠﻐﻢ ‪ /‬ﻟﺘﺮ‪ .‬ﺃﻣﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻘﻴﻢ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻮﺭﻳﺪ ﻓﻘﺪ ﺗﺮﺍﻭﺣﺖ ﺑﻴﻦ ‪۱۸٤,٦ – ۸۹‬ﻣﻠﻐﻢ ‪ /‬ﻟﺘﺮ‪ ،‬ﻭﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻜﺒﺮﻳﺘﺎﺕ ﺗﺮﺍﻭﺣﺖ ﺑﻴﻦ ‪۳٦۰ – ۱۷۲,٤۲‬ﻣﻠﻐﻢ ‪ /‬ﻟﺘﺮ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﻐﺬﻳﺎﺕ ﻓﻘﺪ ﺳﺠﻠﺖ ﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺮﺍﺕ ﺑﻴﻦ ‪ ۱٥,۷ – ٥,۷‬ﻣﻠﻐﻢ ‪ /‬ﻭﺳﺠﻠﺖ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺳﻔﺎﺕ ﻗﻴﻤﺎ ً ﺗﺮﺍﻭﺣﺖ ﺑﻴﻦ ‪– ۰.۱۳‬‬
‫‪ ۰.٥۰‬ﻣﻠﻐﻢ ‪ /‬ﻟﺘﺮ ‪ .‬ﺍﻅﻬﺮﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﺍﻥ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﻣﺆﺷﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺎء ﺗﺠﺎﻭﺯﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺪﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺍﻗﻴﺔ ﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻻﻧﻬﺎﺭ ﻭ ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺼﺤﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻴﺔ ﻟﻤﺎء ﺍﻟﺸﺮﺏ‪.‬‬
‫ﺃﻣﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻘﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻥ ﺍﻟﺜﻘﻴﻠﻪ ﻓﻘﺪ ﺗﺮﺍﻭﺣﺖ ﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺩﻣﻴﻮﻡ ﺑﻴﻦ ‪ ۰.۰۹۹ – ۰.۰۰۱‬ﺟﺰء ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻴﻮﻥ ‪،‬ﻭﻗﻴﻢ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺮﺻﺎﺹ ‪ ۰.۳۲ – ۰.۰۰٤‬ﺟﺰء ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻴﻮﻥ‪ ،‬ﻭﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺰﻧﻚ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺑﻴﻦ ‪ ۱.۱ – ۰.۰۲٥‬ﺟﺰء ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻴﻮﻥ‪ .‬ﻭﺃﻅﻬﺮﺕ‬
‫ﺗﺮﺍﻛﻴﺰ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺭﻭﺳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺍﻑ ﺗﻐﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﻓﺼﻠﻴﺔ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻓﺘﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﺗﺠﺎﻭﺯﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻭﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﻤﻮﺡ ﺑﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ‬
‫ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺪﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺍﻗﻴﺔ ﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺻﻴﺎﻧﺔ ﺍﻷﻧﻬﺎﺭ‪.‬‬
‫ﺃﻣﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻮﺍﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﻳﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﻓﻘﺪ ﻅﻬﺮﺕ ﻧﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺪﻻﺕ ﻟﻸﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺒﻜﺘﺮﻳﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻄﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻓﺼﻞ ﺍﻟﺸﺘﺎء ‪ ۲۰۱۳‬ﺣﻴﺚ ﺑﻠﻐﺖ ‪ ۷٥۰۰۰‬ﺧﻠﻴﺔ ‪ ۱ /‬ﻣﻞ ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﺩﻧﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺪﻻﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻄﺔ ﺍﻻﻭﻟﻰ ﺧﻼﻝ‬
‫ﻓﺼﻞ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻒ ‪ ۲۰۱۳‬ﻭﻛﺎﻧﺖ ‪ ۱۰۰‬ﺧﻠﻴﺔ‪ ۱/‬ﻣﻞ‪ .‬ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﺗﺮﺍﻭﺣﺖ ﺃﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﺑﻜﺘﺮﻳﺎ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻟﻮﻥ ﻭﺍﻟﻘﻮﻟﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﺍﺯﻳﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ‪۲۹۰‬‬
‫– ‪ ۳٤۰۰۰‬ﻭ ‪ ۳۳۰۰۰-۲۲۰‬ﺧﻠﻴﺔ‪ ۱۰۰ /‬ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﻟﻲ‪ .‬ﺃﻣﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻷﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﺑﻜﺘﺮﻳﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺒﺤﻴﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺴﺒﺤﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﺍﺯﻳﺔ‬
‫ﻓﺘﺮﺍﻭﺣﺖ ﺑﻴﻦ ‪ ۳۲٦۰۰ – ۲۳۰‬ﻭ ‪ ۲۱۰۰۰-۲۰۰‬ﺧﻠﻴﺔ ‪ ۱۰۰ /‬ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﻟﻲ‪ .‬ﻭﺑﺬﻟﻚ ﺗﺠﺎﻭﺯﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺪﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺍﻗﻴﺔ‬
‫ﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﺏ ﻭﺍﻻﻧﻬﺎﺭ ﻭ ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻴﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺏ‬
‫ﺟﻤهﻮﺭ�ﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺍﻕ‬
‫ﻭﺯﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻌﺎ�� ﻭﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻲ‬
‫ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ �ﻐﺪﺍﺩ ‪� /‬ﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻡ‬
‫ﺗﺄﺛ�� ﻣﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﳌﺠﺎﺭﻱ ﺍﳌﺤﻠﻴﻪ ﻋ�� ﻧﻮﻋﻴﺔ ﻣﻴﺎﻩ‬
‫��ﺮ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺍﻑ �� ﻣﺪﻳﻨﺔ ﺍﻟ��‬
‫ﺭﺳﺎﻟﺔ ﻣﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﺍ�� ﻣﺠﻠﺲ �ﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻡ ‪ -‬ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ �ﻐﺪﺍﺩ ﻭ�� ﺟﺰﺀ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺘﻄﻠﺒﺎﺕ‬
‫ﻧﻴﻞ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳌﺎﺟﺴﺘ�� �� ﻋﻠﻮﻡ ﺍ�ﺡﻴﺎﺓ ‪ /‬ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﺒﻱﺌﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻠﻮﺙ‬
‫ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ‬
‫ﻭﺳﺎﻡ ﺛﺎﻣﺮ ﺟﺒﺎﺭ ﺍﳌﻴﺎﺡ‬
‫ﺑ�ﻠﻮﺭ�ﻮﺱ ﻋﻠﻮﻡ ﺍ�ﺡﻴﺎﺓ ‪ /‬ﺍﺣﻴﺎﺀ ﻣﺠهﺮ�ﺔ – ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﻭﺍﺳﻂ ‪٢٠٠٩‬‬
‫ﺑﺈﺷﺮﺍﻑ‬
‫‪ Ï .Ã‬ﻤﺤﻤد ﻨﺎﻓﻊ ﻋﻠﻲ اﻟﻌزاوي‬
‫ﺫﻭ ﺍﻟﺤﺠﺔ ‪۱٤۳٤‬‬
‫ﺗﺸﺮﻳﻦ ﺍﻻﻭﻝ ‪۲۰۱۳‬‬