Session 2
Foundations of Systems Engineering
Session Speaker :
Dr. Govind R. Kadambi
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Session Objectives
To study and understand :
• Definition of System Engineering
• Origins of Systems Engineering
• Requirement of Systems Engineering
• Various Viewpoints Systems Engineering Viewpoint
• Challenges and power of Systems Engineering
• Technical orientation Systems Engineering
• Attributes of System Engineers
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Session Topics
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System Science and Engineering
Definition of System Engineering
Origins of Systems Engineering
Examples of Systems Requiring Systems Engineering
Why Systems Engineering is Important?
Systems Engineering Viewpoint
Balanced, Successful and Best System
Systems Engineering as a Profession
Challenges in System Engineering
Power of Systems Engineering
Technical orientation of Systems Engineers
Attributes and Character of System Engineers
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System Science and Engineering
System as a Whole:
• A system is an assemblage or combination of elements or
parts forming a complex or unitary whole, such as a river
system or transportation systems
• Any assemblage or set of correlated members, such as a
system of currency
• An ordered and comprehensive assemblage of facts,
principles, or doctrine in a particular field of knowledge or
thought, such as system of philosophy
• A coordinated body of methods or complex scheme or
plan of procedure, such as a system of organization and
management
• Any regular or special method or plan of procedure, such
as system of marking, numbering, or measuring
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Classification of Systems
Natural System and Human-Made System:
• Natural System – a high degree of order and equilibrium,
such as seasons, food chains, water cycle
• Human-made system – technology based system
Physical and Conceptual System:
• Physical system – in physical form or space
• Conceptual system – in ideas, plans, concepts, hypotheses
Static and Dynamic System:
• Static system – structure without activity
• Dynamic system – structural components with activity
Closed and Open System:
• Closed system – one that does not interact with its
environment
• Open system – one that interact with its environment
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Transition to the Systems Age
Machine Age:
• Advanced nations of the world are leaving one technological age and
entering another.
• This transition is bringing about a change in the conception of the world.
• “ Reductionism” – can be reduced, decomposed, or disassembled to:
simple indivisible parts
an analytical way of thinking about the world.
• “ Mechanism” – can explained by only one ultimately simple relation:
Cause and effect
Industrial revolution brought about mechanization
Systems Age:
• 1940s: end of machine age, beginning of system age
• “Expansionism” – all objects and events as parts of large wholes
• In synthetic thinking, viewed as part of larger system, its role on large
system
• The system age is more interested in putting things together than in taking
them apart.
Analytic thinking is Outside-in thinking, Synthetic thinking is Inside-out
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Engineering in System Age
In Systems Age,
• Successful accomplishment of engineering objective
requires a combination of technical specialties and
expertise
Engineering in Systems Age:
• Team Work activity where various individuals involved are
of the important relationship between specialties and
between economic factors, ecological factors, political
factors, and social factors
• Engineering Decision requires the consideration of these
factors in the early stage of system design and
development, and the results of such decisions have a
definite impact on these factors.
• Imposing constraints on the design process
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Engineering in System Age
• Technical Expertise must include both
– Basic knowledge of individual specialty field of
engineering
– Knowledge of the context of the system being brought
into being
• Large-Scale Systems requires the combined input of
specialists representing
• Wide variety of engineering disciplines; for ground masstransit system,
– civil engineer, electrical engineers, mechanical
engineers, architecture engineers, reliability and
maintainability engineers, industrial engineers, test
engineers, engineers in planning and marketing, and
General System Engineers for integrating and
functioning as a single entity
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System Engineering -Definitions
• System Engineering :
- A function of guiding the engineering of a complex system
- System is a set of interrelated components working together
towards a common object.
• Guide- To lead, Manage or direct, usually based on the superior
experience in pursuing a given cause
- Emphasizes the process of selecting the path to others to follow
from many possible courses
• Engineering- Application of scientific principles to practical ends as the
design, construction and operation of efficient and economical
structures, equipment, and systems
• Complex- Systems with diverse elements having intricate relationship with
one another
- Requires systems engineering for its development
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System Engineering and Traditional
Engineering
• System Engineering differs from the traditional disciplines:
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Is focused on the system as a whole
Emphasizes total operation
Looks the system from outside and inside
Engineering design and external factors constraining the
design
Is concerned with customer needs and operational
environment
Leads system conceptual design
Bridges traditional engineering disciplines and gaps
between specialties
Guides and Coordinates the design of individual
elements © M S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies
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System Engineering and Project Management
• Engineering of a new system begins with an exploratory stage of
a new concept
• Decision to engineer the concept into an operational system leads
to a major enterprise
• “Project” is an enterprise entrusted with a task of lead and
coordinate its execution
• System Engineering is an integral part of project
management – Plans and Guides the Engineering Efforts
• System Engineering sets the Objectives, guiding its execution
and evaluation of the results as well as suggesting corrective
actions
• Systems Engineering supports the management and control
aspects of the project- fiscal, contractual and customer relations
• Realization of importance of Systems Engineering by various
groups in a system development project
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Origins of Systems Engineering
• No particular date associated
• Systems Engineering as a distinct activity dates back to
World War II
• System Engineering as an unique activity as a necessary
corollary dates back to 1960s
• Tremendous spur for systems engineering during World
War II through thrust for advanced technology for gain of
military advantage
• Tremendous time pressure and engineering challenges
posed a thrust for a level of organization and efficiency
• System Engineering was conceived as a necessity to meet
these challenges
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Origins of Systems Engineering
• Growing requirement of military drove the growth of
technology in aerospace, control systems and materials
• Solid State Electronics had profound effect on on
technological spur
• Digital computers and the associated software technology
had significant impact in stretching the technology beyond
the perceived limits
• Three basic factors that can relate the modern systems
engineering to its origin are:
- Advancing Technology
- Competition
- Specialization
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Advancing Technology
• Single largest factor in the emergence of systems
engineering as an essential ingredient for complex systems
• Extended the capabilities of earlier systems
• Creation of host of new systems
• Not only affected the nature of products but also
fundamentally changed the way they are engineered
• Innovation and Engineering together increase the risk of
unexpected risks
• Effect on overall system performance – cost and delays
• Risk in failure to apply latest technology- Inferior product
and Obsolete
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System Engineering and Risk Management
• System Engineering approach to early adaptation of new
technology embodies the practice of ‘ risk management’
• Risk management is a process to deal with calculated risks
through an approach of analysis, development, test, and
engineering oversight
• Risk management is an essential task of System
Engineering
• Requires a knowledge of the total system and its critical
elements
• System Engineer is central to the decision of achieving a
best balance of risks
• Judicious choice of needed advanced technology
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System Engineering and Competition
• Different levels of competitive pressures
• Competitive contracting for the development of new
system capabilities
• Commercial Product- develop new market or increased
market share through superior product
• Commercial product with an edge to maintain lead for a
number of years
• Competition to generate the financial resources
• Need to weigh a relative payoff of proposed programs
• Phased approach in the new development efforts
• Competition between performance, cost, and schedule
• Impossible or difficult to optimize all the three at once
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Competition- “Trade-off-analysis”
• Necessary to examine alternatives in which desired
characteristics are allowed to vary
• Select the combination that best balances its values for the
benefit of the user
• Competition of any form exert pressure on the system
development process
• Most desirable approach warrants the examination of
numerous potential alternatives
• Demand of the breadth of technical breadth and judgment“trade – off – analysis”
• “Trade-off-analysis” is one of the best practices of systems
engineering
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Why System Engineering is Important ?
• Modern System Engineering Characteristics:
– Advancing Technology brought Risk and Complexity in
– Competition required Expert Risk-Taking
– Specialization required bridging disciplines and interfaces
• Example of Complex System:
– Aerospace Systems- Satellite System and Aircraft System
– Terminal Air Traffic Control System, Air Navigation System,
Radar System
• Successful System Engineering Viewpoints:
– Understands user’s needs and focuses on their satisfaction
– Balances superior performance with affordability and timelines
– Applies new technology and manages resulting risks
– Seeks the best overall balance among conflicting objectives
– Bridges specialized disciplines and components, focusing on the
total system
– Requires a consistent system engineering approach in the
organization
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System Engineer and Specialization
• Complex system viewed in terms of number of different
functions
• Subdivision carries the inherent advantage of expertise in
narrowed domain specialization and therefore a superior
product
• Immensity and diversity of engineering knowledge is a
basic condition for system development process
• Convenience of subdividing complex systems into
individual building blocks leads to problem in integration
• Both ‘physical fit’ and ‘functional fit’ must be ensured
• ‘Physical fit’ leads to interface
• ‘Functional fit’ relates to interactions
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Specialization and Modularity
• Limitations of expertise of individual specialties and province
of systems engineers
• Subdivision of systems into building blocks leads to concept
of modularity
• Modularity is a measure of degree of mutual independence of
individual system components
• An essential goal of systems engineering is to realize a high
degree of modularity
• Functional allocation is a process of subdividing the system
into modular building blocks
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Systems Requiring Systems Engineering
• System development is strongly driven by technological
change
• Attributes or Characteristics of a system whose
development, test and application require the practice of
Systems Engineering are:
- Is an engineered product satisfying a specified need
- Consists of diverse components that have intricate
relationships with one another
- Relatively complex and multi- disciplinary
- Use of advanced technology in ways that are central
to the performance of primary functions
- Involves development of risk and often relatively
high cost
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Example of Complex System
• Aerospace Systems- Satellite System and Aircraft System
• Terminal Air Traffic Control System, Air Navigation
System, Radar System
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Example of Complex System
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Systems Engineering View Point
• Development of a new profession “System Engineering”
• Complex system development and interleaving advanced
technology, competitive pressure and specialization of
engineering disciplines
• Systems Engineering was not an academic discipline,
rather filled by engineers and scientists with experience
• Acquiring requisite breadth technical knowledge and
developing a new way of thinking is termed as “System
Engineering Viewpoint”
• Essence of System Engineering Viewpoint – making the
central objective as a whole and the success of its mission
• Subordination of individual goals and attribution in favour
of the overall system
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Successful System
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Principal focus of the Systems Engineering from the start
is the success of the system
Major emphasis on :
- Meeting requirements
- Development objectives
- Successful operation in field
- Long and useful operating life
System Engineering Viewpoint encompasses the above
Looking beyond the obvious and the immediate
Establishment of a technical approach
Anticipating development problems and arriving at
remedial measures during development cycle
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Successful System Development
• Need of consistent well understood systems engineering
approach
• Systematic planning and disciplined direction
• Extensive planning and analysis
• Reviews and Documentation
• Innovation that is often overlooked
• Advanced technology adaptation- way to ward off
extreme Competition
• Choice of selecting an appropriate technology and plan of
critical experiments
• Decision on potential fallbacks
• System Engineering Viewpoint- a combination of risk
taking and risk mitigation
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Best System
Two Oft-Stated maxims :
• “The best is the enemy of the good”
• “System Engineering is the art of good enough”
• System Engineering seeks “best possible” system,
often not the one with the best possible performance
• Performance is one of the metrics in Systems Engineering
• Equally critical attributes are affordability, time availability,
maintenance use
• Seeking best balance of the critical system attributes from
successful development program and its value to the user
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Successful System  Best System
•Upper Horizontal line
represents the theoretical
limit in performance
inherent in the selected
approach
• Co represents the cost
for
just
achieving
acceptable performance
• Steeper slope in the
beginning and lesser
slope later
•Law of diminishing returns- interdependence
of performance and cost
• Decreasing
slopeincremental
gain
at
increment in added cost
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Successful System  Best System Viewpoints
• Performance to cost
ratio- Concept of cost
effectiveness
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Beyond a point, gain in
effectiveness decreases
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Performance of ‘best’
overall system is likely to
be close to that where
P/C ratio peaks, provided
this point is significantly
above the minimum
acceptable performance
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Balanced System
• Balance- harmonious or satisfying arrangement or
proportion of parts or elements, as in a design or a
composition
• System Engineering thrives for balance among different
components of a system
• Realization of this balance is a daunting task
• Domain Specialist usually show a narrow focus
• System engineers must always focus on the system as a
whole
• Must address design specialty only in so far as they may
affect the overall system performance, development risks,
cost and long term system viability
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Balanced System Viewpoints
Judgment of how they should be balanced must come from a deep
understanding of how these system works.
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Balanced System and Viewpoint
• Component must receive the proper balance of attention
and resources for achieving the capabilities that are
optimal for overall system behaviour
• System Engineer is a “honest technical broker” guiding
the establishment of technical design compromises
• Balanced Viewpoint- a system view that connotes a focus
on “balance”
• Ensures that no system attribute is allowed to grow at
expense of an equally important or more important
attribute
• Deep understanding of how the system works is a must
• System Engineering demands the judgment and thought
process at a level to encompass all the system
characteristics
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Balanced Viewpoint
• Viewpoint of system engineer calls for a different
combination of skills and knowledge
• Technical breadth, Technical depth and management depth
are three attributes
• Design specialist may have limited managerial skills but a
deeper understanding in related technologies
• Project manager may not have depth in any particular
technical discipline but must have considerable managerial
skills
• System Engineer requires skills in all the three attributes
that represents the balance needed to span the system needs
• System Engineer operates in more dimensions
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Balanced System Viewpoints
Three dimensional of system capability:
Technical Depth, Technical Breath, Management Depth`
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System Engineering as a Profession
• System Engineering as profession has not been widely
recognized
• Primary recognition from companies and department of
Systems Engineering
• Non correspondence to traditional academic engineering
• Academic Engineering based on Quantitative and
established physical laws
• Systems Engineering deals mainly with problems for
which there is incomplete knowledge
• Variables in Systems Engineering do not exhibit known
functional relationship
• Establishment of balance among conflictive objectives
through incommensurate attributes
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System Engineering as a Profession
Professional System Engineering:
• An increasing role in government and industry
• Numerous graduate degree programs
• International Council on System Engineering (INCOSE)
Successful System Engineer:
• A Good problem solver, and should welcome challenges
• Well grounded technically, with broad interests
• Analytical and systematic, bur also creative
• Superior communicator, with leadership skills
System Engineering is powerful discipline:
• A multidisciplinary knowledge, integrating diverse system element
• Ability to perform approximate calculations of complex phenomena
• Skeptical positive thinking is a pre-requisite to prudent risk taking
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System Engineering Standards
• System Engineering as a unique discipline – not realized due to
absence of quantitative knowledge
• Growing recognized need for Systems engineering in industries
and government leading to academic program
• International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE)
• Systems Engineering Standards
• Electronics Industry Association (EIA - 632)
 Processes for Engineering a System (12/98)
• EIA/Interim Standard - 731
 Systems Engineering Capability Model (12/98)
• IEEE 1220
 Application and Management of the SE Process, (1998)
• European Cooperation for Space Standardization (ECSS-E10A)
 System Engineering, (5/96)
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System Engineering Standards
• SE Standards Under Development
– ISO 15288, ISO SPICE, Systems Engineering for
Space Systems, SE Data Exchange, Capability Maturity
Model Integration, System Architecture (IEEE P1471)
• INCOSE- Primary objective to promote Systems
Engineering education and the recognition of Systems
Engineering as a profession
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Challenges in Systems Engineering
• Inhibiting factors to choose the system engineering
profession :
- Deviation from a chosen well established discipline
- More diverse
- Complicated and uncertain practices
• Requirement of investment of time and efforts to an
extensive broadening of the engineering base
• Learning communication and management skills
• Perception that road to systems engineering career may be
difficult, obvious non rewarding and unattractive
• Great deal of new learning
• Expertise in traditional engineering domain is of limited
help
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Attractions in Systems Engineering
• Ambiguous issues, abstract and defying definitive
solutions
• For systems engineer, success is measured by the apparent
absence of difficulties rather than spectacular success
Attractions:
• Why do very good people devote time to pursue System
Engineering?
• Answer may lie in the challenges rather in the rewards
• Deal the most important issue in system development
process
• Focus on system architecture and technical approach rather
merely on the component design
• Prioritize the system requirement in conjunction with the
customer
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Attractions in Systems Engineering
• Decide the risks that are worth undertaking and ensuring
program success
• Map out the course of development program that decides
the timing of tests and simulation
• Ultimate authorities on how the performance and
affordability of system can be achieved at the same time
• Solve unanticipated problem arising during development
process
• Guide the system development through their superior
knowledge of the system as a whole rather than through
their position in the organization
• Steer complex program through a spate of possible
difficulties to a successful conclusion
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Orientation of Technical Professionals
• Special relationship of System Engineers with other
disciplines
• Technical professionals represent the divergence in both
their specialties and orientation
• Scientist:
-Understanding nature and behavior of physical world
- “Why” and “How”
• Mathematician:
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- Derivation of logical sequences of a set of
assumptions unrelated to the real world
- “If A, then B”
• Engineers:
- Creation of useful product
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Orientation of Technical Professionals
• Orientation is primarily responsible for the scientists and
engineers to focus in their own aspects of science and
technology
• In most professionals, these orientations are not absolute
• Three Orthogonal vectors to describe the orientation of
technical professionals:
Science, Mathematics and Engineering
• A point at each vertex represents a mixture of 100 % of the
corresponding component
• Figure shows 70% science, 20% Mathematics and 10%
Engineering
• Curricula of Technical discipline is focused and
concentrated resulting in limited general knowledge of
most graduate students
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Rarity of System Engineers
• Accentuation of polarization of technical professionals to
diverse discipline after graduation
• Urge to get recognition
• Fear to become generalist
• Specialization of profession inhibits inter personal
communication
• Differences in basic objectives and thought process are
even more serious
• System Engineer - Rare individuals among established
professionals in one principal discipline who opt to work
jointly with other specialists to solve interdisciplinary
problems
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Technical Orientation Phase
Special relationship of system engineers: objective, interests, attitudes.
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Technical Orientation Population Density
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Attributes and Motivations of Systems Engineers
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System Engineer is required to work in interdisciplinary
environments
Grasp the essentials of related disciplines
Aptitude for science and engineering helps
Must have creative bent and liking to solve practical
problems
Interest in job should be greater than interest in career
advancement
Systems Engineering is more of a challenge than a quick
way to the top
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Characters of Successful System Engineers
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Enjoy learning new things and solving problems
Like a challenge
Are skeptical of unproven assertions
Are open minded to new ideas
Have a solid background in science and engineering
Have demonstrated technical achievement in a specialty
area
7. Are knowledgeable in several engineering areas
8. Pick up new ideas and information quickly
9. Have good interpersonal and communication skill
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Power of Systems Engineering
• Measure of power of System Engineers is through over
the influence for the success or failure of the system and its
characteristics
• Success or failure of the system development
• Sources of power come from knowledge, skills and
attitude
• Three major attributes of power of Systems Engineers
- Multidisciplinary Knowledge
- Approximate Calculation
- Skeptical Positive Thinking
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Multidisciplinary Knowledge
• Collective efforts of various Specialists in different
disciplines
• Each of the domain Specialization has its own technical
language and acronyms
• Knowledge of each discipline is vast and unknown to other
specialties
• System Engineers are sufficiently knowledgeable in varied
disciplines required for the system
• Systems Engineer performs the rare feat of providing
linkage for various disciplines to function as a team
• System Engineer is capable of operate as a leader and
trouble shooter, problem solver no one else is capable of
accomplishing
• Central and decisive role in system development
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Power of Approximate Calculation
• Ability to carry out ‘back of the envelope’ calculations to
obtain a ‘sanity check’ of complex calculations
• Rough estimate to ensure that a gross omission or error
has not been committed
• Use of test principles to apply basic relationships to
derive an order of magnitude to serve as a check
• Important if the results of the calculation or experiment
turn out very differently from the expected
• If ‘sanity check’ does not confirm the results of a
simulation or experiment, it is appropriate to revisit the
assumptions and conditions
• More often, such an exam reveal an error in the condition
or assumption
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Power of Skeptical Positive Thinking
• An important characteristics of successful systems
engineering
• Skeptical part is important to temper the traditional
optimism of the design specialist
• Driving force for the insistence of validation of the
selected at the earliest possible opportunity
• Directly related to the characteristic of positive thinking
• Refers to the reaction of in the face of failure or apparent
failure of selected technique or design approach
• Conditions under which the unexpected failure occurred
• For valid test conditions, the systems engineer must set
about finding ways to circumvent the cause of failure
• Requirement of a new start along a different path is usually
not acceptable
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Power of Skeptical Positive Thinking
• Multidisciplinary knowledge permits System Engineer to
look for alternative solutions in other parts of the system
• Characteristic of positive thinking is necessary to generate
and sustain the confidence of customer and management as
well as design team
• Without the ‘Can Do’, the productivity of the project
organization is bound to suffer
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Session Summary
• Systems Engineering has the main function of guiding the
engineering of a complex system
• System is a set of interrelated components working
towards a common objective
• Systems Engineering bridges traditional engineering
disciplines and the gaps
• Systems Engineering is an integral part of project
management that plans and guides the engineering effort
• Modern systems engineering originated because of
Advancing technology, competition and specialization for
bridging engineering disciplines
• Systems Engineering view point is focused on producing a
successful system with understanding of user needs
© M S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies
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Session Summary
• Systems Engineering balances superior performance with
affordability and timelines
• Systems Engineering seeks overall balance among
conflicting objectives
• Systems Engineering is three dimensional with great
technical breadth, moderate technical depth and
management expertise
• System Engineering is a powerful discipline requiring
multidisciplinary knowledge
• Systems Engineer must be a good problem solver,
systematic and a good communicator
• Systems Engineering focuses on system architecture and
technical approach rather merely on the component design
© M S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies
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Session Summary
• System Engineer is capable of operate as a leader and
trouble shooter, problem solver no one else is capable of
accomplishing
• System Engineers emerge among established professionals
in one principal discipline who opt to work jointly with
other specialists to solve interdisciplinary problems
• Systems Engineering is more of a challenge than a quick
way to the top
© M S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies
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