New York City Microclimate Policy
Applying Green Infrastructure to Mitigate Environmental Health Impacts caused by the Urban
Heat Island Effect and Heat Waves
A Platform for Climate Change Resiliency in New York City
Client: New York City Council
07.31.12
Academic Advisors: Professor Alec Appelbaum & Professor Jaime L. Stein
Technical Advisor: Professor Paul S. Mankiewicz, Ph. D.
Michael A. Catalano
MS, Urban Environmental Systems Management, Candidate 2012
Pratt Institute, School of Architecture
Graduate Center for Planning and the Environment
Programs for Sustainable Planning and Development
1. Introduction: Why New York City needs a Microclimate Policy
The creation of a healthy microclimate starting with vulnerable populations
The health costs related to environmental heat exposure are high and are projected to increase
due to the effects of climate change in New York City, especially for the most vulnerable
populations; ages 65 and older.1,2 The New York City Urban Heat Island Effect (UHIE) is one of
the main factors contributing to longer durations of intense temperatures leading to heat exposure
in the region. In general, the UHIE is created by a geographic area with low levels of vegetation
and therefore increased levels of solar radiation collected by thermal mass (brick, concrete,
pavement etc.) and impervious surfaces. In NYC we retain heat (energy) that is gained during the
day and unlike the suburbs, nighttime cooling does not provide similar relief. 3
New York City is currently in the position to integrate vegetated surfaces better known as green
infrastructure back into the urban environment as a site-specific UHIE mitigation measure.
Green infrastructure, when strategically implemented at scale, has the ability to regulate
localized temperature as well as mitigate surface and air temperature fluctuations by removing
excess heat. This is accomplished through the partitioning of incoming radiation into sensible
and latent heat. process incorporating both shading and heat loss through evapotranspiration
lowers the thermal input and removes heat from urban surfaces and atmosphere. 4
The City of New York, including New York City Council, Mayor’s Office of Long Term
Planning and Sustainability, and the Department of Health and Mental Hygiene are aware of the
health threats affiliated with over exposure to excessive heat and the negative impacts it can have
on the city’s infrastructural and environmental systems.5 Local law #21, adopted in 2007, and
amended in 2011, has been one approach the City of New York has taken toward abating the
UHIE. This law requires that all new roof replacements, with some exceptions such as roofs
replacements under 50%, shall receive a new roof surface that is energy star rated at minimum or
have an initial solar reflectance of 0.7. 6 Concurrently the City of New York has covered 2.8
million square feet of roof with a white highly reflective coating through the NYC cool roofs
2
programs.7 Currently, the City of New York also recognizes the potential for ecological systems
to provide services that help mitigate the cost of environmental burdens. Two programs that stem
from PlaNYC are “Million Trees” and the DEP Green Infrastructure (GI) plan. Million trees, a
PlaNYC initiative, sets out to mitigate bad air quality and the urban heat island effect to reduce
the health impacts by planting trees in all five bouroughs. 8,9 These two programs have common
grounds, trees (especially enhanced tree pits), green roofs, and green walls which address
stormwater, air pollution can create a microclimate to mitigate the heat island effect for
vulnerable poplulations living in high density housing.
2. What is a Microclimate?
Positive and Negative microclimates
A microclimate is defined by a locale with a distinct difference in air temperature when
compared to the greater climate condition.10 Microclimates are created naturally by geographical
changes in the environment such as costal zones, topographical differences in altitude, and manmade environments however, it is biological systems and plant communities that effect
regulatory control in temperature.11 The UHIE is by definition a microclimate, and unlike a
positive microclimates, it is an environmental burden that has consistently caused deaths every
summer in NYC, regionally and globally. 12 The New York City Urban Heat Island effect is
defined by its higher average ambient temperature increase of 7° Fahrenheit and may be as
much as 10° F warmer over its surrounding suburban counterparts.13,14 This is attributed to the
increase in thermal mass (eg. building materials), decrease in tree and ecological density,
decrease in available water, decrease in pervious surfaces, and other thermal pollution sources.15
Positive microclimates create a comfort zone, a place of retreat from the hot urban environment.
A large tree canopy in a public park can be a great example of how shade and evaporation work
symbiotically to drop local tempertures. Concentrated Green Infrastructure investments have the
ability to decrease local and regional air temperature and therefore create a positive microclimate environment around urban structures.
3. Microclimate Policy should directly address the NYC Urban Heat Island Effect as an
Environmental Health Threat
The Urban Heat Island Effect (UHIE) has caused several issues during the summer months for
the past 100 years in New York City.16 This environmental phenomenon has threatened the health
and lives of New York City residents and is predicted to increase up to 95% from 1990 levels by
2050.17 The UHIE intensifies summer temperatures making hot days more severe and nighttime
temperatures extremely dangerous for vulnerable populations especially during heat waves of
two or more consecutive days.18 The microclimate temperatures around urban structures may
vary when compared to ambient temperature readings during hot days. 19 This means that some
individuals may be at a higher risk of being exposed to extreme heat, an example is, people
living on the top floor of a high-rise building. These individuals may feel the effects of increased
heat.20 In general, the Heat Island effect is blamed for a large part of the summer peak electricity
demand as it relates to cooling loads and can co-linearly be blamed for the dirty fuels and
excessive pollution released during these times. During hot days the UHIE can create bad air
quality days in New York City. The UHIE traps the air pollution from cars, buildings and power
plants creating ground level ozone and smog. 21
The Heat Island effect in New York City threads a fragile line between life and death due to the
sustained increase in levels of ambient temperature, long term heat exposure and increased levels
of air pollution. In August 2011, the New York Times reported 19 deaths in NYC due to high
ambient temperature where Hyperthermia or Heat Stroke was listed as the main cause of the
death due to environmental heat.22 The culmination of consecutive days with high daily and
nighttime temperatures does not allow for the human body to dissipate excess heat. Consistently
high temperatures increase stress-related levels on the cardiovascular system as the body
attempts to maintain homeostasis.23 A death caused by environmental heat is declared when a
human’s body temperature is 105°F degrees or higher.24 During the NYC summer of 2006, more
than 140 people died from heat related illnesses, 40 directly from environmental heat and 100
more were identified as being triggered by over exposure to heat.25 One Philadelphia study
4
concluded that 196 premature heat related mortalities could be averted if green infrastructure was
integrated throughout the city over a 40-year period by addressing combined sewer overflow and
would save over 1 billion dollars in human lives saved.26
4. Vulnerable Populations & Climate Change
Environmental heat exposure is uncomfortable for all, but for many people it can cause early
death, heat stroke and can exacerbate existing health conditions such as heart attack, stroke,
asthma, diabetes and psychiatric conditions.27 Senior citizens (ages 65 and above) young
children, pregnant women, and populations with existing medical conditions (especially in
environmental justice communities) are considered to be the most vulnerable populations. 28 In
2011, New York City’s Health Advisory #8 documented 160 hospital admissions, 440 emergency
department visits (May to September), 152 heat stroke deaths (1997-2010), a 6.5 % increase in
cardiovascular, and pulmonary disease, during 12 extensive heat waves causing an increase of
1,090 additional estimated deaths related to heat. 29 One estimate concluded that there are over
300 heat related excess deaths on average during a New York City summer.30 Adults above the
age of 65 are shown to be 5 times more at risk to die or suffer from heat stroke than populations
younger than 65 years of age.31 As of 2010, NYC has 989,191 residents that are 65 years and
older or 12.1% of the total NYC population out of the total 8,175,133.32 New York City contains
twenty-seven Naturally Occurring Retirement Communities (NORCs); 43,820 are senior citizens
living in high density housing between four borrows.33
Global average temperatures have been projected to increase 2.5 to 10.4 degrees F, (1.4 to 5.8 C)
which will exacerbate the urban heat island effect, and in one estimate, will result in 1,040 more
heat related deaths by 2099, not accounting for the projected increase in baby boomer population
reaching 65 years of age.34 In the coming years heat waves are expected to increase in duration
and frequency, the number of 90°F plus days are expected to increase from the 1971-2000
baseline of 14 days per year, to 23 to 29 days in 2020. By 2050 it is predicted to be 29 to 45 and
by 2080, it is expected to be 37 to 64 or over 2/3 of the summer months.35 Using the
precautionary principle alone, NYC should create a more robust policy to bolster a long term
resiliency plan for the city.36 The estimated projected days above 90 degrees creates a real sense
of urgency to mitigate the UHIE especially for geographic areas with a high density of at risk
populations such as Naturally Occuring Retirement Communities.
5. Microclimate Creation can happen with Green Infrastructure
Green Infrastructure can be defined as using natural or ecological systems (trees, plants, soils,
water and sun) to help manage something that was previously managed by manmade systems.
New York City plans on using green infrastructure to manage storm water runoff. The New York
City Department of Environmental Protection is in the process of implementing green
infrastructure projects in the most stressed areas of the combined sewer system as a means to
mitigate 40% of the combined sewer overflow by 2030. 37 There is a commitment of $2.4 billion
in public and private funding for Green Infrastructure over the next 20 years.38 The goal is to
manage 10% of the city’s impervious surfaces by collecting one inch of rainwater which is
estimated to remove 1.5 billion gallons of Combined Sewer Overflow (CSO) events annually by
2030.39,40 CSO’s are a major problem in New York City. This occurs when rain water mixes with
raw sewage overloading the sewer system to the point that it is released into the New York City
waterways.41 The direct intended benefit of GI is a cleaner NYC harbor GI has many other
quantifiable benefits related to energy efficiency, such as lowering energy usage at the
wastewater treatment plant, lowering building energy use, and producing cleaner air (removal of
pollutants). GI also reduces greenhouse gases, increases in real estate values, restores ecological
systems (ecological productivity and biodiversity), and creates microclimates to mitigate the
UHIE by increaesing evapotransporation and shade.42,43,44
6
6. The Health Costs related to New York City’s Urban Heat Island Effect
Value of a Statistical Life
In 2006 alone, New York lost an estimated $1 billion dollars, if the EPA’s value of a statistical
life (VSL) of 6.9 million dollars were applied to the 140 moralities attributed to environmental
heat and excessive deaths thought to be triggered by heat. 45 $276,000,000 is directly attributed to
the 40 deaths caused by heat stroke. Based on the 2011 heat advisory data, (previously referred
to) the total value of statistical life lost between 1997-2010 is $8.5 billion dollars. This 1,242
includes the deaths due to heat stroke and deaths triggered by excessive environmental heat. If
we were to look at the predicted effects of climate changes and the impact on health as it relates
to heat in NYC, the cost of lives would exceed $7.7 billion dollars in heat related deaths alone by
2099. (46,47). Although there are currently efforts in place to mitigate the environmental health
costs such as cooling centers and the cool roofs program, 2011 still saw an early life loss of
$131,100,000 due to the 19 mortalities caused by environmental heat exposure.48
7. Creating Microclimates with Green Infrastructure
Review of Evapotranspiration and Shade Applied Benefits to Urban Structures via Green
Infrastructure
GI has the capacity to be integrated into the urban landscape through different topographical,
structural and growing configurations. Some well known applications are; green roofs on
buildings; enhanced tree pits at the sidewalks or open spaces; green walls on the facades of
buildings, bio-swales alongside walkways or open spaces; rain gardens in open space; and plantable pervious pavement for parking lots etc.49 The combination of these green infrastructure
techniques should be applied aggressively to the impermeable surfaces of the structures and
landscapes that intend to comfortably support vulnerable populations. These systems are
extremely important in providing NYC with higher rates of evapotranspiration or natural
cooling. The lack of evapotranspiration in urban environments has been concluded to be “the
most significant factor contributing to the urban heat island. Therefore green roof technology
offers the possibility of much greater impact on the urban heat island effect than reflective roofs
alone”. (Doug Bangting, et al, 2005)50 This statement can be partially explained by the Bowen
ratio. The Bowen Ratio, is a ratio of latent heat loss (evaporation) to sensible heat loss
(convection) and is affiliated with the cooling performance of different landscape systems.51 For
instance, deserts have the highest Bowen ratio of 10, second highest are Urban areas at 5. To the
other extreme are highly productive landscapes, such as irrigated field in April at .28-.30, the
amazon rainforest during the wet season at 0.17 and the Huaihe River Basin (paddy) has a
Bowen Ratio 0.06.52 (See Apendix A for chart) The lower the ratio means the higher amount of
heat loss is occurring via latent heat (evaporation) as opposed to sensible heat (convection). 53
Convection is when hot air rises and cold air takes its place. 54 Evaporation is the process in
which liquid water changes phase from liquid to vapor and during that process, removes heat. 55
Evaporation is an extremely efficient way to remove excessive heat which can be seen when
comparing landscape systems to it’s affiliated Bowen Ratio.56 As an example, when 1 ml of
water evaporates, 580 calories of energy (heat) is removed from the surrounding environment
when the temperature outside is 86° F.57 In one study conducted in Toronto, researchers predicted
that the entire city temperature would cool from 0.2°- 1.4° F, before irrigation, if 50% of the
available surface were covered with a green roof. 58 With irrigation, the entire city would cool by
3.5° F and the microclimate created would cool a further reaching geographic area by 1°- 2° F
even though the results are said to be unexpectedly low.59 In a green roof study done in Japan,
evaporative cooling on a roof had the ability to reduce heat flux by 50%. 60 It has also been
shown that indoor temperatures can be 7°F cooler than outside temperatures of 86°F when a
green roof is applied.61 In a Canadian study, heat flow was reduced by 75% through the green
roof.62 It should be noted that Toronto has created a green roof mandate requiring that new roofs
recieve a green roof. 63
NYC has the capacity to irrigate green infrastructure on hot days to maximize cooling potential.
This should be beneficial due to the abundant amount of potential gray water that can be
captured and dedicated toward irrigating green infrastructure in the summer.64 The irrigation will
allow for nighttime cooling which then allows for more people to recover from a hot day, thereby
8
potentially mitigating heat related deaths.65 In one health study, for every 1.8°F increase in
temperture there is a 1% increase in all-cause mortalities and a 3% increase in respiratory
mortality.66
9. Example Green Infrastructure Investment and Water Calculation
Green Infrastructure Investment for Seward Park Co-op
Adapting the Urban Environment to create safe microclimates is an investment that should be
used to hedge against the high health costs that will continue to increase as climate change
progresses. Due to available online data, Seward Park Co-op located on the Lower East Side can
be used as an example and indicator of how much a full investment would cost. Considered a
NORC community, it consists of four 21 story towers, supplying 1,728 units with approximately
5,164 residents.67 Each building has a roof of 23,056 sf. and a wall area of 259,980 (including
windows and doors). An estimated green roof would cost around $391,952 for the entire 23,056
area at a $17.00 per square foot.68 Green walls would cost around $8.00 a square foot and would
consist of a total investment of $2,079,840.69 To create a complete micro-climate environment
around all four Seward Park Coop buildings, a total estimated investment of $9,887,168 would
be needed. This investment can be viewed as a $1,915 health insurance investment per resident
living in the Seward Park Co-op.
Irrigation requirement for one Seward Park Co-op Building
As a rough water estimate, in order to drop the temperture of one Seward Park Coop Building by
1°C or 1.8°F, 2,918 gallons of water would need to be evaporated per day.70 2,918 gallons of
water per day equates to aproximately 88.4 tons of AC.71,72 This would be like supplying each
person with 2.26 gallons of water per day to cool their portion of the building.
If we estimate that a full 1/5” of water evaporates per day over the entire surface area of the
building via green walls and green roof, this would be equivalent to providing 1,060 tons of AC
to one building and could use up to 35,000 gallons of water.73, 74 (See Apendix A for calculations)
This would equate to around 27 gallons of water per person per day to achieve maximum cooling
benefits.
10. Microclimate Policy Recommendations
Based on existing research, green infrastructure provides natural cooling benefits. The cooling
potential of GI can be optimized by increasing it’s concentration, consistency and surface
coverage. The ability for urban areas to be cooled on hot days depends on the amount of
evaporation that is taking place. Many NORC Buildings are surrounded by trees but still have
large areas of exposed building or parking lot surface area collecting solar radiation on hot days.
NORC’s are housing one of NYC’s most vulnerable populations to extreme heat therefore
increased attention and investment should be made to alter the physical environment for the
better. The idea is to mitigate the environmental burden (UHIE) locally with green infrastructure
to save lives while also achieving many co-benefits. The following recommendations are steps
toward creating a microclimate policy and program in NYC;
•
Create a Policy that addresses the lack of evapotranspiration around urban structures and
most specifically the structures that house vulnerable populations living in NORC
developments.
•
Pilot a Microclimate program for a NORC development;
Utilize the power and momentum of the DEP Green Infrastructure and Million Trees
NYC program to push forward this policy
•
Implemention should start in “high risk areas” such as Norcs and New York City Housing
Authority (NYCHA) properties. Criteria to prioritize initial Microclimate investments;
Environmental Justice communities; High impervious surface areas; the total number of
at risk populations living in densely populated communities, and the projected number of
at risk populations (baby boomers) living in high density housing in the years to come.
10
•
Plan on utilizing the maximum amount of surface area currently contributing to the urban
heat island by maximizing the concentration of Green Infrastructure such as exposed
building facades, roofs, sidewalks, parking lots, and under utilized grass surfaces etc.
•
Create opportunities for green infrastructure to achieve the smallest Bowen Ratio to
optimize evaporative cooling
•
Integrate gray water retention systems to supply a sufficient amount of irrigation to the
Green Infrastructure; this will optimize cooling capacity during summer months and hot
days; retrofit existing planted areas, trees pits and gardens with gray water irrigation
systems
•
Maximize opportunities for GI to provide shade on high thermal mass surfaces
•
Create a Microclimate creation goal for High Density Senior housing; e.g. by 2020 all
NORC’S should have installed a Green Roof and one Green Wall, by 2030 all walls are
greened, etc.
11. Conclusion
The capacity for irrigated green infrastructure to cool ambient and surface temperatures is far
greater than high albedo surface techniques and has a significant amount of co-benefits that
completely justify a significant return on investment. The cost of a human life lost alone can
justify the return on investment. The cost of a Green Infrastructure investment for one person
equals $1,900 vs losing a life valued at 6.9 millions dollars by the EPA. The cost of green
infrastructure per person is minimal compared to the cost of losing a life. If you calculate human
lives saved, energy savings (local and remote), water pollution reduction, real estate values,
ecological productivity and biodiversity, the return on investment for Green Infrastructure far
exceeds the initial cost. An investment in Green infrastructure in New York City has already been
proven to be cost effective; the 2.4 billion dollar DEP Green Infrastructure plan is proof that GI
can save the city money.
New York City has plenty of thermal mass (e.g. concrete) which leads to increased temperatures
presently. Green infrastructure can remove the heat caused by the UHIE and mitigate future heat
related illness and mortalities. At this juncture, New York City is in the position to institute an
evidence-based approach and mandate that Green Infrastructure be integrated into the Urban
Environment as a UHIE mitigation strategy. New York City should strengthen its’ stance by
creating a stronger climate change resiliency plan and implementation strategy that builds upon
current programs to explicitly address a safer and healthier living environment.
12
Appendix A
Bowen Ratio Chart 75
Calculations Evaporation and Water Requirements 76,77
NOTES
1
Dan Lashof, Kim Knowlton, Ed Chen, Laurie Johnson and Dr. Larry Kalkstein,
“Killer Summer Heat: Projected Death Toll from Rising Temperatures in America Due to Climate Change”, NRDC
Issue Brief, IB:12-05-C (2012): 1-8, accessed July 12, 2012, www.nrdc.org/globalwarming/killer.../killer-summerheat-report.pdf
2
Rupa Basu, and Samet M. Jonathan, “Relation between Elevated Ambient Temperature and Mortality: A Review of
the Epidemiologic Evidence”, Epidemiologic Reviews, Vol. 24, No. 2, (2002): 190 - 191, accessed July 15, 2012,
http://epirev.oxfordjournals.org/content/24/2/190.full
3
Cynthia Rosenzweig1*, William Solecki2, Lily Parshall1, Stuart Gaffin1, Barry Lynn1,
Richard Goldberg1, Jennifer Cox2, Sara Hodges2 “Mitigating New York City’s Heat Island with Urban Forestry,
Living Roofs and Light Surfaces”, Columbia University, New York, NY, Hunter College, New York, NY, 2006: J32
accessed June 12, 2012, http://www.giss.nasa.gov/research/news/20060130/103341.pdf
4
Doug Bangting, Jame Li, Paul Missios,Angela Au, Beth Anne Curri, Michael Verrati,“ Report on the
Environmental Benefits and Costs of Green Roof Technology for the City of Toronto”, Dept. of Architectural
Science, Ryerson University, (2005): 9, accessed July 17, 2012. http://www.toronto.ca/greenroofs/pdf/
fullreport103105.pdf
5
__, The City of New York, “NYC Hazards: Extreme Heat”, NYC Office of Emergency Management, accessed July
21, 2012, http://www.nyc.gov/html/oem/html/hazards/heat.shtml
6
__, The New York City Council, “Local Law no.21, To amend the administrative code of the city of New York and
the New York city building code, in relation to roof coating standards.”, Local Laws of the City of New York,
2011:1-5, accessed July 28th, 2012, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dob/downloads/pdf/ll21of2011.pdf
7
__, New York City, NYC Cool Roofs, accessed July 28, 2012, http://www.nyc.gov/html/coolroofs/html/home/
home.shtml
8__,
New York City, Million Trees NYC, accessed July 28, 2012, http://www.milliontreesnyc.org/html/home/
home.shtml
9
__, New York City, Million Trees NYC map, accessed July 28, 2012, http://milliontreesnyc.org/downloads/pdf/
mtnyc500k.pdf
10
__, Cornell University, Cornell Gardening Resources, Microclimates, accessed July 28, 2012
http://www.gardening.cornell.edu/weather/microcli.html
Paul Mankiewicz, “Integrating Ecosystems with Urban and Industrial Landscapes”, TEDxKrakow, video, (2010)
accessed July 17, 2012, http://www.ted.com/tedx/events/748.html
11
12
Killer Summer Heat, Projected Death Toll from Rising Temperatures in America Due to Climate Change, NRDC,
accessed July 1, 2012, http://www.nrdc.org/globalwarming/killer-heat/files/killer-summer-heat-report.pdf
13
Cynthia Rosenzweig1*, William Solecki2, Lily Parshall1, Stuart Gaffin1, Barry Lynn1,
Richard Goldberg1, Jennifer Cox2, Sara Hodges2, “Mitigating New York City’s Heat Island with Urban Forestry,
Living Roofs and Light Surfaces”,Columbia University, New York, NY, Hunter College, New York, NY, 2006: J32,
accessed June 12, 2012, http://www.giss.nasa.gov/research/news/20060130/103341.pdf
14
Ibid.
Paul Mankiewicz, “Integrating Ecosystems with Urban and Industrial Landscapes”, TEDxKrakow, video, (2010)
accessed July 17, 2012, http://www.ted.com/tedx/events/748.html
15
14
16
Cynthia Rosenzweig1*, William Solecki2, Lily Parshall1, Stuart Gaffin1, Barry Lynn1,
Richard Goldberg1, Jennifer Cox2, Sara Hodges2“Mitigating New York City’s Heat Island with Urban Forestry,
Living Roofs and Light Surfaces”,Columbia University, New York, NY, Hunter College, New York, NY, J32, accessed
June 12, 2012, http://www.giss.nasa.gov/research/news/20060130/103341.pdf
17
Kim Knowlton, DrPH, Barry Lynn PhD, Richard A. Goldberg, MS, Cynthia Rosenzweig, PhD, Christian Hogrefe,
PhD, Joyce Klein Rosenthal, MSUP,MPH, and Patrick L. Kinney ScD, “Projecting Heat-Related Mortality Impacts
Under a Changing Climate in the New York City Region, 2007 AMJ Public Health, accessed July, 30, 2012
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2040370/
18
__, New York City, “NYC Hazards: Extreme Heat”, NYC Office of Emergency Management, accessed July 21,
2012, http://www.nyc.gov/html/oem/html/hazards/heat.shtml
19
Rupa Basu, and Samet M. Jonathan, “Relation between Elevated Ambient Temperature and Mortality: A Review
of the Epidemiologic Evidence”, Epidemiologic Reviews, Vol. 24, No. 2
(2002): 191, accessed July 15, 2012, http://epirev.oxfordjournals.org/content/24/2/190.full
Joyce Klein Rosenthal, Rob Crauderueff and Majora Carter, “Urban Heat Island Mitigation Can Improve New
York City’s Environment: Research on Impacts of Mitigation Strategies”, Sustainable South Bronx (2008): 6,
accessed July 29, 2012, http://csud.ei.columbia.edu/sitefiles/file/SSBx_UHI_Mit_Can_Improve_NYC_Enviro
%5B1%5D.pdf
20
21
Ibid.
Andy Newman,”19 Have Died of Heat This Summer, City Say”, The New York Times, (August 31, 2011):
accessed June 14, 2012, http://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/08/31/summer-heat-caused-19-deaths-city-says/
22
Rupa Basu, and Samet M. Jonathan, “Relation between Elevated Ambient Temperature and Mortality: A Review
of the Epidemiologic Evidence”, Epidemiologic Reviews, Vol. 24, No. 2
(2002): 191, accessed July 15, 2012, http://epirev.oxfordjournals.org/content/24/2/190.full
23
24 Andy
Newman,”19 Have Died of Heat This Summer, City Say”, The New York Times, (August 31, 2011):
accessed June 14, 2012, http://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/08/31/summer-heat-caused-19-deaths-city-says/
25
Perez-Pena, “Heat Wave Was a Factor in 140 Deaths, New York Says” The New York Times
(2006) accessed May 22, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/11/16/nyregion/16heat.html
26
__, “The Value of Green Infrastructure, A guide to Recognizing Its Economic, Environmental and Social
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27
Nancy Clark, Nathan M. Graber, Katherine Wheeler, New York City“2011 Health Advisory #8, Heat-Related
Morbidity and Mortality in New York City” New York City Department of Mental Hygiene, (2011) accessed June 1,
1-3, 2012, http://www.emblemhealth.com/pdf/HAN_heat_Memorial%20Day_2011_final-taf.pdf
28
Ibid.
29
Ibid.
30
Joyce Klein Rosenthal, Rob Crauderueff and Majora Carter, “Urban Heat Island Mitigation Can Improve New
York City’s Environment: Research on Impacts of Mitigation Strategies”, Sustainable South Bronx (2008): 6,
accessed July 29, 2012, http://csud.ei.columbia.edu/sitefiles/file/SSBx_UHI_Mit_Can_Improve_NYC_Enviro
%5B1%5D.pdf
31
32
Ibid.
__, State & Country Quick Facts, U.S. Department of Commerce United States Census Bureau, last revised June
06, 2012, accessed July 30, 2012, http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/36/3651000.html
33
Interboro Partners, “NORCS in NYC”, UrbanOmnibus, (March 17th 2010): website, accessed July 11, 2012,
http://urbanomnibus.net/2010/03/norcs-in-nyc/
34
Peter Altman, Dan Lashof, Kim Knowlton, Ed Chen, Laurie , Johnson and Dr. Larry Kalkstein, Killer Summer
Heat: Projected Death Toll from Rising Temperatures in America Due to Climate Change, NRDC, 2012: accessed
July 1, 2012, http://www.nrdc.org/globalwarming/killer-heat/files/killer-summer-heat-report.pdf
35__.
New York City, PlaNYC, A Greener, Greater New York, (2011): 154, accessed May 05, 2012, http://
nytelecom.vo.llnwd.net/o15/agencies/planyc2030/pdf/planyc_2011_planyc_full_report.pdf
36
Roberto Andorno, The Precautionary Principle: A New Legal Standard for a Technological Age, JIBL Vol 01,
(2004): accessed July 15, 2012, http://uzh.academia.edu/RobertoAndorno/Papers/444661/
The_Precautionary_Principle_a_New_Legal_Standard_for_a_Technological_Age
37
__,“NYSDEC & NYCDEP Reach Innovative Draft Agreement to Improve New York Harbor Water Quality”,
NYC DEP, (October 19, 2011) accessed July 15, 2012,
http://www.nyc.gov/html/dep/html/press_releases/11-94pr.shtml
38
Ibid.
39
“NYC Green Infrastructure Plan, A Sustainable Strategy For Clean Waterways”, PlaNYC, NYC Environmental
Protection, (2010): 1- 11, accessed June 10, 2012, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dep/pdf/green_infrastructure/
NYCGreenInfrastructurePlan_ExecutiveSummary.pdf
40
__, “NYSDEC & NYCDEP Announce Groundbreaking Agreement to Reduce Combined Sewer Overflows Using
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Ibid.
47
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Paul Mankiewicz, “Integrating Ecosystems with Urban and Industrial Landscapes”, TEDxKrakow, video, (2010)
accessed July 17, 2012, http://www.ted.com/tedx/events/748.html
16
50
Doug Bangting, Jame Li, Paul Missios, Angela Au, Beth Anne Curri, Michael Verrati,“ Report on the
Environmental Benefits and Costs of Green Roof Technology for the City of Toronto”, Dept. of Architectural
Science, Ryerson University, (2005): 13, accessed July 17, 2012, http://www.toronto.ca/greenroofs/pdf/
fullreport103105.pdf
51
Stuart Gaffin, Cynthia Rosenzweig, Lily Parshall, Daniel Hillel, Jake Eichenbaum-Pikser, Adam Greenbaum,
Reggie Blake, David Beattie, Robert Berghage, Quantifying Evaporative Cooling from Green Roofs and
Comparison to other Land Surfaces, Greening rooftops for Sustainable Communities, 2006: 1-12, Email message
Paul Mankiewicz, PhD, July 23, 2012
52
Ibid.
53
Ibid.
54
Ibid.
55
Ibid.
56
Paul S. Mankiewicz, Peter Spartos and Eric Dalski, “Green Roofs and Local Temperature
How Green Roofs Partition Water, Energy, and Costs in Urban Energy-Air Conditioning Budgets”
Living Architecture Monitor, (2009): 20-25, accessed May 08, 2012, http://www.nxtbook.com/dawson/greenroofs/
lam_2009winter/index.php?startid=20#/24
57
Ibid.
58
Ibid.
59
Ibid.
60
Ibid.
61
Ibid.
62
Doug Bangting, Jame Li, Paul Missios,Angela Au, Beth Anne Curri, Michael Verrati,“ Report on the
Environmental Benefits and Costs of Green Roof Technology for the City of Toronto”, Dept. of Architectural
Science, Ryerson University, (2005): 9, accessed July 17, 2012. http://www.toronto.ca/greenroofs/pdf/
fullreport103105.pdf
63
__, Toronto, Green Roof Bylaw, City of Toronto 2012, accessed July 29, 2012
http://www.toronto.ca/greenroofs/overview.htm
64
Paul S. Mankiewicz, Peter Spartos and Eric Dalski, “Green Roofs and Local Temperature
How Green Roofs Partition Water, Energy, and Costs in Urban Energy-Air Conditioning Budgets”
Living Architecture Monitor, (2009): 20-25, accessed May 08, 2012, http://www.nxtbook.com/dawson/greenroofs/
lam_2009winter/index.php?startid=20#/24
65
Basu, Rupa, Samet, Jonathan M.,“Relation between Elevated Ambient Temperature and Mortality: A review of the
Epidemiologic Evidence”, From the Departmentt of Epidemiology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, John
Hopkins University, Baltimore, Epidemiologic Reviews, Vol. 24, No.2 (2002): PAGE Web June 24, 2012, accessed
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66
Ibid.
67
__, AFL-C10 Housing Investment Firm, 2012 accessed July 29, 2012,
http://www.aflcio-hit.com/wmspage.cfm?parm1=368
68
Paul Mankiewicz, PhD, email massage to author, July, 19, 2012
69
Paul Mankiewicz, PhD, email massage to author, July, 19, 2012
70
Paul Mankiewicz, PhD, email massage to author, July, 30 2012
71
Paul Mankiewicz, PhD, email massage to author, July, 30 2012
72
Paul S. Mankiewicz, Peter Spartos and Eric Dalski, “Green Roofs and Local Temperature
How Green Roofs Partition Water, Energy, and Costs in Urban Energy-Air Conditioning Budgets”
Living Architecture Monitor, (2009): 20-25, accessed May 08, 2012, http://www.nxtbook.com/dawson/greenroofs/
lam_2009winter/index.php?startid=20#/24
73
Paul Mankiewicz, PhD, email massage to author, July, 30 2012
74
Paul S. Mankiewicz, Peter Spartos and Eric Dalski, “Green Roofs and Local Temperature
How Green Roofs Partition Water, Energy, and Costs in Urban Energy-Air Conditioning Budgets”
Living Architecture Monitor, (2009): 20-25, accessed May 08, 2012, http://www.nxtbook.com/dawson/greenroofs/
lam_2009winter/index.php?startid=20#/24
Stuart Gaffin, Cynthia Rosenzweig, Lily Parshall, Daniel Hillel, Jake Eichenbaum-Pikser, Adam Greenbaum,
Reggie Blake, David Beattie, Robert Berghage, Quantifying Evaporative Cooling from Green Roofs and
Comparison to other Land Surfaces, Greening rooftops for Sustainable Communities, 2006: 1-12, Email message
Paul Mankiewicz, PhD, July 23, 2012
75
Paul S. Mankiewicz, Peter Spartos and Eric Dalski, “Green Roofs and Local Temperature
How Green Roofs Partition Water, Energy, and Costs in Urban Energy-Air Conditioning Budgets”
Living Architecture Monitor, (2009): 20-25, accessed May 08, 2012, http://www.nxtbook.com/dawson/greenroofs/
lam_2009winter/index.php?startid=20#/24
76
77
Paul Mankiewicz, PhD, email massage to author, July, 30 2012
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