STUDY REPORT ON
THE COMMON ORAL TRADITIONS
O F SOUTHERN AFRICA
A Survey of Tanzanian Oral Traditions
BY:
PROF.M.M.MULOKOZI
UNESCO,DAR ES SALAAM,TANZANIA
APRIL 1999
STUDY REPORT ON THE COMMON ORAL
TRADITIONS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA
A Survey of Tanzanian Oral Traditions
BY: PROF.M.M.MULOKOZI
UNESCO CONSULTANT
RESEARCH ASSISTANTS
Ali Mwaliiiiu Rashid
Viiyo W;igi
K R ,UNIVEIISITY O F DAR ES S A L A A M
April 1999
PREFACE
This survey of the oral traditions of Tanzania was undertaken in the context of the
UNESCO sponsored ongoing study on "The Common Oral Traditions of Southern
Africa." Siinilai-surveys have already bccn done in inost of the Southern African
countries.
This survey was undertaken at the request of UNESCO.The main objective of the
survey was to research on the Taiizaniaii oral traditions that are shared by the other
countries of Southern Africa in the context of preparations for the launching of the
Oral Traditions Association of Southern Africa (OTASA). It is expected that the data
so collected will be utilized by OTASA in its training and research program. In
addition to surveyingthe oral traditions,the study was intended to assess the status of
oral traditions and national languages i ti the Tanzanian government policies, national
legislation and official institutions.
The study was carried out in archives, libraries and relevant institutions in Dar es
Salaam and Zanzibar, and employed the methods of documentary research and
interviews. The study was supposed to begin in September 1998,but owing to delays
by UNESCO in reinitting the initial rescarch funds,it could not begin until December
1998.The survey was completed in Mid-March 1999,and the Report written between
March 15 and April 15,1999.
The Report has 5 chapters:
Chapter 1 offers the reader brief background information on Tanzania,including its
history,peoples and cultures.
Chapter 2 surveysthe major Tanzanian oral traditional categories;their characteristics,
inodes of occurrence,current state,utilization,perpetuation and geographical spread
within Tanzania and beyond.
Chapter 3 reviews research in Tanzanian oral traditions that has been done in the last
150 years. It highlights both the achievements and the shortcomings of those
researches,and pinpoints the gaps that need to be filled.
Chapter 4 addresses the policy and legal issues pertaining to oral traditions in postIndependence Tanzania - h o w the government viewed the question of culture in
national developnient,and how its dealt with languages and oral traditions in both
policy and practice. The structures aiid legal framework created to cater for oral
traditions and language development are also reviewed.
Chapter 5 is the Conclusion. It briefly summarizes the preceding chapters and their
findings, and inakes propositions for future cooperation among Southern African
countries in the study and yroinotion oî thcir coininon oral traditions.
In carrying out this work, 1 utilized the services of Mr Ali Mwalimu Rashid of
Zanzibar and Ms Vuyo Wagi of Dar es Salaam; both of them helped with data
collection. I wish to thank them for their assistance. I also wish to thank all the
individuals and institutions that facilitated this survey,especially: The Ministry of
Education and Culture,Tanzania Mainland; the Ministry ofInformation,Culture and
Tourism, Zanzibar; the National Arts Council (BASATA); the National Library
Services, Dar es Salaam; the University of Dar es Salaam Library; the Tanzanian
National Archives;Radio One,ITV,DTV,Radio Tanzania Dar es Salaam and Sauti
ya Tanzania Zanzibar.
Prof.M.M.
Muloltozi
UNESCO CONSULTANT
INSTITUTE OF KISWAHILI RESEARCH
UNIVERSITY OF DAR ES SALAAM
151411 999
RESEARCH ON THE C O M M O N ORAL TRADITIONS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This study surveysthe Tanzanian oral traditions that are shared by the other
countriesof Southern Africa,their statusin the national culturaland language
policies,and how they are preserved and promoted,The study also surveys
and appraises the laws and institutionsthat deal with oral traditions.
The results of the study are presented in five chapters:
Chapter 1 offers the reader brief background information on Tanzania,
including its histoiy,peoples and cultures,
Chapter 2 surveys the major Tanzanian oral traditional formsthat are shared
by the other countries in the sub-region,
so as to establish their types and
genres,their origins,modes of occurrence,current state,utilization and
perpetuation;and their geographical spread within Tanzania and in the subregion.The major categoriesthat are identified and discussed at length are:
-
-
sayings
songs/poetry
tales
oral histories
theatrical arts
special institutional lore
drum lore
Chapter 3 reviewsthe research on Tanzanian oral traditions that was done in
the pre-colonial,colonial and post-colonialperiods, The chapter highlights
the achievements and shortcomings of the researches done to date,It
demonstrates that pre-colonial and colonial research in Tanzanian oral
traditions was very limited and selective;that it focused on those genres and
forms that were needed by the colonial state and the missionaries,The
chaptershows that after independencemore extensiveresearch was carried
I
out on most formsof oral traditions,However,that research was generally not
very intensive and in-depth,and the masses of data that have been
corrected are yet to be processed and analysed scientificallyand utilized for
scholarlyand practical ends.
Chapter 4 examines the policies and legislation pertaining to the oral
traditions and languages in post-colonialTanzania,It shows that Tanzania's
unwritten cultural policy until 1997 was premised on the twin poles of
nationalism and Ujamaa.
The chapter argues that the policy did much to revive and promote
traditional and current Tanzanian culture,including the national language,
Kiswahili,though it suffered from a statist approach which tended to allenate
the real owners and creators of the heritage,Moreover,the policy tended to
ignore the other indigenouslanguages (otherthan Kiswahili),and did not lay
enough emphasis on preservation and promotion of the oral traditions,
The chapter,further, reviews 14Tanzanian laws dealing with cultural malters,
and shows that they do not deal adequately with oral traditions,This is not
surprising,since even the basic law of the land,the national Constitution,Is
completely silent on the question of languages and oral traditions,Four Acts
that specifically mention aspects of oral traditionsare given a more detailed
appraisalmThey are:
1 , The National Archives Act 1965
2.The CopyrightAct 1966
3,The National Swahili Council Act 1 967
4.The National Arts Council Act 1984
It is shown that these Acts appear to focusmore on songs,dances and
drama,and to ignore the other oral traditional categories,Likewise,the new
cultural policy issued in 1997 is not forthrighton oral traditionsperse,though
It marks a step forward compared to past policies,
The final chapter (Chapter5),is the Conclusion.It briefly summarizes the
preceding chapters and their findings,highlights the significance of the
common oral traditional heritage for the Southern African countries and
II
peoples,and makes propositions for future cooperation among Southern
African countries in the study and promotion of this common heritage,
Specifically, it recommends revival and strengthening of OTASA and
EACROTANAL as the first step in the envisaged cooperation,
lhe Report has six Appendices:Appendix A offersa course outline forthe
proposed OTASA research assistants'orientation course;Appendix B lists,
generically,published and unpublished collections of data on oral traditions
available in Tanzania;Appendix C is an index of research on oral traditions
carried out by TAKILUKI in Zanzibarsince 1979;Appendix D lists the institutlons
dealing with oral traditions;Appendix E lists the registered performing groups
in Tanzania (Mainlandand Zanzibar);and Appendix F lists specialists in oral
traditions and languagestudy,
III
CONTENTS
PREFACE ................................................................................................................ 00
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY......................................................................................... i
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................. iv
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: TANZANIA: THE ECO-CULTURALAND
HISTORICAL CONTEXT ...................................................................................... 1
CHAPTER 2:A SURVEY OF THE ORAL TRADITIONAL GENRES FOUND IN
TANZANIA AND OTIIER SOUTHERN AFRICAN COUNTRIES...................... 5
2.0 introduction........................................................................................................... 5
2.1Literature review .................................................................................................. 5
2.2The categories ...................................................................................................... 7
2.2.1Sayings ..............................................................................................................7
2.2.2songs/poclry.................................................................................................... 1 o
2.2.3Tales ................................................................................................................ 13
2.2.4Oral histories ................................................................................................... 14
2.2.5Theatrical arts ........................................................................................ ...-......15
2.2.6Special institutional lore ........................................................................ ........15
2.2.7Drum lore ........................................................................................................ 16
2.3Utilization .............................................................. ..................................... .......19
2.4Preservation and perpetuation .......................................................................... 20
2.5Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 21
CHAPTER 3:l¿EVIEW OF RESEAKCH ON TANZANIAN ORAL TRADITIONS
1850-1999:.......................................................................................... 22
3.1 Pïdhloi1¡d iìiìd Coloilid pcïiod ....................................................................... 22
3.2After independence............................................................................................. 24
3.2.1Sayings ............................................................................................................ 24
3.2.2Songs/poetry............................. ....................................................................... 24
3.2.3Tales ................................................................................................................25
3.2.4Oral histories ................................................................................................... 25
i
3.2.5Theatrical arts .................................................................................................. 26
3.2.6Special institutional lore ................................................................................. 26
3.2.7Druin lore ........................................................................................................ 26
2.3 Conclusion .........................................................................................................27
CHAPTER 4:POLICY AND LEGAL ISSUES .................................................... 28
4.0 Introduction....................................................................................................... 28
4.1 Policies vis-a-avisoral traditions and laiigiiages............................................... 29
pertaining to oral traditions and languages................................... 30
4.2Legislations
.
4.2.1Criticism of soine of the laws........................................................................ 31
4.3 Impleinentation................................................................................................ 33
4.4 Problems ........................................................................................... ...-............ 35
4.5 Concliision ......................................................................................................... 3G
* .
CHAPï'ER 5:CONCLUSION AND IWCOMMENDATION .............................. 38
5.1 Summary of report ............................................................................................ 38
5.2 Significance of the common oral traditions for Southern Africa ...................... 39
5.3 Recorninendation ............................................................................................... 40
CITED REFERENCES ......................................................................................... 41
LIST OF INTERVIEWED PERSONS ................................................................... 47
ILLUSTRATIONS
Sketch map of Tanzania showing some of tlie major groups and languages..........04
An epic performer using a zitlier accompaniment.................................................... 37
APPENDICES
Appendix A:
Course outline for the proposed OTASA research
assistants'orientation course .................................................... 49
Appendix 13:
Lists of documents and collcctions of data on Tanzanian
oral traditions ............................................................................ 52
ii
Appendix C:
Index of OT research done at TAKILUKI,Zanzibar .............. 61
Appendix D:
1,ist ol’itistitutions dcaliiig with oral traditions .......................... 67
Appciidix 1:;
I .¡si 01’ i.cg¡stci*cdpci*li)i-tii¡iig
groups in Tanzania
(Mainland and Zanzibar). ........................................................... .68
Appendix F:
List o 1’ specialists in oral ti*aclitions and language study..’...........72
iii
A1313RI<VIAr~IONS
USED IN THIS IWPORT
I3AKI‘I’A:
BAKIZA
Riisara
C
cf.
Dept.
Diss.
Dsin
DTV
DUP
Llaraza la Kiswaiiiii ia ‘Taipa(National Kiswaliili Council,Tanzania)
i3araza la Kiswaliili Zanzibar (Zanzibar Kiswaliili Council)
Husara Publications Dar es Salaam
Century
compare
Department
Dissertation
Dar CS Srilriuni
Dar cs Salaani Television
i h r es Salaam University Press
E.A.
East Africniin
EACROTANAL:
EALB
EAPH
EAPL
EASC
Eastern African Centre for Research in Oral
East African Literature Bureau
Easi Aírican Publishing House
Ikstcrii Africa Publications Ltd.
East African Swahili Cornmitee.
editodedited by/edition
Educational Publishers and Distributors Ltd.
Figlire
I Icko I>iiblishcrs
liistitutc OC Kiswaliili Rcscarcli
InternationalMonetary Fund
liistitutc
Independent Television
Indiana University
Kenya Literature Bureau
Kagera Writcrs aiid l’ublislicrs Co-operativeSociety
Literature
Master of Arts
Ministry of Education aiid Culture
M &K Publishers and Agencies
MPB Publishers
Manu script/Manuscripts
no date
Non-CioverninentalOrganizations
Oral Traditions
Oral Traditions Association of Southern Africa
Oxford University Press
pagelpages
Press and Publicity Centre
Publishing and Printing Consultancy
ed.
EPDL
Fig.
Heko
IKWTUKI
IMF
Inst.
ITV
LU.
KLB
KWPC
Lit.
M.A.
MEC
M&K
MPB
MsIMss
n.d.
NGO
OT
OTASA
OUP
PfPP
PPC
PubPC
iv
S.A.
SOAS
SPCK
TAKILUKI
TAMWA
TGNP
TPH
TIE
TNR
TUIU
UDSM
UNESCO
UNICEI:
UNO
UnP
UP
UTL
UWAVITA
viz.:
Vol.
VVK
WUP
South Africa
School of Oriental and African Studies,London University
Socicly for thc I’roiiiotioii ofChrisliaii Kiiowlcdge
‘I’aasisíya Kiswaliili na Lugha za Kigcni Zanzibar (Institute of Kiswaliili and
Foreign Languages Zanzibar)
Tanzania Media Woinen’sAssociation
Tanzania Gender Networking Programme
Tanzania Publishing House
Tanzania Institute of Education
TanganyikaíTanzaniaNotes &Records
See IKR above
University of Dar es Salaam
United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization
United Nations Childrcn’sFund
Uni tcd Nalions Orgaiiimlioii
Universal Publ¡cations
Utamaduni Publishers
Usangu traders Ltd.
Umoja w a Waandishi wa Vitabu Tanzania (TanzaniaWriters Association)
namely
volume
Vitabu vya Kibaha,Ki balia Invcstineiits
Witwatersrand University Press
V
CHAPTER ONE
TANZANIA:THE ECO-CULTURAL A N D HISTORICAL CONTEXT
-
This chapter offers general background information on Tanzania her geography,history, people,
and culture.This is the broad eco-cultural context in which the oral traditions to be surveyed in this
study have evolved, and are practiced and perpetuated. It is the context in which they will either
thrive or die.
The United Republic of Tanzania, comprising of Mainland Tanzania and the islands of
Zanzibar and Pemba, has an area of 945,087km2 and a population of about 30 million. There are
about 120 ethnic groups and languages.Kiswahili is the national language.It is spoken or understood
by more than 90% of the population.
Most of the 120 ethnic groups in Tanzania are Bantu speaking, but there are also sizeable
groups of speakers of non-Bantu languages, e.g Nilotic languages (Maasai and Luo), Cushitic
languages (Iraqw, Bukunge, Mbughu), and even Khoisan (click) languages (Sandawe). This latter
group is believed to be related to the Khoisan peoples of Namibia and South Africa. There are also
large Hindi and Arabic speaking communities originating in Asia.
‘lhepeopling 01 ’I’anzaiiiaocciirrcd ovcr sevcial riiilleiiiiia.Arcliaeological íìiidiiigs indicate
that the first hominids m a y well have evolved in Tanzania about 3.75 or so million years ago as
evidcnccd by fossil findings at Olduvni Gorgc, Lactoli uiid 0 t h sites scattercd in various parts of
‘Tanzania.Rock painting dating Troni the Stone Age abounds in places such as Mbulu, Kondoa,
Iramba, M w a n z a and Kagcra. Iron Agc sitcs have been discovered in Usanlbara, Upare, West
Kilimanjaro, Sunibawanga, Uvinza, Eiigaruka and Kagera. W e are not sure whether the huntergatherer communities of ancient Tanzania were assimilated by the later n e w comers (the Cushitic,
Bantu sind Nilotic speaking peoples) or whetlicr thcy simply moved away to safer places in the face
of the threat from the n e w comers, w h o were apparently more numerous and better m i e d . The
present day Barabaig and Sandawe are considered by some historians to be remnants of the early
communi ties.
The Cushitic-speakingpeople are believed to have moved into Tanzania more than 3000
years ago, bringing with them cattle and grain cultivation. The Bantu speaking peoples must have
started moving into Tanzania,probably from Congo and Cameroon, from around 500 B.C.By about
A.D. 1000,most were already settled in their present areas, although migrations continued until the
early nineteenth century, when the Ngoni (Nguni) from southern Africa settled in southern Tanzania.
Indeed, even in this century thousaiids of pcoplc Troni Congo (so-callcd Maiiyciiia), Rwanda,
Burundi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, South Africa and Uganda have settled in Tanzania.
Along the coast, including the Indian Ocean Islands, interaction with the outside world,
especially Asia, has existed for many centuries. Groups of Asians began settling on the coast from
as early as A.D.700,intermarried with the local people, and became part of the Swahili society.
They introduced Islam and the Arabic script so that by A.D. 1000, Kiswahili was already being
1
wrilleii in that script;today,w c have cxt~iiitlilcrntiirc writtcii in Arabic script dating from about A.D.
1500.
Generally, we can say lliat tlic currciit pcoplcs of 'l'aiizuiiia are basically thc sanie as those
found in neighbouring couiitrics.Iiidced,some ethnic groups are found on both sidcs of the border,
since tlie deinarcators of the colonial boundaries did not bother about ethnic realities. Thus the
Makonde and Makua are found in both Tanzania and Mozambique; the Yao and Nyasa live in
Tanzania,Malawi and Zambia;the Ngoni occupy parts of southern Tanzania,Zambia,Mozambique,
Malawi,Zimbabwe, and South Africa; the Maasai occupy a land expanse stretching from central
Kenya LOcentral 'I'aiizania;the Lu0 are Iound in 'l'aiizania,Kenya, Uganda,and southern Sudan;the
Kuria aiid the Digo livc iii both Keiiya aiid l'aiizania; the Swahili occupy tlie whole coast from
southern Somalia to northern Mozanibique,plus parts of Conioro and Madagascar; and the HayaNyanibo people of Kagera are closely related to tlie Rutara peoples of Uganda (the Nkore, Nyoro,
Toro and Kiga). Not surprisingly,the oral traditional forms of these people, as w e shall show later,
are also related and even shared.
'l'lie Tanzanian coast was coloiiizcd by the Portuguese h r two centuries (c. 1500-1700)until
they were ousted by a coalition ofthe local people and the O m a n Arabs. Thereafter,the O m a n Arabs
occupied Zanzibar and the Tanzanian coast,and claimed parts of the hinterland (along the trade
routes) until they too were in turn ousted by the Germans in 1885.Germany ruled Tanzania mainland
until the end ofWorldpr I, while Zanzibar became a "British protectorate." From the end ofWorld
war I until 1961,Tanzania mainland, then known as Tanganyika, was ruled by the British as a
i;
League of Nations/üN Mandate, later Trust,territory.
Zanzibar became independent in 1963,and in 1964 the Arab sultanate was overthrown in a
bloody plebeian revolution. In the sanie year,Zanzibar and Tanganyika united to form the United
Republic ofTanzania.
Most of the current oral traditional form existed prior to Arab and European colonialism.
Nevertheless,they underwent some changes during the centuries ofoccupation due to changes in the
way of life (e.g.urbanization,decline ofthe traditional institutions that patronized the oral arts,such
as kingship, tlie clans, traditional religion, etc), and also because of the onslaught of western
education and western and eastern religions (i.e. Christianity and Islam).
So iniich for the negative impact of forcign occupatioii on the oral traditions.Tlic positive
impact was that the foreigners introduced writing (first in Arabic, later in R o m a n script), which
enabled the indigenous people for the first time to write down some of their traditions for posterity.
The introduction ofthe tape-recorderand the gramaphone by the colonialistsalso helped to recorded
and disseminate even more faithfully some of the traditions that were in danger ofgetting lost.
Another important contribution ofcolonialism,that had both positive and negative aspects,
was its promotion ofresearch on oral traditions.Such research was primarily intended to facilitate
the process of governing and "civilizing" (i.e. westernizing) the "native", but, like a two-edged
sword,it also helped collect,preserve and disseminate material that would otherwise have been lost.
2
Aîter independence,the nationalist government attempted to revive and promote indigenous
culture, iiicludiiig languagcs and oral traditions, as wc shall show in chapter 4.Our tradiíioiial art
forms were introduced into schools and even churches, artists received sponsorship and
encourageinent, and pride iii our cultural heritage was revived.'ïhat period of cultural revival lasted
until the late 198Os, when economic collapse, aided by IMF directives, put a stop to that kind of
I'unproductivel' benevolence.
Today, after almost a century of colonialism,and more than a century of literacy,Tanzanian
societies are still primarily oral. This is in spite of the fact that the literacy levei is believed to be
about 70%, having dropped from a high of about 90% at the height of Nyerere's literacy campaigns
¡ti the seventies. Heiice, for these societies, and for southern Africa generally, orality is not a
marginal, semi-obsolete,optional activity, but a way life.These are oral cultures, and a study of their
oral modes of creativity and communication is indeed a study of the essence of their cultural
existence.
As regards culture,Tanzania,like most African societies,essentially has two parallel cultures
existing side by side. The firstculture is the traditional,mainly rural, culture. The second culture is
the "modern", culture.
The traditional culture continues to exists within its o w n environment and by its o w n
momentum. It embraces iiiost of the people, especially those living in the rural areas. It has its own
systeiiis oï socializutioii,cclucatioii, law,scieiicc, etc. iiidcpciiclent of tlie state. For instance, in
education, the traditional system employs both formal and non-formal means to socialize the child.
The formal institutions include the rites of passage (e.g. initiation), the age groups, the madrasu
(Koranic schools for Muslims) and the secret societies.The non-formaleducation involves learning
while living, by observing, imitating, participating, and serving as apprentices. The whole system
is cemented by word of mouth, with the oral traditions playing a decisive role. The time tested
traditional cultural systems serve as a means of preserving, passing on and even transforming the
cultural values, knowledge and heritage of the people.
The "modern'' culture is a product of the colonial experience. It is based on a largely urban,
western value system, including a western type school and legal system, commercialized cultural
practices, Christianity, and the written word. This system is headed, funded and perpetuated by the
state, assisted by the so-called private sector and the NGOs.
In practice, these two systems exist side by side, though they rarely mix. S o m e individuals
participate in both, and usually end up being at h o m e in neither.
W e shall see later h o w this dichotomy is reflected in the policies and practices of government
vis-a-visthe oral traditions, and the implication for their healthy development and promotion.
3
Sketch m a p of Tanzania,showing some of the major ethnic groups and languages
4
CHAPTER T W O
A SURVEY OF O R A L TRADITIONAL GENRES FOUND IN TANZANIA
A N D 0'1'11JSL< SOU'I'IIEl<NAI~KICANCOUNTKIES
2.0 IN'I'HODU CTION
The term "oral traditions" refers to those forms of individuai and communal verbal creativity that
are conceived,generated, structured,preserved and disseminated orally without the aid of writing.
Such Iòrms include orature, i.e.oral literature per se (e.g.sayings, stories, and poetry), and factual
lore (such as legends, histories, scientific accounts, and other types of essentially factual
information). Oral traditions are living,not antiquarian,traditions.They are dynamic, not fixed; they
are continually being created and recreated in performance. l'liey are mostly perpetuated through
daily life and activities, social situations aiid institutions. They grow, change and die as the social
situation demands. Hence cliangc of way of life, disappearance of the relevant traditional institution
or context, leads to disappearance of some of the art forms, and appearance of n e w ones.
This chapter will survey the major Tanzanian oral traditional forms that are shared by the
other.countries in the sub-region,with a view to:
-
-
-
Establishing their types and genres;
Establishing their characteristics, modes oí' occurrciice, current state, utilization and
perpetuation;
Determining their geographical extent within Tanzania and in the sub-region.
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW
-
-
A s yet, no adequate categorization of Tanzanian nay, African oral traditions has been done.
Vansina's (1961/1965)pioneering work was more concerned with the methods of utilizing and
interpreting oral traditions as history and less with categorization. Hence his categorization was
mainly oricnted towards those traditions that had somc historical value (1965:143-165).I n his more
recent work (i 985),Vansina expanded his typology, but still rcmained within his main framework
of studying oral traditions as historical sources.
The other pioneering work on African oral literature, Iknegan's Oral Literalure in Africa
(1970) gciicrally uscs Liiiropcan calegorics with u lcw udditioiial "Ali.icaii"calcgoi'ics wlwrc llic
European categories fail.
'l'lie intcresting controvcrsy raiscd by lier cliaractcriziiiioii of soiiic of thc types, aiid licr
dismissal of others, such as epic, as being non-existent in Africa, is still raging, but is beyond the
scope of this study. Nevertheless, Finnegan did at least prepare the groundwork for further study of
5
African oral literature whose fruits are beginning to be seen (Okpewho 1979 and 1992;Vai1 and
White 1991 ; Johnson I 986;Mulokozi 1987,etc).
1:iiinegaii's typology is us Iollows:
1. Panegyric
2.Elegiac poetry
1 I'OE1'RY:
3.Rcligioiis poclry
4.Special purpose poetry
5. Lyric
6.'ïopical/political songs
7.Cliildrcii's songs ancl rliyiiics
II PROSE
8.Prose narratives:
Aniinal tales
- Stories about people
- "Myths"
- "Legends"
- Historical narratives
9.Proverbs
10.Riddles
I I , Oratory, foriiial speaking and other stylized
forms,including tongue twisters,puns, names, etc.
III SPECIAL FORMS
12.Drum language and literature
13.Drama
These would appear to be more or less exliaustive, though not necessarily specifically
African. One inay well qucry tlic divisions into ''prose''and "poetry",since in oral literature the
dcriiiacation betwecii the two is not all that clear. Her apparent omissions include types such as
"epic",which she believes does not occur in Africa (p. 108-1 O), ''jokes", and drum formulae (as
opposed to drum poetry). This omission is made good by later scholars,such as Balisidya (1987),
Mulokozi (1 987and 1996)and Miruka (1 994). Balisidya's classification is quite comprehensive;it
inclucles the following major catcgories:
PROSE:
Tales,historical narratives, myths
POE'I'I¿Y:
Songs,poetic recitalions
SAYINGS: I¿iddles, proverbs, slang sayings
Each of these in turn has several sub-types.
6
13al icidya however, omits soine important categories,such as drum poetry.
All in all,we can now state unequivocally that the gamut of African,and for that matter Tanzania,
oral tradi lions includcs ut Icast tlic following broad typcs:
-
Sayings
Spceclies
Narratives
‘I’iieatricaiarts
Poetry/songs
Drum literature
Each of illese has a number of sub-categories,or genres, as we shall show in the review below.
Clearly,on this general level,the Finnegan and Tanzanian categories almost converge.Differences
arise only in reference to specific genres and sub-genres;for instance,which genres to include under
which categories; which genres occur and which do not, etc. This is indeed, a tricky area, since
classi fication of litcrary productions is dcterniincd by the critcria used whether it is the criterion
oí’sii11.jcct miittcr, fiiiictioii (iiicludiiig coiitcxt), form or stylc. I Iencc, it is difficult for any two
classifications to be exactly the same.
-
In this study,the major criteria used for the classification ofthe broad categories are form and
style of dclivery,while for the sub-categories(genres) the criteria of content and function are also
applied.
2.2 TRE CATEGOIUES
For the purpose of this study,Tanzanian oral traditions may best be discussed under the following
calcgorics:
-
-
sayings
songs/poclry
talcs
oral histories
theatrical arts
special institutional lore,e.g.uíani (joking lore), speeches,etc
druni lore
2.2.1 S;iyiiigs
Sayings are slioi’t,pithy statements or phrases conveying a syiiibolic or covert meaning. This
category includes proverbs,riddles,puzzles/enigmas,puns, epithets and eulogues.
Proverbs are insightful,well-structured observations or commentaries on life that appear to
the so called accepted
wisdom vis-a-avisthe subject being referred to. Proverbs are used for illustration or support in
SLIIIIup tlic accumulated knowledge and experience oï the society in question
-
7
-
other modes of oral (and even written) discourse, such as speeches, conversations, and oral
performances. They serve to emphasize and concretise the intended message. Southern African
societics share iiiaiiy coniiiioii proverbs, as tlic rollowing randoin exaiiiples í'roiii Swaliili and Zulu
show (thc Zulu sayings art:taken from Nyeiiibczi 1963):
I. Swdii/i: Ndovu Iiashindwi na p e m b c zake
(No elephant fails to bear ils trunk)
Zuln: ICíiItun d lov u y asind w a n g u inbo Ito w iiy o
(No clcphaiit ever fhiicd to carry its trunk)
2.Swahili:
Nd ug u wii kigonibana siiilca jcinbe u kalini e
(Wliciifaiiiily iiiciiibcrs quarrci,take your hoe and go to work)
Zii111: Iinp i y om n den 'ay ingenw a owezkw e
(Thefamily feud is not to be interfered with by a stranger)
3.Swahili:
Mwerevu hajinyoiíhlganga hajigangi
(A clever person does not shave himselflA doctor cannot cure himself)
Zulu: 1iiyíiiig:i kitzixclíiplii
(A doctor cannot cure iiiiiisclf)
or
Altultlio yili lazikhotli eiiililane
(No crafty ycrsoii cver licked his own back)
4.Swnltiii:
Wapishi wengi huharibu mchuzi
(Too many cooks spoil the broth)
2111~:Iningi liyabon'u bu bende
(Many people [cooks] spoil the blood broth)
5. Swnlrili:
Hisani Iiaiozi
(A good deed never rots)
Zulu: Ukubong'ukuziL>eltela
(Togive is to store for oneself)
6.Swalrili:
Nyiini haoni Itundulc
(A monkey does not notice its haurich)
Znlu: Imfene kayiziboni ubukhophoco
(A baboon does not see its own forehead)
8
Riddles are metaphorical puzzlcs or questions that require an answer fioin the person being
addressed. They are used as a means of educating and socializiiig children about their environment,
and dcvcioping íiicir iiiciiííii nhiiitics.
Example:
QUESTION:
M y house has no entrance
Puzzles and enigmas are related to riddles; they are brain teasers, intellectual games or
problem questions that test the knowledge and intellectual agility of the child. A c o m m o n Swahili
puzzle runs as follows:
X had a chicken. It was preceded by a chicken, and followed by a chicken. H o w many
chickens did X have?
ANS WER:T w o chickens.
Puns and tongue twisters are manipulations of words and their sounds intended to promote
the articulatory abilities of the children, apart from serving as entertainment. A coninion Swahili
example, a tongue-twisteron the y sound, runs as follows:
W a u w a o wawe w a o wauwa wewe wauwawr?
Let them be the killers for if you kill you will also be killed
Eveiy language iii Southern Africa, and probably in thc world, has its o w n puns that match
ils sound syslciii.
Epithets in this context refers to forinulaic phrases, usually adjectivai, that rccur with
character names in oral narrations, and appear to emphasize their supposed attributes. Examples:
-
-
Sharp-tongued Sarah
Loose-mannered inan
Blue-eyed gentlenian
Mabala the Farmer
'l'lie temi "eulogue" was coined by Kunene (1971 :xxii) to refer to "praise refereiices/names",
including nick-names, i.e. metaphorical plirases serving as naines and intended to emphasize the
particular attributes of tlic pcrsoii or tliiiig being rcfcricd to,aiici oftcii ciidiiig up beiiig niore popular
and better known than the real naines of the subjects.They were a necessary aspect of the heroic
milieu that produced tondozi,ibyivugo, izibongo,dithoko and other praise poetry productions of the
African peoples. Examples abound throughout Southern Africa: e.g.:
9
1 .ioilol'Jiiduli
hiperor I Iailc Sclrrssic
Musliweshwe V i e shearer"
King Lepoqo Letlama oi'the Uasotho
(C.1786-1870)
King Mukwava of the I-Iehcpeople
(C.1850-1998)
Gcneral Mayiinga, a coiiini;indcr of
Tanzanian forces during the Uganda
war of 1979
Jiilius Nyercre/Joino Kenyattahnd
many others
Former President J.K.Nyerere of
Tanzania
Ali Hassan Mwinyi
M ukwav inyi ka l'Conqu cror oi tIie W i Ids
'I
Mti Mkavu "Dry 'ïrce '1.ruiik"
Baba wc?Taifa "Fathcr of the Nation"
Ivízee Kifiinbo "Old Knobkerrie"
Mzee Rulm (Mzee Perinissioii)
These are just a few examples ofthe sayings that abound in these languages.W e can safely
assume that similar sayings occur in all Tanzanian and southern African societies. The only
dif'ferences would pertain to the demands of the language used, the contexts, and the artistic
traditions of the society in questioii and its philosophy or world view.
2.2.2 Songsll'oetry
In oral literature,poctry and song arc cither indistinguisliablc or tend to overlap. Hence it makes
sense to discuss them under one category.Nevertheless,one must bear in mind the fact that a song
is always sung, i.e. is delivered to the audience as vocal music, accompanied or unaccompanied,
while a poem need not necessarily be sung,it can also be recited,intoned or declaimed.Hence the
difference between the two lies really in the mode of delivery.
Oral songdpoetry may be placed in the following functional sub-categoriesa là Mulokozi
1996;64-76):
..
-
Lyrical soiigs/ditties (lumbuizo),such as love songs, wedding songs,topical dance songs,
lullabies,initiation songs,dirgcs,etc.
Acclamations (tukuzo): these are laudatory songs/poetry.such as panegyrics and self-praise
poetry, anthems,religious and mantic poetry;
Fiacilitalivesongs (chupuzo): songs accompanying work,war, marches,children's games and
similar activities.
Narrative songs/ epics (tenzi/tendi):songs that tell a story.
Soiigs/poetry are an ever present and often essential aspcct ofthe life ofthe African from the
cradle to the grave: they accompany birth ceremonies and rituals, child rearing (e.g. lullabies),
children's games, puberty and initiation rituais,marriage ceremonies,religious rituals,work, war,
entertainment,death,burial and mourning rituals.Most song types are shared by all the societies in
Southern Africa,though the tunes,artistic techniques and contentmay differ,depending on the needs
and outlook ofeach particular society.Thus among the Waswaliili ofTanzania,Kenya and Comoro,
10
many of their songs and poetry follow rules of rhyme and regular nieter,while most other Bantuspeaking societies do not emphasize those features.
For political, military, religious,esthetic and other reasons,certain specific songs tend to
become very popular and transcend their society of origin. A good example is the South African
hymnal anthem, "Nkosi Sikelel'Afrika". It was composed by at the end of the nineteenth century,
and soon became an ANC anthem of struggle against apartheid. By the 1960s,it was already turning
into an OAU anthem,several African countries,including Tanzania,having adopted and adapted it
as their national anthem.
One particularly fiinious and typicul poetic forin of Southern Africa is praise poetry. This art
form occurs in most of'tlie societies that were involved in constant wars of defense and offence. It
became particularly widespread during the Mfecane upheavals of the nineteenth century. This art
form was misunderstood and revilcd by the early European visitors,who dubbed it "maniacal".Thus,
Dieterlcn and Kohlcr (1 9 12: 120) had no good word for tlic Sotlio úiirhoko perforinaiices:
A inaii sccins suddenly scizcd by an irrcsistiblc devil. I IC leaps forward,parades in
front of his friends,his head high,his eyes large and staring,his face contorted... he
declaims his praises us il-' deluded, possessed -andnicid... the white man laughs,
finding this infantile,ridiculous,and grotesque.As for the black man, he admires...
(our emphasis)
Nevertheless "praise poetry",which need not necessarily "praise" the subject,arose out of
the needs ofthe heroic milieu,and propagated the cherished values ofheroism,manliness,patriotism
and sacrifice,recorded for posterity the pertinent historical events,and the exploits and credentials
ofthe belligerents,and of course,propagated the heroic ideology that was badly needed in the given
circunistaiiccs.Tliiis w e hid praise poctry all thc way from Uganda in the north to Capc Towniii the
far south (cf. Modza and Fortune 1979;Moyo 1978).
An exainiiiatioii of tlic content aiid style oï this poetry reveals striking resemblances in theme
and style,throughout the area. For instance, there is an emphasis on lineage, and on heroism and
manliness;grcat use is made of highly metaphorical epithets aiid eulogues (praise reièrenccs), and
pastoral metaphors abound,with the bovine (cattle) and the beasts ofthe wilderness holding pride
ofplace (cf. the following two examples from Tanzania and South Africa):
Tanzania (Baliaya)
Mutatembwa (King of Kiziba,Bultoba c. 1865-1903)
Bee sting of Mugaliga*
Thiindcrbolts that strikc while othcrs arc roaring!
Bees of Kaigoshora**
H e who was in danger of being exiled; he ofNtumwa* and Bilala*
11
Sand of Kyamugera** that whitens calve's horns
H e of Tibakanda" w h o fulfills his vows!
W tcckcr o 1' sliicltls o'1 I<yaiiiiigciu* *
1:iiigcr of Nyuita* tliat cxcccds llic livc liiigcts
Darkness in which lions and leopards lurk
You come of the long lions!
Crooked finger of Nyamunanage*
Power-iiiongerof Mpanja*
Insolent one during battle
Dressed in spotlessly white!
W h e n he stumbles,he does not lose toe nails
but hardens up for batlle...
Quotcd by Rubaiiza (1 994:3). M y translation.
NOTES: * Nnincs or tiis forbcars
**'Piace names
Zimbabwe (Ndebelc)
Lobcnguh, King of the Ndcbclc (c. 1870-1894).
Black king!
Caifofa black cow!
Man calci'!
Lion!
Thou art as great as the world!
Thou who appeared when men spoke confusedIy!
Slar that shot through the firinament in the day of Zwangeiidaba!
l'hou are in the plains!
Black mystery!
'ïliou who pierceth the sky that is above!
Calf of the terrible!
The Letter destroyer!
I-Iecrossed the great desert!
The black duck of Mzilikazi!
The black calf ofBulawayo!
Quoted in Vai1 &White (1 991 :98)
12
Another poetic art form that has unfortunately not been researched seriously in this subregion is the oral epic. Finnegan (1970)claimed that the epic did not occur in Africa, but studies by
Okpewho, Jolinsoii, Mulokozi and others have disapproved her thesis. Unfortunately most of the
studies deal with Central and West Africa. Mulokozi (1987)and J. Mbele have been studying the
epic in Tanzania and hope to publish the results soon. It is possible that epic traditions do exist in
other southern African countries (indeed it would be suprising if they did not, given the heroic
history of some of the societies). It is worth noting here that the repertoire of possible epics, among
other things, recorded by Hugh Tracey (1952)throughout southern Africa has been lying in the
archives in South Africa for fifty years; his catalogue (Tracey i 973)indicates that there are indeed
some epics in the collection. Moreover, Moyo's (1 978)very coiiiprehensive typology of Ngoni oral
literature (in Zambia) includes what lic calls imidubuko (national epics) mother indicator that epics
may exist iii that society. Thus,urgent research in this area is needed.
-
Finally, we havc to note that praise poetry and epic poetry are currcntly dying art forins; the
contexts and institutions that nourished them have changed or disappeared, the composers and
reciters are long dead or dying, and the societies generally seem to have lost their heroic zeal.
Although some of this poetry survives in a mild form, and praise recitation is still practised at certain
designated functions or ceremonies, w e have to admit that it is no longer a popular artform.
Something needs to be done about collection and preservation, if not dissemination,of the existing
repertoire, before it is too late.
2.2.3 Tales
Tales are fictioiial or semi-fictional,or factual narratives intended to regale, inform andor pass on
a moral lesson. The core of the tale is usually received from tradition;the tale performer uses herhis
own words to retell the story, and may add or deduct details froin the story as the context demands.
The concept of "talcs" ils used Iicre iiicludes categories such as folktales (iiicluding fables mid fairy
tales), myths,jokes and anecdotes.
Folktales are the most c o m m o n fictional narratives in Tanzania and southern Africa. They
occur in all societies.In Tanzania, folktales are usually performed in the evenings,while the children
are waiting to retire after the day's activities, Often the performer is the mother or grand mother,
occasionally elder sistershrothers, and even fathers and grandfathers, when available, m a y also
perform,southern African folktales share certain motifs and characters. C o m m o n motifs include that
of the evil stepmother,the ogre (zirnwi)that devours people and has to be propitiated or killed,the
journey (often made by children from home to a far off country because of a problem or in quest of
something); sibling relations; etc. A special category of folktales, known as fables, employ animal
characters to depict desirable and undesirable human traits. Iii such tales, the hyena symbolizes
gluttony, the lion is the king, thc liare is oftcii the trickster,the elephant, and sometimes the hippo,
are the d u m b giants, the tortoise represents wisdom, etc. There are variations in these representations
in the different societies, but generally the stories tend to be shared by several groups.
Anecdotes are short humorous accounts of real or fictional incidents, usually intended to
amuse in informal settings. In formal settings,anecdotes are sometimes used to illustrate important
13
points or arguments.Some aiiecdotcs are cuiture-bound,many others occur trans-culturally.They
are found in all southern African societies,though specific and coniparative studies of the genre are
yet to be undcrtakcn.
'I'he rollowing is an example of a culture-bouiidjoke-cum-anecdote:
A Makonde m a n fouiid a monkey in his shunzbu (farm) stealing his maize. On seeing hiin,
the monkey ran up a tree. 'The Makonde m a n picked up his bow, inserted an arrow, and
addressed the monkey thus: "Listen you thief,I ani giving you two alternatives;you either
come down voluntarily and allow m e to kill you while you are on the ground,or else you stay
u p there and force m e to kill you from below, in which case you will suffer two deaths:
firstly,you will die from the arrow shot,and secondly,you will die from falling down from
the tree.
Similar liiiniorous aiiccdotcs abouiid in all our socich.
2.2.4 Oral Ilistorics
Oral histories are narratives recounting the popular histories of given groups or states. They
include historical narrations,personal or communal recollections,chronicles,genealogies,and
legends (semi-historicaltales). Historical narrations are usually non-specialized,may be made by any
knowledgeable person or nzzee, and tend to be narrow in focus (clan, village, or kingdom).
Chronicles and genealogies are specialized historical narratives that purport to recount the histories
of given clans or lineages. Sometimes they occur in a poetic form. Legends are seini-historical
narratives that purport to recount the real or imaginary experience (e.g. migrations sind wars) and
exploits of a people and or its leaders in the remote past. On the whole, oral histories are never
analytical, and are usually one sided, but do offer valuable information and hints on historical
processes,though usually without dates.They can and do serve as useful sources during historical
research.As regards their geographical provenance,oral histories occur, with variations, in almost
all societies.
Myths are fictional narratives purporting to explain iiiatters of origins and existence of
societies,persons and phenomena, and believed to be true. Myths tend to embody the way the group
views itselfvis-a-visother groups,and its collective philosophy of life or world view. Hence more
than any other,these tales have an abiding influence on the way the people think,live and act; and
on how they organized their societies.They need to be seriously studied.
ïïiere arc:severul iypes oïiiiyilis,such as iiiyilis o1 origins,iiiyllis associated wiili,uiid heiice
enacted in,religion and ritual, and myths depicting gods, spirits and similar beings inhabiting an
ethereal world.
All societieshave their sacred and non-sacred myths. A comparative study ofTanzanian,let
alone southern African, myths is yet to be done (purportcd Pan-African studies of African
philosophy/religion by Tempels 1954,Jahn 1961; Mbiti 1969,and others can serve only as a starting
14
point). Such a study would reveal the c o m m o n thread that runs through the beliefs, thought patterns,
and world views of the societies involved, and hence the general traditional African
conceptualization of being.
2.2.5 T1icíitric;il Arts
Theatrical arts are perforined arts, such as dances, dramas and rituals. Solo performances of tales,
epics, and praise poetry, often accompanied by the mbira,the nangu (trough zither), the zeze (onestringed musical bow) or the ngoma (drum) also partially belong here. Ritual enactments, and
improvised drama are also îorins of traditional theater arts. This then, is a rich area, of which Africa
is justly proud. i IS iiiipact on contemporary world iiiiisic aiid dance (jazz, rliimiba, saniba, soul,
calypso, rap, etc.) is n o w widely acknowledged.
S o m e of these African theater arts are still alive and throbbing. Certain specific dances, such
as sindimba of the Makonde, are found in several countries,while others are confined to particular
states only. The deliberate nationalization of aspects of ethnic cultures aAer independence has turned
certain ethnic dances and music types into national art forms - known, performed and appreciated
all ovcr Taiizaiiia. Obvious cxaiiiplcs arc sindittzbu (origiiially Makoiidc), lubugubogu (origiiially
Sukuma), msewe (originally from the southern regions), and taarab (originally Arab-Swahili).
Martial dances introduced during colonialism,such as beni, have also spread to various parts of
Tanzania and even beyond.
Apart froin being popular and entertaining, these dances serve as coiiduits for traditional
dance steps, tunes,inusical instruments,thought forms, oral traditions, costuinery, aiid otlier forms
of cultural heritage.They thus directly and dynamically serve to preserve and disseminate our oral
traditions.
Similar or related theatrical arts exist in all the countries of southern Africa. In a number of
cases, given specificdances occur in more than one country. Examples are sindimhn and isinyogo
(Makonde) in Tanzania and Mozambique and vimbuza dance in Malawi and Zambia (Tumbuka).
Moreover, these countries share some of the musical instruments used in these arts, for instance,the
drum, the xylophone, the niusical bows, the zither,various types of wind instruments, and of course,
the lamellaphone or “thuinb-piano”(mbirdmarim ba).
Theatrical arts tend to cross borders and continents easily, and in the process get adopted and
adapted by others. So far this process has been more or less unorganized and ad hoc; what is needed
n o w is to create a sub-regional framework through which the theatrical arts of the various ethnic
groups can be more systematically and scientifically disseminated and adopted, with the necessary
changes, throughout the sub-region.
2.2.6 Spccial iiistitutional Lorc
Certain oral and performed art forms are associated with or confined to given traditional institutions,
which serve as both their contexts of occurrence as weil as their means of propagation and
15
perpetuation.ïïiesc include tlieatrical-cum-ritiialfornls associatcd with iiistitutionssuch as initiation,
kingship,courtship,religion,war, iron smelting,and family aiid ethnic relations.In this study our
discussion will focus on two types only: namely the ufuni (jokingrelationship) lore,and traditional
context-definedspeeches.
Utani occurs only in the context of culturally defined joking-relationships.This may be
belweeii niciiibcrs or two I'oriiially antagonistic ethnic groups,such as the I-Ieheand the Ngoni in
Tanzania;or between family members enjoying a defined relationship,such as in-laws,grandparents
versus grandchildren, etc. Such lore includes dramatic verbal exchanges, sometimes including
"pretended insults" between joking partners; enactment or performance of "playlets" dludiiig to or
criticizingjoking partners on specific occasions,e.g.during fuiicrals. Sometimes the joking is done
to extract moiiey fion7 the joltiiig partners for a spccific useful piirposc, c.g.burial costs,wcddings,
etc.
'I'his apparently very Arricali art forin has rarely been noticed by oral literalure scholars,
though it plays such u iiecessary aiid practical role iii tight situaiioiis,in addition to being iiiiinensely
enterlaiiiing.I suspect 1hal uicini lore occurs in all soullierii Aïricaii societies,albeit with a variation
in rules and joking partners.For instance,in Madagascar,the Merina and the Sakalava ethnic groups
have a joking relationship (zivcr)dating from their warring days. It is diîficult to cite other examples
because tlicre no publislicd iiialcriuls on the matter.
Speeches are another institutional lore that plays a central role in certain ritual and other
sensitive social situations,such as betrothal negotiations,political negotiations, addresses to spirits
and deities,etc. Such speeches are usually very artistically wrought, employing elevated language
with plenty of proverbs,symbolisms and allusions. This is a c o m m o n art form in all oral cultures,
so much so that people who are adept at this oratorical art are very much sought and highly
respected.
' l ï survival
~
of îlicsc art I'oriiis will iilhalcly dcpciid C)II tlic survivnl of the iiislilutioiis they
are associated with.
2.2.7 Drum Lorc
The "Talking Drum"is one of the greatest and most amazing iiiventions ofthe African. In terms of
its versatility and efficacy,this invention matches that ofAlexander Bell's invention of the telegraph.
Through drumming,the pre-colonial African could,in a matter of minutes, transmit messages over
hundreds of kilometers.No wonder,one of the cultural practices to be banned or restricted by the
colonial regimes and the chiirches,albeit unsuccessfully,was drumming;for in drumming there was
a secret that European technology could not penetrate.
Al llic core ofdruiiiiiiiiig lhcrc is tlic drum - un iiislrumciit that in Africa is as coninion as the
black skin. There are many types,shapes,and uses,but they all produce sound through percussion,
usually on a skin membrane stretched over an opening or'ahollow object.A m o n g the Bantu speakers
of southern Africa, the popularity of the drum is underlined by the spread of the term for "drum",
lb
which in most cases is a variation of the root "ngoinii'l.Thuswc have:
Ngoma:
Engoma:
Ongoma:
Ongoma:
Ngoiiidn li iiriiiigonia:
Ngonia:
Ngonia:
Waswahili (Tanzania and Kenya)
Bahaya (Tanzania)
Herero (Namibia)
Kwanyama (Namibia)
Kwangali and Sambiu (Namibia)
Mbukushu (Botswana)
Shona (Zimbabwe)
According to Nkctia (lO63: 17), there arc thrcc kinds of African druiiiiniiig: signal
drumming,speech drumming,and dance drumming. In this study,w e are concerned only with signai
and speech drumming.
Nketia (1 963)tells us that,camongthe Akan of Ghana
... signal drumming is characterized by short,repetitive, unilineal rhythms,or a broken series
ofdrum beats playcd at one Icvel ofpitch ...These pieccs (i.e.drums) are usually identified
by reíerence to the iianies ofthe drums (e.g.&wie, rnmidie)or to a word or phrase which the
sound of the drum suggests (e.g. susu biribi "ponder over something").... (pp. 27-28).
As regards the "inessage" carried in signal drumming, Nketia adds that use is made of "nonsense
syllables","burclcn texts",ancl ''shortmottos or conimeniorative texts.":
The use of nonsense syllables ...is in essence an extension of the c o m m o n phonoesthetic
habit of imitating non-spccch sounds such as mechanical noises, animal cries,the songs of
birds, etc. by means of speech sounds...A c o m m o n method ofreproducing drum sounds is
by using burden texts mude up of wholly or to a large extent of recognizable words and
phrases... In signal drumming one does not come across texts made up ofseveral such units.
Often the sanie plirasc is used,though greater congruciice will be found in the drumming
and texts ofthe tribunals and commemorative drums...The greatest use oftexts in connection
with signal drumming is to perform a secondary lingiiistic function.If a short motto, or a
short commemorative text,a brief message, or a short instruction were required,it would
usually be assigned to a signal drum ....@p. 33-36).
Nketia then proceeds to give a number of interesting examples drawn from Akan signal drumming.
W e suspect that signai drumming, more or less as deliiied by Nketia, exists in almost all
Tanzanianethnic groups. It is normally used to alert people about any matter ofcommon concern.
It could be a lurking danger,such as an enemy invasion,a lion or leopard attack on the village flocks,
or a robbery.Signai clriiniiiiiiig is also used to call pcopie to nicetiiigs, hiiiiting, or eveii prayers and
church scrviccs. Siiictly spccikiiig, signal driiiiiiiiiiig docs noi rcpresciií spcccli;ncvcrtliclcss,tlic
different styles ofdrumming serve to convey different traditionally recognizable messages or burden
texts.Thus, among the Bahaya people, for instance, signal drumming at a rapid tempo denotes an
17
emergency; a lower tempo, bui in the same style, denotes a tion-eiiiergcncy,such as a call to a
meeting. Drumming to mark tlic N e w Moon, an iinportaiit occasion iii the traditional religion,has
a coinpletcly tlií'íicrciit siylc.I ,iiicwisc,Clirisiiíin driiiiiiiiiiig calliiig pcoplc io prayers is rccognizably
diffcrciit iii stylc.
Becaiisc sigiial druiiiiiiing is culture bound and lias recognizable codes which all the people
in the given cultural setting rccogiiizc,such druiiiiiiing has teiidcd to be iiitcrpreted verbally, so that
in time a certain style ofdrumiiiiiig gets associated with a given verbal utterance or formula (Nketia's
"burden text" and 'liiiotto"). For instaiice, the Catholic church drumining among the Bahaya in
Tanzania calling the faithful to daily afternoon prayers carries the following tag:
Waitu hnlyeleíu
Waitu balyelela, halyeleta, bcrlyeleta
Abashonii hcr1)~eleicr...
Sir,they will coine voluntarily
Sir,they will come voluntarily,voluntarily,voluntarily
The believers will come voluntarily
'The interprctaîioii is ;i cynical o1,scrv:iiioii on tlic liici that the cliiirclics no longer iiecd to bcg pcople
to become convci'tsas they uscd lo do iii the past, îor n o w it is the people who arc begging to be
accepted by the cliiirch! lndeccl tiines have changed!
Another example from the Bahaya. In the past, every king had his official drum,and every
royal appointce to ai adniiiiistrative post was given a drum by tlie king as an emblem ofoffice.Each
such drum liad its recognized "beat" or theme,different from that of the other drums. Hence,before
sending any message, their drummers would start by beating out the particular beat of the given
official,so that cvcrybody would know that the message is coining from such and such a chief or
headman. As usual,tliesc special themes were given formulaic verbal tags. For instaiice,the drum
of King Kitekere of Kyainutwara (around Bukoba town,c. 1820-1860)had the following tag:
A kalnfa-Kcishonùa-A kirleikciita
- The-Litile-Oiic-tliat-Would-Die-Pecks-At-Its-Would-be-Killer
'l'lie "Little Oiies"arc, oi'course,the various kings that darecl to raid Kitekere'srealm. Thus, by
"pecking"at him,thcy prcparcd tlic ground for their o w n destiwtion.
Similarly,I'rincc: I¿arutasigwu (later King Mutahangarwu 1903-1916)of Kiziba had a drum
with the following beat:
Mwunn-alile-naishe-Ageijageija
- 'The-Child-'ïhut-Eats-With-His-Father-Prospers
18
This alludes to the history of Kiziba. Karutasigwa was then (1 890's)a Cliicf (Mwaini) of Kanyigo.
His elder brother,Rweshabula, revolted against his father,Mutatcnibwa,in a bid to usurp the throne,
but Karutasigwa,as the iiaiiic of his Drum suggcsts,sided with his father against Rwcshabiila. As
a result,lie iiilieritcd tlic tlironc after his fdier'sdcatli--hcate with his íiitlier and prospered.
Such formulasexpressed in a concrete way the perceivcd aspirations or vision of the owners
of those drums,apart from serving as identification tags.
We suspcct that signal drumming exists iii most southern African cultures; unfortunately
serious research,as far as w e are aware,is yet to be iindertakeii in any of the societies.
With regard to spcccli druniining,Nketia (ibid) explains that it correspondsto and represents
the spoken word. lhnegan (1 970:483-4)adds that speech-druiiiiiiingis a form of "writing",and that
it suits well the African tone languages.This view is also held by Chernoff (1 979). These scholars
demonshate that spcecli druiiimiiig soinetiiiicsconveys poctic or litcrnry picccs and messages. It is
such picccs tlial ~irckiiowii us druiii litcruturc.
Such drum literature has been reported among several West African societies,such as the
Akan of Gliana,and the Yoruba ofNigeria;and also among sonie groups in the Congo (Zaire). So
far there is no information regarding the existence of speech drumming in Tanzania,or in southern
Afiica generally,though this may be due to lack of adequate research rather than non-existenceof
the art form.This is,thus, a virgin field that scholars,especially inusicologists, need to investigate.
2.3 UTILIZATION
Utilization of oral traditions depends veiy much on the type aiid context. Tlius a song may be used
for entertainment,acclamation or facilitation of a given activity,depending on the context.A story
can be both entertaining and educative,und so on.On the whole, w e can say in general terms that
oral traditions arc usually iitiiiï.cd for tlic followiiig íiiiictioiis:
-
Education and information: they record and preserve the collective knowledge and
information of the given society,and impart the sanie to the audience;
Apprehension of recrfity: they make the audience awnre of its socio-cultural and natural
environment and needs,and how to survive in it;
Molding ofcharacter: this is done through teaching on right and wrong, and affirmation of
moral values and ethics;
Criticizing society: this is done in order to correct evils and wrong doing;
Protest: Wronged or oppressed parties use oral literaturc to protest about their station in life;
Sunctioning:Ccrtaiii oral forms,e.g. myths aiid official histories,serve to sanction or legalize
the status quo,and pass on the accepted or ruling ideology;
Acclunzution: This instils the values of bravery, patriotism,etc.
Fucifituíion:Sonie songs serve to facilitate a given activity,such as work,play, a march, a
gaine,a battle, etc.
19
-
-
Lnlerlniiirncnf:‘Hiisis a common function of almost al I oral traditions,especially orature.
Szr.s(encrnce:Some artists,particularly these days,use oral traditions to earn their living;oral
perforniuncc is tlicir sole or main occupation. In csliuic cíiscs, this lias led to rabid
coniiiicrciíili zíilioii oI’ oríil pcrlorniniiccs.
In suni, w e can say that utilization of oral traditions revolves around the twin poles of
ideology and practical needs.
2.4
Pl¿ESEl¿VATlON ANI)YEIWETUATION
Preservation aiid perpetuation oforal traditions usually go togeilier.Oral traditions are preserved in
and by Iiuniaiis aiid iiistitutioiis, using the vcliiclcs oï languagc,pcrîornmice,customs and rituals.
In the past,cliildiui iisctl to Icíirn most of thc oral traditions froiii k i r parents, relativcs and peers.
in this way, the truditions wcrc passed on Ikoiii one gciieration to anotlicr. For the more specialized
type, soinetinics prospcctivc perfornicrs liad to go throiigli a loiig pcriod of apprenticeship with a
recognized niaster. ln sonie societies,especially in West Africa, there were castes of professional
artists,such as the casted griots ofMali.
The young generation/apprentice learncd the contcnt aiid style of a given tradition,and they
in turn prcsci-vcdaiid pcrpctiiatcd it tlirougli pcrforiii;iiicc,ancl by icacliiiig others to îollow in their
steps.
Ili SOIlIc
sociclics, ll1ciu wcrc spccinl iiisLillitioils
WIlOSC
rliiiclioii il was Lo pi’cscrvc iiiid
perpetuate certain traditions through both ritual and the word of mouth.Such was the case among
the centralized kingships of the Great Lakes Region (Buganda, Rwanda, Burundi,Bunyoro,Buhaya,
etc). Thus in Buganda,every Kabaka (king) w h o died had a special shrine-cum-museumbuilt for
him,with permanent caretakers who were also specialists in the lore and history ofhis reign.Such
specialists passed on their knowledgeto their successors.This WS an institutional way ofpreserving
and perpetuating royal traditions.
Traditions that arc associated with certain institutionsuiicl rituals,such as initiation,marriage,
kingship,religion,etc.are normally preserved and perpetuated through enactment ofthe related rites
and rituals. That is why the destruction of traditional institutions by colonialism and Christianity,
which is still goiiiy on,lias led to disappearance of such tradiiioiis.
These days some of the oral traditions in some of the societies are still preserved in the old
ways. Nevertheless,the societies are changing so fast that new íind modern ways ofpreserving them
need to be sought.ïliese include:Teaching some ofthein in schools and art colleges,utilizing them
us a basis of niodcrii indigenous theater and dance,re-livingtliciii on special ethic occasions,as is
currently being done by the Village Museum in Dar es Salaam,and of course,recording them on
sound tapes,videos and CD-Romfor broadcasting to the popiilace and also for preservation.
20
2.5 CONCLUSION
I his cli~ipicïIi;is siii.vcyctl I>ii!lly Ilic IllajOI~oi.:il ii~;icli~ioil;il li)i~iliS li,1iiicl ill ‘l’í\il~~iili~i,íincl cxlcndiiig
to tìic other soiitlicrii Aí’riciiii coiiiitrics. ‘lïicclinptcr lias alteniplcd to describe their evolutioii,mode
and context of occiirrence,current state,and geographical distribution within and outside Tanzania,
and niode oî preservation and perpetuation. Where possible, pertinent examples drawn from
Tanzania and otlicr couiitrics in the sub-regionliave been citecl.
(
1
The following categories, some with several sub-categories,have been identified and
discussed:
-
sayings
songs/poctry
talcs
-
oral Iiistorics
tlicatrical arts
special institutional lore,e.g.utani and speeches,and
drum lore
-
The survcy lias, iiitcr alia,revealed three things:
That Tanzania lias a rich variety of oral traditions;
That most of these traditions are also shared by the other countries in southern Africa;
That in-depth studies ofmany of these art forms,let alone comparative studies covering the
sub-regioii,have not yet been done.
From [his we csin conclude that ample scope exists for sub-regionalcooperation in research,
documeníation,tlisscmiiia~ioiiand proniotioii of this coiiiiiioii Iiciitagc.
21
C HA 1’TE K ?‘II REE
3.1 I’I\E-COLONIALANI) COLONIAL I’ERIOl>
Systematic research 011 ‘l‘aii~.aiiianoral fraditioiis hegnn in niid- 19th ccntiiry.Por instniicc,in 1870,
Bishop Edward Steere published his Swahili Tules.The missionaries and explorers who visited
Tanzania between 1850 and 1900 sometimes attempted to collect or comment on oral traditions,
though iii ail aiii:itcurisli minner (Spcke 1863;Grant 1864).
Between i 890 and 1920,rescarcli on Tanzanian oral traditions was largely carried out by
German scholarsand adniinistrators(Rtittner 1894;Seidel 1896: Kollinann 1899;Velteii 1898;I901 ;
I903 aiid 1907;Nigniann i 908;Rchsc I9 1 O). Thcse scholars,assiduous as tliey niay liave becn,were
limitcd by tlicir i m i t i objcciivc,iiuiiicly to liirtlicr tlic broad aims of the colonial stak; inadequate
knowledge ofthe local languages,lack of recording equipment (tape-recordershad not yet come into
general use), and their usiially derogatory attitude towards things African. Furthermore,analysis of
tlie lore collected by thesc scholars was usually minimal or non-existent.In a number of cases,even
the translations aiid analyscs wcrc crroncoiis (cf: Mbcle 19%). Ncverthclcss,the collcctioiis of oral
traditions,talcs aiid poetry IdAisld by tlicsc scliol~rsarc still usclid sources oîdatli.
Proin the 1 I(YOs,the lirst generation o1 local scholars began to make their contribution.Many
ofthese were either catecliists,servantsofcolonial ofíicers,or civil servants(including teachers and
administrators) in lhe colonial service (ci.Mtoro bin Mwenyi Bakari 1903;Lwamugiru 191 O). Rare
were the scholars,such as Abdallah bin Heinedi ‘IAjemniy(1 895/1962)and Hemed Abdallah elBuhry (I 895)w h o were independent of the church and the colonial state.
Recording of traditional music was also iindcrtakcii by. among oilicrs:
- F r Bachmaiin: various etlinic groups, 1890s;
- Buttner,C:Zaranio aid Swahili 1903??
- Otto Deinpwolflk:Sanduwc and Zaramo, 191O
- Mattner:various groups, 1909
-- Carl
Meinhoc Bondci 1902-3
Paasche:Kiziba, 191 O
- Rehse, H:Kiziba, 1 91 O
- Schwartz:Zinza, 1906
- Captain Scyfricd: various groiips, 1906-09
- Uhlig: Nyamwezi, 1910
- Velten,C:Swahili 1890s
22
B~ tile elidor liic (;ci~iiiíiii
coioiii~ii I~crioci, rescarcii
0 1 1 iOcai
ol.il~ traciitio1is
ilnti iiiiiiiilg~d
to
cover the following areas:
Aspects of Kiswnliili oral Iiícrnliire, iisiially from an iiiiiliroliological pcrspcctivc (cï,Mtoro
biii Mwiiiyi 13iili;ii.i 1003; íiiicl Vclícii 1808, I003 iiiid 1007;13iittiicr 1894).
A iiuinbcr oí'local liistories,niytlis and legciicls, usually I ~ s c don oral traditions (cl: Abdallah
bin Hemedi 1895;Seidel 1896;Niginann 1908;Rehse and Lwamugira 191 O).
Sonie collections of oral tales and sayings (Steere 1870;Velten 1898;Velten i 907).
Coliectioiisoc songs from various iaiiguages,sonictinics with musical aiiiiotatioiis (cf. Relise
1910).
r~illity;
'riic CoiicctcCi iiiiitci.iiii
iiuti littic c)r
iiliiiiysis;tilc t i ~ o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ wcI'c
~ i l ~ t i o ~ ~ ~
sometimes the original text (in the local language) was not included in the published version;and
it is possible that some of the material was doctored. Nevertheless, these early efforts to collect
Tanzanian oral lraditioiis arc still valuablc as soiirccs of cluta for comparison rind analysis.
Unlòrtuiiately,most of tlie material collected at tiiat tiinc eiidcci up iii European Iioiiics aiid archives,
and are not easily accessibic to iiiodcrii 'I'aiizanian researchers.
Alter the defeat ofGerniany in World War 1, thc Gerniaii researchers were replaced by British
or British-sponsored researchers,in addition to an increasing niiiiiber ofresident missionary scholars
(usually French, Gcrnian, English and Swedish). Many of thcse were interested in language and
anthropology,and had little or no interest in oral literature.A í'cw showed some interest in Kiswahili
written literature (cf. Werner 1926;Hiclieils 1941 ; Harries 1962).
European scholnrs who dealt with oral traditions (apart ïroin mere collectors of folktales)
were not that many. Missionaries such as Césard (1930s)and Dannholz (1989) dealt with oral
literatures as poiiitcrs to the world views oftlie "pagan" w h o m tlicy wanted to convert. A iiuiiibcr
of scholars referred to oral literature data by way of illustrating language or anthropological aspects
(Sacleaux 1939;Cory (various papers 1930-1960);Whiteley 1958). Musicologists also became very
activc at his timc. For iiistaiicc,tiic South Aîricaii iiiiisicologisí. 1 lugli 'ïracey uiidcrtook a recording
tour of Tanzanian music in i 949-50.His records naturally included much oral traditional data,
especially songs,sung legends and epics ('l'racey i 952;i 973). Ihifòrtunately,this wealth ofmaterial,
ciirrciitiy said to be depositcd iii tiic Intcriiritioiial Library or Arricali Music, m
i in tlic Rodcpoort
Library,both in Transvaal,South Africa,has never been seriously studied froin a literary standpoint.
Also in this period niore local scholars in oral literature haditions emerged (cf. Abdulrahman
1939; Farsy S.S i958 and 1984;Kitereza 1945í1980;Lwamugira 1949). These usually selfsponsored researchers achieved much, given the limited resources at their disposai. 'ïliey collected
songs,tales,histories,legends,sayings and riddles,published soine, but left the rest in manuscript
form. Such collections also need to be studied by scholars.
N e w music recordings, both audial and cinematographic, were made during the British
period. Examples:
23
- Cory,1-1 :
- Tracey,1-1:
- Farcy,M.S:
- I cllrilil. E.W,::1
- Wciii:iii,I.'l I:
- Others:
,.
Shambara,Sukiiina,Zigula 1930-1940
Mniiy ctliiiic groups 1950
Swahili 1958
lllll~llllgc,s~lll~l~lwc,
Swuliili 1058-O6
I Iiiyíi,Siikuiiiii, Swí1liili 1 O57
e.g. I<ecordingsol'popular niusic by I3i.Kand Suuli yu Dur es Sulaum radio
stations (I 930-1960)
Clearly, the colonial period did not witness spectacular research in the oral traditions of
Tanzania.The little research that was undertaken was ad hoc and subsidiary to other disciplines,such
as anthropology and linguistics.More serious and systematic research in oral traditions had to await
the post-colonial "back-to-theroots" initiatives.
3.2 AFTER 1NI)El'ENI)ENCE
Current, i.e. post-colonial,rcscarcli in Tanzaiiian oral tradilioiis may best be discussed under the
following categories:
-
-
-
sayings
so1lgs/l>o"L'y
tales
oral histories
theatrical arts
special institutional lore
drum literature
3.2.1 Sayings
The category "sayings" includes proverbs,riddles,puzzles/eniginas,puns and cryptonyins.Research
in this area has focused on collection of proverbs and riddles (cf. Parker 1970;Seite1 1972;Omari
1971,1976;Farsi 1984;Portmann 1977;Nestor 1978;Msuya 1079;Kalugila and Lodhi 1980;TUKI
1976;1977;1982;'I'AKI1,UKI 1983;Mridiiinulla 1995).
Very liti IC ;iiinlysis of tlie collccted sayings iiiid riddlcs lins so far been attcmptcd (I'arkcr
1970;Seitei 1972;Msuya i 979;Madumulla 1995). Thus,while collection of more sayings needs
to be undertaken,especially from the ethnic groups that have not yet been covered,greater focus
should be placed on documentation and analysis of the abundant collections currently available in
l ~ ~ ~ ~ sOr,
vnriolis'ríii1za1li:in iIi.ciiivcsaiici ilistittItio1is, slici1 ;Is tiic IKR,i.~iost:1tiol1s, I ~ ~ l ~ s c SCIIOOIS
art aiid ~IiurciilibrUries/archivcs.
3.2.2 Songsll'octiy
Research on oral songs and poetry has largely concentrated on lyrics and ditties (Jahadhmy et al.
1966;Ndiiliite 1077;Kokwijuka 1983;Mwakasaka 1978;Khatib 1992).Political songs have also
24
received attention (Songoyi 1988). Laudatory poetry,especially self-praise poetry (mqjigambo)has
been widely studied (cf. Kaiiena 1975a;Kazooba 1977;Kitemanio 1977;Ishenioi 1978;Gabakaina
1980;Riibnnzi 1994).l3iit I;iciliíaiivc soiigs. siicli ;ISwar songs :iiitl work soligs, niid iiiaicliiiig SOII~S,
1i:ivc IioilJly bccii Loliclictl; llic cXcc(~lioi1al'c llic cI1iItlrcii's plíly soilgs,wliicli havc rcccivcd SOIllC
treatnient ('ïAKII,UI~I
1983).
Another glaring lacuna in our study ofTanzanian oral poetry pertains to the study ofnarrative
poetry, including epics. Ever sincc Finnegail (1 970:108-11 O) declared that the epic does not seem
to occur in sub-Saharanoral literature,scholars from all over flic world have attempted to refute her
asscrtion by ~indcrtakiiigficld rcscarcli on tlic African epic (ßird 1974;Okpewho 1979 and 1992;
tlic local scene,only Kai-jage(1 977),Elofíinann (1 986); Mulokozi (1 987),and
Johnson 1986). 011
Seite1 (forthcoiniiig) have attempted to study the oral epic.Exccpting Mbele,all these scholars have
studied lhe epics 01' tlic 13nlinya of Kogciu region. Mbclc lias sliidiccl tlic Liyongo epic tradition of
the Swahili,and the Sukuma "epics" of Mwanza region. Epics believed to occur in other parts of
Tanzania (Ruziiiza.I Jkerewc. lriiiga. ctc) have not yet been collected or studied.Obviously,the epic
is an area that should be urgciiíly and scriously addressed,sincc we know iiext to nothing about its
occurrence in most parts ol"I'anzaiiia.Moreover, tlie cvidciicc lioiii Kagera region indicates that the
epic tradition is list dying out.
Tales,especially folktales, have been widely collected and studied since independence (Knappert
I 970;Oniari 1971; Rwechuiigura 1972;Kitambi 1973;Mallya 1975;Mvungi 1975;Mbele 1977;
TUKI I 977;Kamera 1978;Kamera and Mwakasaka 1981 ; Seite1 1980;TAKILUKI 1983;Sengo
1985;TUKI 1993;Seiikoro 1996;etc.)
-
One special category oftales,however, has not been adcquately covered by researchers the
category of inyths and legends (cl', Chard 1930s;Ikoinbc 1943;Fosbrooke 1958;Sclunidt 1977).
ïïicsc iiiytliologicul aiid sciiii-liistoriculiiarrativcs Iiuvc citlici.bccii igiiored or shallowcd trcated,
though they probably occur in all the l'anzanian ethnic groups,atid tend to embody the way the group
views itselfvis-a-visother groups,and the traditional perspective regarding life and existence.Hence
more than any othcr, tlicsc tales have an abiding influence OJIthe way the people think,live and act.
They nccd to be seriously studied.
3.2.4 Oral Histories
Oral histories have been widely collected and studied by historians as sources of historical
information.Vansina's (1 961 and 1985)theories of interpretationoforal testimonieshave been made
use oï sonie oï tlic scliolars. Iiidccd almost a11 writleii history of prc-colonial aid cven curreiit
Tanzaniansocieties was largely based on oral testimonies,given the dearth or absence of written or
published materials. Material on oral histories may be categorized into two types:
(a)
Works that record oral testiinonies more or less as given by tlie sources with little or no
additions or interpretation by the researcher. Major works in this category include the
25
following:Abdallali bin J-Icnicd‘IAjjcriiy 1895/1962;Lwaiiigira 191 O and 1949;Cory,n.d.;
Mwaruka 1965; Malaiigalila 1987;and Musso 1968.
Theatrical arts,in ihc form 01’ dances,drainas and rituals. havc bceii studied by a number of theater
arts scholars (Kaduiiia 1972;Mlania 1973; 1983 and 199 1 ; Hussein 1975;Muhando na Balisidya
1976;Mbogo 1984;Lilianiba 1985).Most of the theater arts scholars are also theater practitioners,
and have put their tlieoretical knowledge to practical use in their dramatic creations.Yet,in spite of
thcsc coiiiiiicndablc cfforls, 11icstudy ofTanzaniaii theairical foriiis is sii11 inadequate. Iiidccd most
ofthe studies Iiavc tended to focus on written or improvised niodcrn drama and to ignore the more
abundant traditional clrainatic forms that accoinpaiiics local ritiids, ccrcnionies, funerals,etc. This
agaiii, is tin area tliut nccds to bc addressed.
3.2.6 Spccial Iiistilutioiial Lorc
‘llicsc arc oral aiid pxhriiicd art I’oriiis ticcl to traditional iiistiliitioiis.As staled in cliaptcr two,h e y
include Iòrnis such LIS z//utii (joking relationship) lore, aiid llic~ilrical-ciiiii-ritiia1ïoriiis associated
with iiistitutions siicli 11siiii tialioii, kingship, courtship, religion. war,iron snicltiiig,ctc.Tlic survival
of such forms ultiinutely depends on the survival of the institutions they are associated with.
Naturally,studiesof such lore have usually been part ofanthropological studies,and are often hidden
away somewhere in anthropological and ethnographical works. Examples of such works are:
Nigmann 1908;Rclisc 191 O; Cory 195 1 ; Yongolo 1953;Read 1 956;Wilson 1958;Sengo and Lucas
1075; Schmidt 1977.Such works are, thus, relevant for oral iradition studies and should not be
ignored, ror tlic art IOriiis they describe can best be iiiiderstootl in tlic context of such institutions.
3.2.7 Druin Litcriiliirc
According to Nltctiu (1963:17), tlicrc arc ilucc Itiiids oTAfiicaii druiiiiiiiiig:signal druniiiiing,speech
drumming,and dance druiniiiiiig. In this section w e are coiiccriicd only with signal drumming and
speech drumming.
The drum literature of West Africa and parts of Congo-Zairehave been somewhat studied
by spcci:ilists. Riit :IS fir as w c arc a w x c no siich siiidics Iiavc bccn iiiiclcrinltcii in Taiizíiiiia,and
possibly iii other Soutlicrii African couiitrics. 1 Iciicc w c do iiol kiiow for sure wliethcr soilie of the
Tanzanian ethnic groups do have speech drumming, although we do know that most of them have
signal driimmiiig.‘This,thcn,is a virgin field that scholars arc yct to iiivestipted.
26
3.3 CONCIJUSION
we Cil11 conCllidc 1lliS discussioli by s¿iyiiig tIiíi1 COlOiiiíil l~cscai~cliill 'I'rillzuiiiíili Oi¿iI l1ï1tlilions was
very Iiiiiitcd aiid sclcctivc; tlic ciiipliasis was oli tliosc gciii'cs m
l íoriiis that liad a bcaiiiig on the
needs ofthe colonial statc,including the missionary enterprise.After independence,more extensive,
but as yet hardly intensive, research on almost all forms of oral traditions has been done. What
remains to be done n o w is to carry out more field research on those genres and societies that are yet
to be r~scarclicd,monitor thc proccss of changc in thc docuniciitcd arcas and gcnrcs,proccss and
analyze and preserve the masses of data collected to date, and disseminate the results.
27
CHAPTER FOUR
POLICY A N D LEGAL ISSUES
4.0 I N'I'ROI) U C'ïlON
ïanzania had no written cultural policy before 1997.However, she did have a fairly consistent
cultural policy bnscd on spccclics, statcinciits aiid clcclarations iiiiiclc Troni tinic io tiiiic by 1lic ruling
party aiid its leaders,aiid the practice einaiiating from such j~ronounceiiieiits.
Judging from such
statements,we can surmise that Tanzania's cultural policy after independence in 1 961 was premised
on two poles,viz.:nationalism and Ujcrmaa (socialism).
Cultural iialionalisiii
Nationalism had two aspccts: tlic cultural ancl the j~oliiical-ccoiioiiiic.
was undcrstood in terms of returning to thc roots, rcjcctiiig tlie colonial notions that denied the
African'sIiiiinaiiity,claiming that tlic African was a savage who had notliing woi-thwhile to show and
no coiitributioii to inakc to tlie world bclore the wliitc nian came. 'I'anzanians were urged to take
pride in their traditional culture,and io reject unbridled westernization.In practice, this translated
into efforts to revive and promote the positive elements OC the traditional cultures,such as the arts
(songs,dances,stories,sculpture,etc), thc dresses,thc cuisine,vnrious ciisíonis and rituals,etc. llic
polilical aspcct of this iiutioiialisiii cmpliasizctl tlic íixging of ;i unitary natioii Troni tlic 120 c h i c
groups that constituted thc l'anzanian socicty. It was fclt that initially unity could be built on
diversity, and that gradually tlic difíkrciit peoples would incrge into a single society with one
language and essentially one culture. This iclca was put into practice through policy actions,
especially: Making Kiswahili the national language in 1962,aiid its promotion as the language of
most aspects of the national life,including primary education,politics,administration,commerce,
and religion; "natioiializatioii" of selected positive eleiiientc in the ethnic cultures, e.g. certain
dances,customs,types of dress,and arts (e.g.Makoiide sculpture); creating a legal framework for
these activities,and finally establishing parastatal bodies to oversee and promote cultural activities.
As rcgards Ujaniau, [lie idca w u s to crcatc an cgalituriaii society in wliicli people would work
together and share tiiorc or Icss cqually tlic fruits of tlicir labor,and in wliicli tlic state would own
or control the "commanding heights" oftlie economy, such as infrastructures and heavy industries.
On tlie cultural level,the Ujamaa idea translated into literacy Lor all,universal primary education,
and a certain reorientation of cultural content aiid practiccs to emphasize Ujaniaa values, and
attempts to reorganize production and dissemination of the arís in a 'kocialistic"way.
'l'lieabuiidoiinient of Ujaniaa aller 19ü5 necessitated ii reorientation of'cultura1 policy and
practice,culminating in the issue ofa well-elaborated cultural policy document,Sera yu Ilfamuduni,
in 1997. This, then, is the background against which w e shall review the policy and legal
developments pertaining to promotion ofthe oral traditions in Tanzania in the recent past.
28
4.1 POLICIES VIS-A-VISOliAL THA1)IIIONS ANI) LANGUAGES
As stated above,the starling point \vas,firsily, ;Ircliirii lo die i.oots, a rcasscrlioii of Ilic value and
worih of' things Af'rican.Sccondly,íiic ornl tratlitioiis aiid langiiagcs,likc otlier cultural elements,
were expected to serve as building blocks tor the new nation and national identity.Thirdly,they had
to serve the ideal of Ujamaa.
In a way,the government was unconsciously trying to bridge the gap between the two parallel
cultiires existing in Tanzania - the rural,traditional but changing culture,and the urban, westernoricntcd aiid coniiiicrcializcd culturc.
However, beíòre tlie oral traditions could be so utilized,they needed to be revived,known
and documented.Hence from tlic 1960sresearch and documentation of the oral traditions in various
ethnic groups was encouraged.A rcsearch unit was in fact created within the Ministry responsible
lor culture to ovcrsee this activity.'lïic unit survivcd until tlic late 1980s.
Oral traditions becaine an iinportant clcincnt in the school curricula.Knowledgeable elders
wcre invited into primary schools to teach oral arts siicli as poetic recitations,songs,and dances. A
subject known as "fasihi siniulizi" (oral literature) was introduced from the primary level through
secondary schools to the University. At the University of Dar es Salaam,oral literature became a
major subject from 1970,and the instruction was accompanied by individual research by students
during their holidays. As a resiilts, m u c h oral data was ~011c~tcd
and documented, and is now
available at the University. ln subjccts such us history aiid sociology,oral historiography becaine
accepted as a valid science,and from the sixties,niaiiy University of Dar es Salaani scholars based
tlicir Iiistorical researches on oral traditions (cî. Gwassa, Kiniumbo, Katoke, etc.).
ï h e radio stations iiitrodiiccd folklorc progranis 1Or both childrcii aiid adults. Foi. iiistancc,
Radio 'Tanzania Dar es salaam'liad "Asilia Salaam''(Greetings with traditional music), 'Watoto
Wctu" (our cliildren,included storytelling aiid riddling for cliildrcii); " M a m a na Mwana" (focused
on storytelling for cliildrcii), ctc.
In the villages and townships,tlie people wcrc encouraged to appreciate and perform the
traditional lore. Daiicc groups sproulctl cvcrywlicrc.Artists'coinpetitioiis aiid îestivals wcre held,
and the winners were soinetimes rewarded.Even the churches finally accepted traditional drumming
and singing during service,conietliiiig wliicli was unheard oî before independence.
With regard to languages, the policy recognized Kiswahili as the national and official
language,and the other local languagesas community Ianguagcs and possible sources ofvocabulary,
oriiturc, etc. for eiirichincnt of Kiswahili. I3iglish was rccogiiized as an iiiiportant foreign aiid
educational language.I-Icncc,K iswaliili bccamc tlic innin langiiagc oî parliament and govcriiniciit
from 1962,and the sole medium of primary education from 1968.
The new cultural policy esscntially continues the policy described above;the only difference
is hat the policy is n o w formally articulated in writing. I<egarcling oral traditions,the policy,after
29
dumping them rill together undcr theatrical arts (sLinm zn rrzaonyesho), and acknowledging their
iiiiportaiice in a non-literate ciivironiiieiit,procecds to state measures to be taken by various bodies
to proinotc tlicni, including:
(;clliiig iii~Ii~liClSíì)r
-
iii'l
~"'"'llicls;
Iiiicoiiraging artists to participate in cultural I'csiivals;
Including tlie said arts in tlic school curricula;
I? ncoLIragiIl g csLab I i SI1 i iig or ar1i sli c ;lssoci ;1 L i 011s;
Instituting a system of rewarding outstanding national artists;
Promotion of cultural industries;
Encouraging the establishment of theaters and exhibitions halls, etc.
Unfortunately,the policy does not say iniicli about researching, documenting,utilizing and
perpetuating the oral traditions per se in various splicres or lile.
O n the question of language,the new policy gocs íiirtlicr than tlie old one by:
(a)
Calling for research in,and documentation of,the ethnic languages;
(13)
Proposing adoption of Kiswahili as tlic nicdiuiii oîcducntion in secondary schools and higher
cducation. I Iowcvcr,it docs not say whcii iiiiplciiiciiiaiioii of the decision should start.
'l'o conclude, 'ïaiiziiiiiri's policy on oral traditions aiicl languagcs was and still is geared
towards revival,promotion and dissemination of the positive aspects ofthe heritage,and indirectly
removing the rural-urban,African-western,dichotomy.It also aims at making the arts contribute to
the economy of the country. Finally,it gives the pcople the right to practice and promote their arts
without necessarily relying on the state.In effect,it privates and,to some extent,commercializes,
artistic endeavors. W e shall n o w review briefly how that policy is being practiced.
4.2 LEGISLATION PERTAINING TO ORAL TRADITIONS ANI)LANGUAGES
There are several legislations pertaining to oral traditions and languages.The principal legislation
is,oí'~ourse,thc Coiistitutiuii of tlic Uiiitcd I<cpublic of Tanzania.
Quite intcrestingly,'I'aiizaiiia's Coiistitutioii of 1977,rc-issiicdwith u number ol'mieiidiiiciits
in i 998,makes no mention of languages, traditions and culture. The only ''cultural'' matters
mentioned are tlic citizciis' right to "education1'and "Treedoin of worship." This is contrary to the
normal pructicc iii a iiuiiibcr of otlicr couiitrics,which Iiavc clnuscs regarding Ilnatioiial iaiiguagc",
"national culture","language rights" included in their constitutions.It is by no means clear whether
this omission was an "oversight" or a deliberate act. On the other hand, that Constitution made
history in that it was originally written in Kiswahili,thereby promoting,practically and symbolically,
tlic usc of the national language in tlie legal sphere.
30
In additioii to thc Constitiition, which clocs not say iiiiythiiig about oral traditioiis and
languages,the following legislations sccni to bc rclcvant:
I.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
1 O.
'l'lieNntioniil Musciiin Ac1 of 1962,21saiiicntlccl in 1980;
The Library Serviccs Board Act 1963/Tanzania Library Services Board Act 1975
'l'lie Antiquities Act of 1964,as amended in 1979 and 1991.
ïïie National Archives Ac1 of 1965,as uiiiended iii 1979;
The Copyright Act of 1966 (now being reviscd);
?'he National Swahili Council Act of 1967,as amended in 1983;
'lïic University of i h r es Salaam Act of 1970;
'l'lievarious UDSM instiíiilcsand dcpattiiiciiís dcnliiig with oral traditions,incliicliiig the IKR
aiid tlic Kiswaliili Dcpartment,wci'calso cstablished Linder the Act;
The Filiiis and Stagc Plays Cciisorship Board Act of i '176;
'l'lieZanzibar Kiswaliili Couiicil Act of 1983;
'l'lic Nalioiinl Arts Couiicil Act of 1984;
Otlicr tclcvaiit legislalion iiot directly dculiiig with tiic arts aiicl laiiguagcs are:
11.
13.
-
13.
14.
15.
-
-
The Education Act of 1978;
The Appellate Jurisdiction Act of 1979;
Rules made under this act provide for the language of the Appeal Court to be either
Kiswaliili or English, though the Court's decision lias to be written in Englisli.
ïlie Magistrates Court Act of 1984;
Provides fòr tlie proceedings and the records of tlie Magistrates Court to be in either English
or Kiswaliili; and those of the I'riinary Courts to bc in Kiswahili.
An Act to Regulate the Video Dusiness aiid to Providc for Connccted Matters of 1988;
Acts establishing:
The Tanzania Fihi Coiiipaiiy
'l'lie Audio-Visuíil Instit iitc
I<aclio 'I'uilzai~iU Ilar cs Sillllillll,ctc.
4.2.1 Criticism of so~iicof tlic 1;iws
Most oí'the abovc laws deal with languages and oral traditions only iiicidentally,if at all, as that is
not their iiiain focus.Four acts are, however,more directly relevant to languages and oral traditions.
These are:
1. 'l'lieNational Archives Act I965
2.'Thc Copyrighi Act 1966
3.Nie National Swahili Council Act 1967
4.The National Arts Couiicil Act 1984
These will be discussed in more detail below.
31
ïïie NriiiorrtrlArchives Act of 1965
AccorclIiig to tliis Act, tlic nationnl Archives is s~ipposc"c,
inter alia,to preserve "...writtenrecords,
i~ccorclscoiivcyillg iilli~rnl~ilioil/yw y IIIeL/Il.F i l ~ / ~ ~ / / ~ ~ l ~ ~ ~ / , . , . l('illy cnipliasis). 'l-llisniay Coiicciviibly bc
iiilcrprcicd to iiiciiii tlint imsci.vuiioiiof'ord tixlitioiis MISwitliiii iis arca o1'~oiiipetcnce.So íàr tlic
Niitioiiril Archives has not prcscrvcd many soiincl records; howcver,they do have hundreds of files
dating l i m i Gcriiiaiiy tiiiics which rccord aiid clociimcnt the oiul traditions and culliira1 practices o[
various Tanzanian ethnic groups.To that extent the National Archives is involved in preservation
o1' oral traditions.
lhe CopyriglitAct 1966
This Act offers protection,for between 20 aiid 25 years, to a wide range of materials, including:
- I,¡ terary works
- Musical works
- Aïlistic WO~I<S
- Cincmatograpliic filins and photographs
- Souiid iccordiiigs
- 13roadcasts
~~Ioviclccl
that "the work hris bccn writien clown,rccordcci or otherwise reduced to inaterial form."
1ii priiiciple, tlierelbre, recorded oral traditions, in the l'orni of sound or cinematographic
recordings,are protected.Since most oral traditions arc:never recorded in that form,it seems obvious
.thatthe bulk of the oral traditions are not protected. In other words, anyone can imitate,copy,
ineinorize,improvise and perform them without any hindrance, so longer as he/she is not copyiiig
a recorded cassette.
Lvcii wlicii recorded,it is not certain whether the copyriglit will belong to the artist or to the
rccording studio or person. W e know from practice that very often copyright in such recordings
bcloiigs to the recording person or institution,which iisually has no formalagreement with the artist,
and does not pay liim/hcrany royalties.
now being revised.One hopes that the new act will take care of these
This act is,~or~uiilitcly,
sliortcoiiiings,in addi lion lo catering for new developments in iiiformatics,iiicluding ï'.V and vidco,
CI>-Roiii,
Inierncí,clc.
The Nutioiial Swrhili CouricìlAct I967
This :ici spclls oiii flic ftiiiclioiis or RAKITA, wliicli iiiiiy bc siiniiii;irixccl ils proiiiotioii ;iiicl
coordination of Kiswaliili and its usage throughout Tanzania.The Act makes no specific mention
oí'oral traditions,and is actually oriented towards written Kiswahili. BAKITA'Spractice so far has
also not exhibited any serious concern for oral traditions.
32
The N(itioria1Arts Corincil Act 1984
'l'liis is tlic iiiost iiclvaiicccl Act lion1 tlic poiiit ol'vicw oí'~~roiiiolioii
ol'oral triiclitioiis.In Claiisc 2,
tlic Act dclincs clcurly wliat is nicant by "Arts".1)cliiiitioiic (b) aiid (c) secm to include oral
traditions,among other things:
(b)
iiiusic which niay be vocal,instrumental,recordcd or written composition and which
includesjuzz bands,taarab music, choir,orclicstral brass iiiusic,fuIk music, nzusicd
ropr/oire,t/trncin,q.opera or play writing (my emphasis).
(c)
tlicatcr and drama,which consists of stage crali aiid design, costuiiie design, make
up ornamentations and accessories,dance and choreography,audio-visualeffects,
circus iiiiiiie,aiid acrobatic perforiiiaiiccs.
II is clcar froin tlic above quotes that certain types of oral traclitions,especially music, dance and
cIi*mii, could bc subsumed iii thcsc definitions. I Iciice,BASATA is tlicorctically duty bound to
~ii~oiiiotctlic oral truclihms of tliut typc.I Iowcvcr,onc iiotcs tliiit otlicr types of oral trnditioiis, sucli
as narratives,oral histories,folktales and sayings,might arguably be beyond BASATA'Scompetence
as stipulated in these sections.Furthermore,these "definitions"appear to emphasize performance
aiid foIin aid to igiioic contciit.
As far as fiinclions are concerned,tlie Act stipulates,in Clause 4 (a), that BASATA will be
expected to:
assuine rcspoiisibility for tlic revival aiid to proiiiotc devclopinciit aiid production of
artistic works including tlie productioii and lise of indigenous and traditional inusical
iiistruiiients, songs,poetry,and traditional daiiciiig with a view of (sic) reviving and
promoting 'I'anzuiiian culture.
Again,the emphasis here is on poetry,song and daiicc;otlier arcas oforal tradition do not appear to
í'caturc.'I'lius evcn our most advanccd Act is also waiitiiig as a tool of promotion of oral traditioiis.
4.3 I M 1'L EM ENTAï'1ON
Policies are made to be implemented,and laws are enacted to be executed. This section reviews
briefly the approach and actions oftlie Tanzanian government in implemeiitiiig the policies and laws
CI i scussccl ;ibovc.
Broadly stated,the implementation strategy of the Tanzanian governinent was, until quite
rcccntly, largely statist. It was envisioned that tlic stale and its organs would spearliead the
iinpleinentation ofthe policies and laws pertaining to promotion oforal traditions.Accordingly,from
tlic lC)6Os, niaiiy parastatal organizations were created to carry oiit the task. The major ones are the
Iollowing:
33
DATE ESTAB LISI-IED
O RüANIZA1'1ON
Ministry of Ciiltiire
I I istitutc 01.Kiswulii I i I<cscurcli
N iit i oniil I< iswrih i I i Counci I (13 A KiTA)
National Dance Troupe
Ilcprirtiiiciitof I<iswaliiIi,1 JIXM
The National Village Museuin
University of Dar es Salaam
Inst. of Kiswahili aiid Foreign Languages (TAKILUKI)
13:iganioyo Collcgc of Arts
Niitioiinl Arts Coiiiicil
Zanzibar Kiswaliili Council (BAKIZA)
1962
1964
1967
1960s
1968
1960s
1970
1978
1980
1985
1986
'I'his was in addition to institutions that existcd before independence,such as the National
Miisciiin aiid thc Zanzibar MIISCLII~~.
Some of these institutions did inuch to create,promote and disseminate cultural creations.
For iiistaiice,the IKR carried out research on language and litcrature,wrote dictionarics, published
journals,and prcpiircd languagc and li tcraturc teaching iiiatcrinls.BAKITA ovcrsuw tlic systciiiulic
dcvclopiiiciit 01' Kiswaliili as IL iiiodcrn luiigiiagc, aiid coordiiiatcd aiicl slandardizcd tlic ncw
tcriiiiiiology.'I'AKII ,UKIhiis il good progrim oí'rcscarcli iii %iiiiy,ibaroral traditions donc by hoth
iiistruciors and studciiis (sec Appciidix C).Soiiic of tlic rcsults oí'tlic icscurcli Iiavc bccii publishcd
iii book forin (cf. TAKILUKI 1983). The National Dance Troupe learned and then disseminated
traditional dances from various ethnic groups;when it was disbanded in the i 970s,some ofits artists
bccanic tcacliers at the Bagaiiioyo College of Arts, and others set up dance troupes of their own,
Llicrcby clisseiiiiiiatiiig tlic daiiccs uiid artistic skills to iiiore yociiig people tlirougliout 'l'anzaiiia.'ïhe
Baganioyo College of Arts has been the leading school for traditional and experiiiicntal art foriiis,
cspccially the pcrforniing arts, and in the process has produced more than 150 graduates, who
iiicliide soiiic of tlic Icudiiig 'l'aiizaniaii artists pcrlbriiiiiig at prcsciil. Many 01' the graduates became
cultui'nlaniiiiators in tlic clistricts aiid rcgioiis on Maiiilaiicl 'I'iiiiz~inia.
I'rcservaiion of intiingible ciiltiiral artifacts likc oral traditions,which thrive on perforniancc
and the word of moutli,needs special facilities.Among such facilities are theaters,coniiiiunity halls,
exlii bition and dance halls, recording apparatus and studios. and sponsorship. In Tanzania, the
govcriiiiieiit did not have u policy of building thcatcrs aiid similar facilities throughout the country.
Most existing theaters and cinemas were build by private entrepreneurs during colonial times. Thus
tlic number of ciiieina halls declined from 41 in 1966 to 36 in 1976.Today (1 999),there are even
Icss, as cvidenccd by the fornier halls that are now either periiiaiieiitly closed or have been converted
to cliurcl~csand supcriuarkcts.W itliiii Dar cs Salaaiii doiic, four Tornier cinemas (Empress,Odeon,
Starlight and Ilala Doniani I-Iall} are now uscd for other purposcs.
Moreover,theaters per se hardly cxist in Tanzania, apart from tlic two "Little Theaters" in
Ariisha and Dar cs Salaam catering for the expatriate community.Hence performances of African
34
draina aiid dance have always used niulti-purpose community halls, institutional halls (e.g. in
schools,colleges,factories) and bars.Non-commercializedperformances in the villages usually take
place in the open.
Undcr Ujaiiiaa, purastutalc uscd to sponsor tlicir o w n "c~ilturaltroupes", usually iigoina dance
groups. In this way, niaiiy groups canic iiilo king bclweeii 1967 aiid 1985.Such groups ollkred
inucli needed recreation to Tanzanians, apart from helping to spread and perpetuate and even
traiisforiii soinc of the traditional performing arts. With thc libcralizatioii and privatization of the
economy, the parastatals were either put on receivership or sold to individuals,usually foreigners.
Nccdlcss to say,the new buyers arc either not intcrcstcd or arc unwilling to support Tanzanian arts,
aiicl Iiuvc tlius discontinued sponsorship of culturnl groups. 'I'hat appcars to bc part of tlic cost of
p ri vatizat ion.
4.4 I'ROI3LEMS
'l'lieproblem of this policy were three-(old: conceptual,strategic,aiid practical. Conceptually,the
idca oî rcluriiiiig to the sourcc was soiiictimcs takcii too îiir to nican iiioviiig backwards aiid
remaining there, idier than utilizing tlie past for thc needs of'tlie present and the fiiturc. In other
words, the traditional heritage was sometimes viewed as a fossil to be preserved as and where is,
rather thaii as a living activity to be transformed.
Stratcgicslly,tlie iiiiplcinentation approach that rclicd on state organs was bound to fail as
it iiliciiíitcú ílic owncrs of'the culturcs, tlic pcoplc, í'roiii tlic iiiiplciiiciitutioti of thc policics. 'ïhc
people lost the initiative in creating,innovating and promoting their oral traditions,and became at
best ineclianical executors of government directives,and at worst mere spectators,in tlie unfolding
draina. 'Iïie situation was furtlicr exacerbated by the abolition of "chiefdoms" in 1963.These
institutioiis, whatever their faults, were in fact thc inajor píitrons of traditional cultures. Their
abolition icît a vacuiini that lias ncvcr bcen filled. 'flic result 01' all this was perpctiiation of two
parallel "traditioiial"ciilturcs - a stilled,government spoiisored one, aiid an authentic,pcoplc based
CUI Lure.
Another problems was financial.In spite ofthe rhetoric regarding the value of oral traditions
and local languages,in practice the money allotted for promotion of this heritage in the government
budget continued to decrease as the arts were accorded very low priority by the planners and most
of the politiciaiis,aiid by the World Bank and the IMF.I-Ieiicc,the good intentions were not fiilly
realized.
The current cultural policy attcmpts to address this prohlcm by giving the initiative back to
11ic pcople, so that the government and its organs will largcly iciiiaiii as coordinators and patrons.
It is too early to assess how this is working in practice,as iniplcinentatioii oî tlie new policy is only
just slnrtiiig.
Vuyo Wagi tells us that "Discussionswith various artists revealed a concern for the lack of
recogiiitioii of intellectiial property rights related to works produced and performed by them.Piracy
and 'pcrforiiiaiiccplagiarism' by both Africans and Wcstcriierc are coninion.Even in cases where
artists are remunerated, the amounts of money given are simply not coininensurate to the skill,
iiivcstiiiciit aiid cxpcrtisc of the artist" (pcrsoiinl coiiiiiiiiiiicatit,n). 'I'hisis a problciii that hopcliilly
ilic iicw Copyriglit Act will ;itldi.css.
One foretaste ofwhat may come is the festival known as "ethnic day/week".This festival is
organized annually by the Village Museum in Dar es Salaam since 1994.For each event,one ethnic
group is approached and asked to organize its festival and if necessary build or rebuild its house in
the Village Museuiii. 'The idea is to give an opportunity to thc people themselves to show and
celebrale thcir own culture,and share thcir heritage with othcr Tanzanians. So far the following
groups have alrcady held tlicir festival:
-
-
Wagogo
Wazaranio
Waiigoni
Wachagga:
Wahayd Wanyanibo:
Wamasai:
1994
1995
1995
I996
1998
1998
l'rcparations tire currently under way to hold the festivals of tlic Wamwera and the Wanyakyusa in
1909/2000.
'I'his program sccms to bc in liiic wiih thc iicw policy of giving the initiative back to the
people. So Par, tlicrc has bcen soiiic success,but also iiiaiiy problcnis,not Icast sliortagc of funds for
hosting tlic cvciit. 1 lopclully,tlic newly iiiaugurutcd 'l'aiizaniu Cultural Fund will SCI: the need to
support this important initiative. Also,it is hoped that private companies and individuals will in time
realize the importance of funding genuine cultural activities,as opposed to "pseudo-cultures"such
us soccer aiid bcauty pageants.
CONCLUSION
Tanzania's cultural policy initially contributed to revival, proiiiotioii and disseniiiiation of the
iiatioiial cultural heritage. I-Iowever,it suifercd fioin i1 statist approach which tended to alienate the
pcoplc who are tlic real owners and practitioners of that heritage. The policy laid due emphasis on
promotion of the iiational language,but ignored the oilier iiidigcnous languages.Moreover, the oral
traditioiis werc not emphasized in any ofthe government pronouncements and policy papers,though
they were recognized and promoted inpractice.Likewise,none ofthe laws pertaining to culture deal
coniprclicnsivcly with the oral traditions. The new cultural policy of 1997 rectifies some of the
sliortcoiiiiiigsiiiciiíioiicd above,aiid xkiiowlcdgcs tlic inipoitmx oïoriil traditions iii our cultural
Iiciilagc (p. 25). IIowcvcr, wlieii it conies to proposds i01 government action, it appears to
einphasizc only thc written records and the physical Iicritagc.In short,Taiizania's officialdom is yet
to articulate a clear policy on oral traditions,though it apparently recognizes their central place in
the liîe and culture of the people.
An epic pcrfornicr using the c./ztnigtizither accornpaiiiment. The large calabash
serves as i1 resonator. Buitoba, Tanzania, 1994 (Photo by M.M.Mulokozi)
37
CI-IAPTERFIVE
CONC I,USION
5.0 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
In this study we survcycd thc 'I'anzaiiian oral traditions that arc shared by tiic otlicr coiiiitrics of
Southern Africa, their sintiis iii the national ciiltiiral and iaiigiiage policies. aiid how they arc
preserved and promoted. The study also surveyed and appraiscd the laws and institutions that deal
with oral traditions.
The results of the study were presented in four chapters:
Chapter 1 offered tlic rcadcr bricf background inforniation on Tanzania,including its history,
pcoples and cultures.
Chapter 2 surveyed the major Tanzanian oral traditional forms that are shared by the other
countries in the sub-region,so as to establish their types aiid genres, their origins, modes of
occurrence,current statc,utilization and pcrpctiintion;and thcir gcographical sprcad within Tanzania
rind iii tlic sub-rcgioii.' l ï ~iwjor wkgorics (hat WCL'Cidciitil
i
d r u i discusscd ut lciig\liarc:
-
-
-
sayings
songs/poetry
tales
oral histories
theatrical arts
special institutional lore
drum lore
Chapter 3 reviewed the research on Tanzanian oral traditions that has been done in the precolonial, colonial and post-colonial periods. The chapter highlighted the achievements and
shortcomings of the rescarchcs donc to date.It dcmonsirated that pre-colonialand colonial rcsearcli
in Tanzanian oral traditions was very limited and selective;that it fòcused on those genres aiid forms
that were needed by the colonial state and the missionaries. The chapter showed that after
independence more extensive research was carried out on most forms of oral traditions. However,
that research was generally not very intensive and in-depth,and the masses of data that liave been
corrected are yet to bc proccsscd and analyzcd scientiíically anti iitilizcd for scholarly aiid practical
ends.
Chapter 4examined the policies and legislationpertaining to the oral traditions and languages
in post-colonial Tanzania. It showed that Tanzania's unwritten cultural policy until 1997 was
premised on the twin poles of nationalism and Ujamaa.
38
The chapter argued that the policy did much to revive and promote traditional and current
Tanzanian culture, including tlie national language, Kiswaliili, though it suffered from a statist
approach which tcnded to aliciiate tlie real owncrs and crcatois of ihc heritage. Moreovcr. thc policy
tended to ignore the other indigenous languages (other than Kiswahiii), and did not lay enough
emphasis on preservation aiid promotion of the oral traditions.
The chapter,further, appraised 14Tanzanian laws pertaining to culture,and discovered that
they do not dcal adcquatcly with oral traditions. It is pointcd oiií that tlic basic law 01'111~ land,tlic
national Constitution,is coiiiplctcly silcnt oii the question of laiigiiages aiid oral traditions. Evcn the
îour acts that spccilically iiiciition L I S ~ C Coîorul
~S
trditioiis,viz.:
I . ' i h ~Nt\tioiiiìl Arcliivcs Act IOOS
2.The Copyright Act 1966
3.The National Swahili Council Act I967
4.The National Arts Council Act 1984
tend to focus more on songs,dances and drama,and to ignore the other oral traditional categories.
Likewise,the new cultural policy issued in 1997 is not forthright on oral traditions par se,though
it marks a step forward compared to past policies.
5.1 SIGNIFICANCEOF 'TIIECOMMON ORAL 'I'I¿ADI'I'IONSFOI¿SOU1'1-lEHNAPKICA
Southern African societics,as statcd carlier,are still primarily oral.Hence in order to uiiderstand and
enter into meaningful dialogue with these societies,one has to learn their forms of expression,i.e.
their oral traditions.
In addition to being oral, most of these nations are stili in a process of formation. Ethnic
groups and culturcs arc being gradually îorgcd into onc nation aiid cul turc. At tlic sanie tiiiic, tlicsc
nations are,on the sub-regionallevel,aspiring to a greater sub-regionalunity or supra-state.Oral
traditions can facilitate this historically inevitable and necessary process; it can help forge a common
identity and offer common sub-regional symbols deriving from the largely related oral traditions.
For instance,the mythology and epics do point to the common origins and common dcstiny of most
inhabitants ofthese countries.As happened among the Finns in the i 9th century,where folklore was
utilized by the epic poet, Elias Löimot to create a national epic,the Kalevala,which iii turn served
to unite and identiS, the Finnish nation, the mythology and epics of the various southern African
nationalities can be creatively utilized to similar ends. For instance,the collected oral narratives and
songs can,as in the case of the Kalevala (Lönnrot 1895; 1992),Fumo Liyongo (Kijumwa I913),
Emperor C h a h the Greal (Kunene 1979),and even Utenzi wíi Nyakiiru Kibi (Mulokozi 1997), be
compiled into monumental cpics that can serve as national and supra-nationalsymbols.Hence,this
cominoli oraturc can scrvc as a springboard Tor crcation of a gciiuiiie sub-regional (call it îederai)
literature aiid culturc.
39
In order to achieve these high aiid lautiable aims,cooperation ainong the present states and scholars
iii rcscxcliiiig liiitl piwci~iiig 0111' co~iiiiioii oi~d Iiciiiiigc is iicccssury ~iiicl callccl l'or. Such
coopcraiioii riircly cxisls ;it prcsciií. in spilc oí'cxislcncc ofvirliidly still-bornorgriiiiziitioiissiicli as
OTASA and EACIIO'I'ANAL.The sad history of such organizations is a cynical coiiimentary on
the absence rather than abundance of meaiiingful cooperation in the promotion of oral traditions
among our various coiintrics ancl scholars.
-
-
The following oral traditionnl categories could
cooperation:
-
-
-
iiii tidly
be addrcssed
iii
tlic envisaged
sayings
songs/poetry
tales
oral historics
tlieiitrical arts
special institutional lorc
drum literature
To begin with the approach should be that ofa salvage operation that aims at collecting and
saving for posterity tlie rich oral traditional repertoire that is now in danger of getting lost.This is
particularly the case with I'orins such as myths, icgends and'epics. Siniultaneously,cooperation in
more systematic research,analysis,teaching,promotion and dissemiiiatioii could be iindcrtakcii.
Such cooperation would enhance our knowledge oí' Taiizaniaii and Soutlicrii African
traditional literatiires - how they are produced, how they arc: utilized, aiid the techiiiqiies and
conventions that guide tlie artists. Such knowledge would be of'use in analyzing and assessing our
common oral literary heritage, in conceiving relevant policies aiid programs for their promotion, in
undertaking comparative analyses,and in formulating more correct and up-to-datetheories of oral
poetics.
Finally, this kind of cooperatioii would enable tlie scholars in the relevant institutions in
Southern Africa to update and expand tlicir knowledge ofnatioiial and sub-regionaloral li tcratures,
and to prepare more up to date papers, books aiid reference materials for teaching and disseminating
the literatures.
W e would,therefore,suggest that UNESCO and the Southern African states and institutions
should give priority to tlic rcvival of EACROTANAL and OTASA,so that the two institutions may
serve as orgaiis of and coiiduits for the cnvisagcd coopcraiioii. The specific forms of such
cooperation could be worked out in detail by the two organizations,in cooperatioiis with the member
states,institutions,and individual researchers.
40
CITED l¿EFERGNCk<S
Abdallah bin I-lcmcdiI062 (I 895) fluliuri ni Wukilitidi.lL4l,ll,Nairobi.
Abdiilr~liman,M 1939 Sonic Aiilhiopological Notcs lioiii Zaiizibar.INA 8:59-84.
13alisidya,M.L 1987 Tniizu iiit I:iiiii
ZII
Fnsilii
Siiiiiilizi.(Oid I.iki.aíiirc Gciircs aiid 1:oriiis). h/ulikcr
19:2-10.
Büttner.C.G 1894 Anlhologie der Sircrheli J,i/crnfrrrc.I3erliii.
Césard,E 1927-37:published a series ofpapers on the Bahaya in Anthropos, Vols 22-30.
Cory,H 1920s-1960:Cory Files. Hans Cory Collection,East Alricana.('They contain material fiom
and on a niiniber ol"1'aiizaiiiaii ethnic groiips, i ncl liding (lie Wasiiku iiia, Wahayn, Wazaraiiio,
Wanyamwezi,Wa.ji ta, ctc.)
Dannholz,J.J I989 (ms. written in 1912-18) Lute Luvivi-Lwedi:The Curse und lhe Bkssing (Tr.by
P. Davies). Self-piiblislied by Erika Dahnholz,Germaiiy).
Dietcilcn,1-1&Kohlcr,' i 19 I2 Les Uussouío.sd'uuiof0i.Y.Livrc d'Orde la Mission du Lcsotho. Paris.
Farsi, 1958 S.SSwuhili Suyings I. EALB,Nairobi.
Farsi, S.S 1984 Swuhili Sayings 2.EAPL,Aruslia.
Fosbrooke,H.A I958 Hambageu,God of the Wasonjo. TNR 50:21-29.
Gabakama, Z.N 1980 Majigambo ya Wazanaki. Idara ya Kiswahili,Chuo Kikuu,DSM.
Grant,J.A 1864A Walk Across Afiicu.William Blackwood &Sons,London.
Gwassa, G.C.K1967 Kumbukumbu y a Vifu vyu Muji Muji. EAPH,Nairobi. (Booklet based on
cxlciisivc rcscarcli 011 ílic Maji Mciji wiir of 1905-1907).
Harries,L 1962Swahili I'oefry. OUI', London
Hemedi bin Abdallah el-Duliry I960 (1 895) íJ/cnziii~nVilti I;IWW(~tkrchiKrritiititrlcrlti kfrimr(cd.
J.W.T.
Allen). EALB,Dar es Salaam.
41
Hichens, W 1941 Swahili Prosody.Swcihili 33/1 (1962/3):107-137
Hodza. A and Fortune. G 1979 ( e h )Shonn Prniw Poe/rv.Clareildon Press. Oxford
Hussein, E 1975 O n the Development of Drama in East Africa. Ph.D.Thesis,University of
Humboldt.
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(Mimeo).
Ishemoi,.I 1978 The I-lcroic I<cciíalioiis ofthc 13ahaya of Riikohri. 3rd Ycar Research paper, Dept.
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Ikombe,N 1943 The Legcnd ofNkandii.TNR 15: 72-75.
Jahadhmy,A,Matola,Mw.S,Whiteley, W 1966 Wuinzhuji
MJ<I
,Juzi.1'UKI, Dar es Salaani.
Jahn,J 1961 Munfu (ï'r. Grene,M)Faber and Faber,London.
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Kabeya, 1966 Mkmi Mirurnzbo. EALB,Nairobi.
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iii
Kalugila,L.na Lodhi,A.Y.1980 More Swahili Proverbsfiom East Afvica.Scandinavian Inst.of
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42
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Buhliwali. TPI-I,Dar es Salaam.
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Kunene,D 1971 Heroic Poeiry ojihe Uamiho.Clarendon,Oxford.
Kunene, M 1979 Emperor Chaka the Creai: Zulu Epic.Heiiieinann,London.
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Malangalila,F 1987 Mwamuyinga. NdandaíPeramiho Mission Press,Ndanda.
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43
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44
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45
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I985 ‘llic Iiidinii Occan Loiiiplcx aiicl thc I<isw:ihilil:olkl«rc: ’I’hcCasc oí’Zaiizibar
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L A W DOC UM E N ’ W AC‘IS (ïA N Z A N IA)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
1 o.
11.
12.
13.
The National Museum Act of 1962,as amended in 1980.
The Library Services Board Act 1963/Tanzania Libraiy Services Board Act i 975.
The Antiquities Act of 1964,as amended in I979 and 1991.
The National Arcliivcs Act of 1 965,us aiiicndcd in 1979.
The Copyright Act of 1966 (iiowbeing revised).
The National Swnliili Coiincil Act of 1967,as mcndctl in 1983.
‘TheUnivcrsity of Dar cs Salaam Act of 1970.
lhe Films and Stage Plays Ccnsorship Board Act of 1976.
The Education Act of 1978.
The Appellate Jurisdiction Act of i 979.
l‘he National Arts Council Act of 1984.
l‘he Magistrates Court Act of 1984.
A n Act to Rcgulatc thc Vidco 13iisincss iiiicl to Piuvidc for Coiiiiccted Multcrs ol‘1988.
LIST 0 1 7 I’EHSONS IN‘I’EI¿VIEWEL)
Fujo,H:
Idrissu,Anne:
Kalulu:
Makonde, A:
Drummer &Playwright Kisama Bantu Group
DTV
Dancer,singer
Actor, dancer,playwright
47
Mnsiinbi,R
Min.Of lrlucation &Ciiltiirc
Mashaka, Saluni:
Dancer, Fresh L3aitiboo Group
Masoud,M:
Materu, E:
Mayanga, O.S.S.:
ITV
Mbogo, S a m :
Mbuiijii,Jaiiics:
Mvungi,M (Dr):
Mwaibula, D:
Naliene Oinari:
Rich, Bob:
R w e y e m a m u , Mr:
Sayore, Ms:
Sliija,Mija:
Director of Arts and Languages. MEC
BASATA
Singer, dancer
Sii11ba 'I'hcrilcr Ciro1ip
'l'uiiznniaCulturc 'Lrusi Fuiid
Tanzania Culture Trust Fund
Driiinincr, Tatu Nane
Chorcographcr, Thc Chocolatcs
Nyiiiiiba ya Saiina
BASATA
Siiigcr, ~l;lllcci~,
;IcIrcss,I';ir~lp;lllllo 'Iï1c;ilcr (;roup
48
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A
PROPOSEI> OIJTLINE O F ORIEN'ïATION COURSE F O R O T A S A RESEAIICII
ASSISTANTS
INTRODUCTION
The proposed course will aim at equipping the participants with the basics of the theory of oral
traditions (OTs) and the principles and approaches of research in oral traditions.Iience,it is
proposed that the workshop should cover five major topics:
Theory of oral traditions
Research in OTs
Coinpilation and analysis of OT data
Preservation and dissemination of Ol'research results
Preservation,perpetuation and transformation of O'ïs
-
It is proposed that the course sliould take about two weeks. Participants should be drawn from
OTASA iiieiiibcr stales, aiid lraiiicrs sliould be souglil fioiii uiiivcrsitics aiid research iiislitulioiis
in the sub-region.
COURSE OUTLINE
5.1 THEORY OF ORAL TIUDITIONS
5.1.1Definition of OTs
5.1.2Classification of o'ïs
5.I .3 Origins of OTs
(a) OTs and Language
(b) OTs and Labour
(c) OTs and Culturc
(d) OTs and Patronage
5.1.4Functions of OTs
5.1.501's and I'erí'ormaiice
5.1.6ïhe dynamics of OTs/oral traditions and cliangc
49
5.2 IWSEAKCH IN ORAL '1'1tA1~1'1'1~NS
5.2.1 Defining an OTs rescarcli problem
5.2.2Writing a rcsearcli proposal
5.2.3OTs research tools
5.2.4 Types of OT rescarch
5.2.4.1 Library/documenlaryresearch
(a) Priinary documents
--
Pub I i c/offici a I
Privale
(b) Sccoiidary Docuiiiciits
-
Public/official
ir'l vule
5.2.4.2Field research
Field research methods in OTs
(a)
(b)
(c)
Observation (structured and unstructured)
Participation (limitations)
Interviewing (structured and unstructured, pilot study, sampling, etc)
(d) Surveys and questionnaires
Advantages and disadvaiitagcs of each
5.3 COMPILATION AND ANALYSIS OF OT RESEARCH DATA
(a) Transcribing and translating data from tapes
(b) Processing the data
(c) Interpreting and analysing the data
(d) Writing research reports
50
5.4 PRESERVATION A N D DISSEMINATION O F OT RESEARCH RESULTS
(a)
(b)
Methods ofpreservation (tapes,archives,computers,etc)
Methods of dissemination (print media,electronic media, broadcasts,audio-visualmeaiis,
lectures,performances,etc)
5.5 PRESERVATION,I’EHI’E‘ïUATION ANI> ‘I’HANYFOHMA‘I’I
O N OF O R A L
TRADITIONS
’I*rditioiial iiietliods 01’ pcrpclitation aiid dissciiiiiiatioii
Role of patronagc (social, institutional,ctc)
I<olc of pcrli~iillailcc
‘I’raiiiiiigof O‘fartists
Motivating OT artists
Role of governineiit
OTs and the print media
OTs and the new technologies (film,video,TV,internet,etc)
OTs and modern art forms theater,dance,etc.
The future of O T s
-
SUGGESTED REFERENCE
Finnegan,R 1970 Oral Literalure in Afiica.Clarendon,Oxford.
Okombo, O na Nandwa,J 1992 Reflectionson ïheories and Methods in Oral Literalure.Kenya
Oral Literature Association, Uiiiv. of Nairobi.
Okpewho,I (ed) 1992 The Oral Performance in Afi*icu.Spcciriiiii, Ibadan.
Ong, W 1982 Orality und Literacy.Methuen,London.
Pons,Valdo (ed) 1992 Introduction to Social Reseurch. DUP.Dar es Salaam.
Vansina,J 1965 Oral Tradition:A Study in Historicctl Methoclology. (Tr.H.M.Wright). Penguin
Books, Harmondsworth.
51
APPENDIX J3
13.1 BIBLIOGRAPHIES
&INDEXES
Hussein, E 1969 An Aiinolalcd Bibliography or Swahili Tlicalic. Miiiico, {IDSM.
Owino, J.J aiid I-loiiero,L.N I078 i:iiharasa ya Utaliti wu Aiiiali za i:asilii Siiiiulizi Uiiol’Uiiywa I’aiizaiiia (Iiidex 01’
research o n oral literature done in Tanzania)- a very useful reference booklet. Miineo, IKR, UDSM.
Tracey, 1-1 i 973 Caldogue: The Sorinds of Africa Serie*.rVol. 1‘9-11. iiiicriiiitioiial Library of Aficaii Music, l’raiisvaal
(S.A.).
$*+
U.2 GENERAL
Abdulrahnian, M I939 Some Aiitliropological Notes from Zaiizibar.TNR S: 59-84.
Balisidya, M.L.Y 1977 Mabadiliko katika Fasihi Siniulizi y” Wagogo. M A .Thesis, UDSM (PL 8208.B8)
Bujora Research Committee I988 /manizu Jadi zu Kisukuma. Bujora M u s e u m , M w a n z a .
Büttner. C.G I894 Anthologie der Suuheli Literature. Berlin.
Césard, E 1927-37:Collections ofstories, legends, songs and myths from the Bahaya in Anfhropos,Vols 22-30.
C h u m , Haji 1994 Mila na Utaniaduni w a Makunduchi (Ms).
Cory,H 1930s-1960:Cory Files. Hans Cory Collection, East Africana. (They contain material from aiid on a number
of Tanzanian ethnic groups, including the Wasukuiiia, Waliaya, Wazaramo, Waiiyamwezi, Wajita,
Wasambaa, etc.)
Cory, H I95 I The Níenii. London.
Culwick, A.T and G.M 1935 Ilbena of /he Rivers. London.
Farsy, M.S 1958 Kurwa na Doto.EALB, Nairobi.
Gutman, B Chagga Folklore. TNIt II 65,March 1965,pp. 50 - 55.
Jeiigo, E A Survey of Audio-Visual Equipment in Tanzanian Schools aiid Colleges. Ii1stitule of Education, Dar CS
Sa hain.
Liyong, Taban lo 1972 Popular Culfure in East Africa. Longman, Nairobi
52
Mtoro bin Mwinybakari 1903 (in Velten, below).
Nigrnann, E I908 Die Wuhehe Ihre Gcschichle, Kulr-Rc.chl.r,Kriegs und í;ehräuche.Berlin.
Read, M 1956 ïhe Ngoni oJNyassuland. Loiidoii.
Ikhsc, 1-1 1910 Kisiba Land und Leirte. Siutlgart.
Seidel, A I896 Geschichten unú Lieder des Ajrikaner. Berlin.
Swantz, M-Land Helciia 1979 . / i p / ~ ~ßU,gU/??Ojw
y~:
Prqjccf. I Iclsiiiki.
TAKILUKI I983 Fusihi Siiiiulizi Zanzibar. TPH,Dar es Salaaiii.
Taylor I924 (I 89 i) African Apliorisiiis (Unpublished Papers,
SOAS). S.P.C.K.London, I 89 I .
Velten, C 1903 Desturi zu Wusuaheli.Berlin.
Veltcn, C.I907 Prosa und Poesie der Suuhel. Berlin.
Welch, L A 1974 Lile aiid Liícrattii'e ol'ílic Sukuina iii Taiimiiíi,Ihst Aliicíi. I'1i.D 'I'licsis, I loward IJiiiv.
Wliiteley, W.1-l 1958 ïhe Diulec~sund Verse of /'eiiibu. East Arricai1 Swahili Loiniiiitíee (iiow IKR),I<aiiipalu.
Wilson, M 1958 The Peoples of the Nyasa-Tanganyika ßorder. School of African Studies, University of Cape
Town.
Yongolo, D 1953 Maisha na Desturiza Wanyamwezi. London.
***
8.3 SAYINGS
Farsi, 1958 S.S Swnhili SqvinKs I. EA1.ß. Nairobi.
Farsi, S.S I984 Swuhili Sayings 2. EAI'L, Aruslia.
Hollis, A.C. (Call # E.A.496.5HAL). National Library, Dsni.
Hollis, A.C(dale?). Papers in Naiioiial Library Dar cs Salaaiii (13
496.5I IAL)
Maasai Provcrbs aiid Sayings, pp. 239 25 I,
Maasai Enigmas, pp. 253 259.
-
-
-
Kalugila, L I992 Einiguni n'Ebikoikyo (Haya Proverbs and Riddles). North-Western Publishers, Bukoba.
53
Kalugila, I, na Lodlii,A.Y. 1980 More Swuhi/iProver/~.s,fiorir
Eusi Afiic(/.Scaiidiiiaviaii Inst. of Afiicaii Siiidics,
Uppsala.
Madumulla, J.S I995 Proverbs cindSuyings: Theory and Piuclice. IKR,Dar cs Salaaiii.
Mayoka. J.M 1982 Nnhair zn Kiswnhili. EAPL,. Dar es Salaam.
McVicar, ‘ï 1939 S o m e Waiiguru Proverbs and Sayings, ßanfu Siudies. Voi. 12,pp. 18-20.
Mkabarah, J 1992 Vilendawili kwa Hadifhi 1. UP Dar es Salaain.
Mkabatali, J I992 Viiriiduwrli krvu //i/dif/i/
1.UI’ Dai cs Siilaeiii.
Mkabarali, J 1994 Vifendawili kwa Hadifhi 3. UP Dar CS Salaaiii.
Msuya, S.K I979 Yutukanuyu nu F‘usihiSbrirlizi. TPI I, DSM.
Ndalu, A.E na Ikambili, H.M I99 I Katnusi ya Vifendawili na MajÏumbo. I leinernanii Kenya, Nairobi.
Nestor, H.B 1978 SOO Haya Proverbs. EALB,Arusha.
Oinari,C.K 1976 Misemo na Methali ktrtoka Tanzania i &2. EAPL, Dai es Salaain.
Parker, C 1970 Iwapo Nia K u n a Njia: A Study of the Coiilciit aiid Coiitcii of I>rovcrbsiii Swaliili. M.A.l’licsis,
Ilniv. of Washington.
I’~i~iii;iiiii.l’i
I077 //(~ki/t/í/,l~(/
A/í*///i///. N
diiiidii Missioii I’I.CSS.
Tii~i~iiiiiii.
Rashid, Ali Mwalim 1998 Vitenduwili h a Mashairi. OUP,Dar es Salaaiii.
Senkoro, F.E.M.K 1995 Vifenúawili kwu I’icha 3. EDPL, Dar cs Saiaaiii.
TUKI I976 I‘usihi Sitnuliziyu Mlurizorriu: Vitendtrwili I C h o Kikuu, Dai cs Salaaiii.
TUKI I982 Fasihi Simuliziy u Mfanzania: Merhali i. Chu0 Kikuii Dar es Salaam.
TUKI 1982 Fasihi Simirlisi ya Mianzania: Meihali 2. Chuo Kikuu Dar es Salaam.
TUKI I985 Fasihi Simuliziy a Mfanzania: Viiendawili 2 C h u 0 Kikuu, Dai es Salaam,
***
B.4 SONCS/POETRY
BAKITA i1.d. Wananiuziki Wefir.Kiiabu clia Kwaiiza. BAKITA, Dar cs Síilaaiii.
Ciabakaiiia, Z.N 1YüO Majigaiiibo ya Wazanaki. Idara ya Kiswaliili, C h u o Kikuu, üSM.
Gibbe, A
(i1.d.)
Notebook of Sukuina Songs and Sayings. Unpublished Ms.,(copy with author).
s4
Harries, L I962 Swahili Poefry. OUP,London
Hichens, W 1941 Swahili Prosody. Swahili 33/1 (1962/3): 107-137.
i loffinan, M . A I9116 Mugangola: 'l'lieStriiclure of an E n u n ~ al>crforiiiaiicc. M . A . Thesis, Drown Uiiivcrsiiy.
Jaliadhmy, A. Matola, Mw.S, Wliilclcy, W I966 Wuinrbuji IVLI Juii. ï'UK i, Dor es Salíimii.
Kaijage, T 1977 W o m e n iii Oral Liicrniure: l'lie Case of Ilic Epic of Kilciidi Miiiico.Ikpt of i,ilerstiirc, Iliiivei~siiy
of llar es Síiliiíiiii (liciiccl'oilli: 1JI)SM).
Kaiiena, G 1975 i-icroic Recitaiions of the Bahaya: A Form of lheatre? Undergraduate Diss.,UDSM
Kazooba, ß 1977 T h e Art of Heroic Recitation at the Bahaya King's Court. Undergraduate Diss., Dept.of Tlieatre
Arts, UDSM.
Kliatib, M.S I992 Taarabu Zanzibar.TPH,Dar es Salaaiii.
Kijumwa, M 1973 (Ist ed. 191 I) Uenzi w u Fumo Liyongo.IKR,
Dar es Salaam.
Kitemanio, A 1977 Mabadiliko ya Majigambo ya Kabila la Wakurya Zaiiiiiiii na Wakaii w a Ukoloni. Kazi Manluniu,
Idara ya Kiswaliili, Cliuo Kikuii clia DSM.
Knappert, J 1979 Four Ceníuric.v ofSwahili Verse,I-leineniaiin,London.
Kokwijuka, M 1983 Traditional Wedding Songs in ßuhaya: A Case Study of the Baziba. Undergraduaie Paper,
Dept.of Lit.,UDSM.
Makwara, V 1980 Utafitiw a Majiganibo ya Wakurya. Idara ya Kiswahili, Chu0 Kikuu cha DSM.
Mciiiliof, K I9 1 i Die Dichfwi~der Afiikurrer. Berlin.
Msiiig'a, D I996 Njooni ïirchcze nu ïiriiirhe. UiiI', Díir CS Síilíiiiiii.
Mulokozi, M.M 1987 T h e Nanga Epos oftlie ßahaya: A Case Study in Afiicaii Epic Characteristics. 1'h.D Thesis,
UDSM.
Mulokozi, M.M.(ed. forthcoming) Four Tanzanian Oral Epics. Mkuki na Nyoía, Dar es Sulaam.
Mulokozi, M.M.(forthcoming) The African Epic Con1rovo:vy: Wifli lix~xtntiip1c.sleiun fho Lnongu Lpic ïi.uúiíiotioj'
ïùnzuniu. Mkuki na Nyoia, üar es Salaaiii.
Nduluic, C I977 'l'hc I'Iacc of Songs iii llic I Iclic Oral Lilcr;iturc. M A 'I'licsis, UDSM.
Ndumbaro,T.P 1993 Nyimbo za Watoto W a d o g o I. Unp, Dar es Salaam
55
Ndumbaro, ‘ï.P1995 Nyiiiibo za Watoto W a d o g o 2. Unp, Dar es Salaairi.
Read, M I937 Songs of the Ngoiii People. ßrrilfrr S/i/úies3
(Jo1i;iiiiiesbuig). Vol. I I , 1937
Sanka, S.M 1994 Semantic Deviation
Salaam.
iii
Iraqw Oral Poetry. M.A.Diss.,Kiswaliili Dept., University of Dar cs
Seitel, P (forthcoming) Discoiirse Genres in Verbal Art: Power,Logic, anti Style in Haya Folklore.
Sliariff. 1.N 1988 Tirrigo Zetii.T h e I
W Sca Press Inc. l‘reiitoti. N.Jcrscy
Soiigoyi, I1.M IO88 *lhe Artist iiiid tlic Stak ¡ti ’I’niizaiiio:
A Siiiily of’l’woSiiigcrs: Kiilikali aiid Mwiiiiiiiiilii.M.A
Dissertation. UDSM.
***
U S TALES
Abdallah, K Mfalme Ndevu na Maskini Mkata Kuni. Readit Books, Dar es Salaam.
Abeid, M 1993 Debe la Dhahabu. Heko, Dar es Salaam.
Abcid, M I993 Kisu chu Sii/7gura/ILI Siiiihu. I leko, D a r es Salíiain.
Abeid, M 1993 Mji wu Muwe 1. M
&K, Dar es Saloaiii.
Abeid, M i994 Kisa cha Mpiga Zeze na ßinti Mfalnze. M
Abeid, M I996 Mji w o Muwe 2. M
Aihumani, A
&K,Dar es Salaam.
&K, Dar es Salaam.
&Maiig’anda,i3.S I996 Kuku, Njiwa nu Kicheche nu Hadiilti Nyingine. Itcadit, Dai es Salaaiil.
Bell, D.H.A Three Fipa Tales. T N R # 20,Dec. 1945,pp. 61 - 64.
Bwana, J.H 1993 Mganga Pazi.Heko, Dar es Salaam.
Beidelmann, T.0 I963 Four Kaguru ‘Tales. TNR 6I : I 35-146.
Carnell, W.J 1955 Four Gogo Folktales. T N R # 40,Sept. 1955,pp. 30 - 47.
Dannholz, J.J i 989 (ms.written in i 9 12-18) Lule Liivivi-Lwedi: The Ciirsr und the Blessing (Tr. by P. Davies). Selfpublislied by Erika Daliiiliolz, Gciiiiaiiy).
Fosbrooke, H A I958 Hainbageu, G o d of the Wasonjo. T N R H 50,pp. 2 1-29.
Habib, M.S Korongo na Kobe. MPB,Dar e5 Salaam
Hollis, A.C (date?) Masai Stories. Papers in Naíional Library (EA II 496.S HAL), pp. 103-237
- Maasai Mytlis aiid Trnditioiis.Ibid., pp. 264 28 1.
56
Huggins. P.M I936 Sukuina Fables. T N R I, I936 pp. 90-93.
Ikombe, N 1943 T h e Legend of Nkaiida. 7NR # 15, pp. 72-75.
Issa, N.M.1I l97,..h'isu cho h'ilivunu nu Uuliriti Yuke nu Iladilhi N)~iii~itii>.
'iï'l-I,
üiir es Síilaaiii.
Kaijage, D.C &Itala. W.L1988 Tujifuze kwu Hadithi. Mshaslia, Dar es Salaain.
Kalindiiiiya,J i 995 Mfiilrric.Jogoo.UTI,, Dar cs Sriliiaiii
Kaniera, W.D I978 Iladithi zu Wuiruyw wu Tanzania.EALD, Aruslia.
Kamera,W.D. na Mwakasaka, C.S 198 I The Cornpliment Easl Afiicun Folktales.Eastern Africa Publications,
Arusha.
Kanena, G 1975? Story-TellingAmong the Wahaya.3rd Year paper, Lit. Ikpt., UüSM
Karago, Alhaji T.A 1979 Hadithi Zenye ilckiina tiri Muudili.TPI-1,Dar cs Salaaiii.
Katiya, F.A 1996 A.ki/rrri Chili no Wri~ritilishiWukc.Rcndií, I h r cs Salaaiii.
Kiliiido,J 1975 I-ladilhi za Waiiiatuiiibi. 3rd Year I'apcr, Idara ya Kiswaliili, U D S M .
Kitambi, B 1973 Hadilhi Zetu. TPH,D s m .
Kilemaiiio,A 1977 Mabadiliko ya Majigaiiibo ya Kabila la Wakiirya Zaiiiiiiii tia Wakati wa Ukoloiii. I<azi Maaluniti,
Idara ya Kiswaliili,Cho Kikuu cha DSM.
Knappcrl, J I970 Myths rind Legends of the Swuhili. I Iciiicinaiiii, Loiidoii.
Lihaniba, A I992 Mkufano wu Pili w u Ndege.DUP,Dar es Salaam.
Mallya, S I975 Bahu Simulia.?'PH, Dsm.
Mang'anda, B.S I992 Shukrani zu Simba.EAPL, Dar es Salaam.
Mayega, P.B Mkonko. MPB,Dar es Salaam.
Mbcle, J 1977 'ïlic Social Coiitciil aiid Fuiictioii of Maleiigo Oral Litcratiiic M . A . üiss.,U ü S M .
Mganga. D.P 1993 C'hiri Wadogo.TPH. Dar es Salaain.
Mgoina, S.K 1992 Kisu chu Mhwcr nu /'unyu. 1'l1I-IDar
, cs Salriaiii.
Miiija, I &L.Gcrsoii 1993 Kuku nu Murujìki Zuke.'lI
I, I h r cs Saliiaiii.
Mocliiwa,Z I995 Mwanu Sinilxi Iltili Mlmra. EPüL,.i h r cs Siilaaiii.
Mollet,T.L 1983 Mufenbezi Msituni.Press &i Publicity Ceiilre,Dsiii.
57
Mtobwa,U I99 I Kisa chu Paka Kiipenda .Jikoni. Heko, Dar es Salaain.
Miiiigia,.l. D l96..,Iladitlii ZR Mrnliiie Sitisiti.‘fl’l I, Dai,cs Salxiiii.
Mvuiigi, M I975 ï’lireeSolidSíorte.s. I Iciiiciiiíiiiii, 1,oiidoii.
Mwakasaka,C.S I978 The O r d Lileraliire offhe ßanyctkyu.ru.KLU, Nairobi
Mwanga,A.K 1982 Maregesi. 1hn.w Pulishers, Dar es Salaam.
Mwanga,A.K 1985 Yiliiselekwilan~n& Ofher Sfories. I<iivu Pulisliers, Diir cs Salanin.
Mwaiiga,A.K I985 I’wkipuiiyaiid ille /(/ririo. I<iivu I>iilislicis,I h r cs Síiliioiii.
Mwanga.M.A 1996 Mfi Ulioziingiimza.Ruvu Pulishers, Dar es Salaam.
Mwanga,A 1998 M / m wtio ßiii/iA4f¿/tiie.Riivii Piiblislicrs, Dar es Salnaiii.
Mwaipyana,A.M 1994 Mbuzi Watatu na Mbwa Mwitu.TPH,Dar es Salaam.
Mwaituka,D 1994 Zimwi La). PubPC,Dar es Salaam.
Mweiida,I) I995 Balruri mi Mwrrewe.LüI’L,llar cs Salaaiii.
Ndimbo, D.M 197... Parrkwcr IJakciwci.1‘1’1 I, Dar es Salxiin.
Oinari,C 1971 Iiadirhi za Bibi 1 &II. ‘ìlW,
Dsm.
Oinari,C.K.na Mvungi,M 198 I Urifhi wu Ufamaduni Weh.TPH,DSM
Paul, F I995 Kibuyu chu Ajabu. Heko, Dar es Salaain.
Rajab, H 1983 Miujiza ya Mlima Kolelo. Busara, Dar es Salaaiii.
Rajab, I I 199 1 Kiboko ~ / i l ! ~ ¡ ~ / l i ~ ’ h / i k iCl ih w .MI’B,DX CS Saliiaiii.
Robert, S 1952 Adili rio Nduguze. Macinillan, London.
Kwechungura,G I972 Masimulizi ya Wahenga.TPH,Dsm.
Rwechungura,G I975 Hadiihi zu Mapokeo. TPH,Dar es Salaam.
Seite], P I980 See So Thar We May See: Performances and Interprefafions of Trndifionol Tale.vfioritTniizonin. I.U.
Press, Bloomington.
Semkiwn,D 197I, I973 & I974 M~iziiiipriiz(iJ W Bcihir Zdri 1-3.OUI’,I
h i
&Nairobi.
Seng’eng’e,J 1995 Mtoto katika Nyumba ya Chutu. VVK, Dar es Salaam.
Seng0,T.S.Y1980 Tanzanian Tale-Tellingand Its Educational Objectives:The Waraiigi Case Study. M.A.Thesis,
Khartouin Uiiiv.
58
Sengo, T.S.YI985 T h e Indian Ocean Complex and [lie Kiswahili Folklorc:l’lic Case of Zanzibar Talc-Pcrforinaiice.
P h . D Thesis, Khartoum Univ.
Senkoro, P.E.M.K I996 T h e Sign¡ticance of h e Jouriicy in Folktales íioiii Zanzibar. 1’Ii.DThesis, UDSM.
Serapion, K i992 Mfaltne 7wiga.KWI’C,Biikoba.
Scrapion. K I992 M,qeniwu Diridi. K WI’C.Ihikoba.
Serapion, K 1993 Panya Miihakonioni. KWPC, Bukoba.
Sliija,1’ 1994 Njiwa no Kinúa Mkaiùi.1‘1)i-i,Dar es Salaaiii
Shija, P n.d. The Hyenas and the Bell. TPH,Dar es Salaain.
Steere, E 1870Swahili Tales as Told by the Nafives of Zanzibw. Bell aiid Ihldy, London.
TUKI I977 Fasihi Sitnulizi yo Mtonzcrnia: Hodilhi I. Chu0 Kikuii Dar es Salaain.
TUKI I993 Fasihi Sinrirlizi ya M/cinzciiiia:Ifdiihi 2. Cliiio Kikuu Dar es Salaaiii.
Veiten, C 1898 Märchen und Erzählungen der Suaheli. Berlin.
Waziri, T.11994 Wasia wa Maskini. Readit Books, Dar es Salaam.
U.6 O R A L I IISTOl~IES/BIO~I~Al’l-l
IES
Abdallah bin I-ieiiiedi 1962 (I 895) Ilahrrri zii Wukilitidi. i N , I 3 , Nairobi
Cory,li n.d. Historia ya Wilaya ßukoha. M w a n z a , Taiizania.
Cory,H &Masalu, M . M 1955 Place N a m e s in the Lake Province. TNR 4 I : 55-72.
Gulliver, P.H 1955 A History of the Songea Ngoni. TNR 41:16-30.
Gwassa, 6.C.K1967 Kunibukuntbu ya Vita vya Muji Muji.EAPI-I,Nairobi. (Booklet based on extensive research o11
the Maji Maji war of 1905-1907.I was unable to tracc the lalc Gwassa’s papers on the war, iiicluding his
doctoral thesis. If they are lost, it would be a big loss to historical scholarship on tlic Maji Mnji).
I lisiory Ikpl..U D S M I968 Miiji Mai¡ I~csc~ircli
I’rojccl. Miiiico,U D S M I hïiry.
I lusscin, U Kinjekeiifc. OUI’,Nairobi, I970??
Kabeya, 1966 Mlemi Miratnho. EALB,Nairobi.
Katoke, I 1975 The Karugwe Kingdom. EAPI-I,Nairobi.
Kiinanibo, I I969 A I’oliticalIlistory ({the I’ure,c. /SUO-IYUO.L<AI)II, Niiirobi.
Lwamgira, F.X 1910 History of Kiziba (in Rehse 1910,which see).
Lwanigira, F.X 1949 Aniakulu ga Kiziha n’Abakaìna Bumu (A History of h’iziba and Its Kings). Runiiili Press,
Bukoba.
59
Lwamgira,F.X1949 Aiiiakulu ga Buliaya. Unpublished Ms,National Museum,DSM.
Mapalaln,i3 I992 A’rc~uIleri I.se/u~~ruguzi.
‘ïPII, Dar cs Ssilaaiii.
Mkiibiirali,J 1074 Muisliay(r Strlirrri A/)duI/tr/i.
‘I‘UKI,
¡.>rir cs Sala;iiii.
Mulokozi,M.M 1988 Mzrkwavn w n Uhehe. DUP,Dar es Salanin.
Mulokozi,M.m I Y90 Ngome ya Micrnzi. 1’1’1 I, Dar es Salaaiii.
Mulokozi,M.M 1991 Ngoriin ya Mianzi. MPB, Dar CS Salaaiii.
Mulokozi,M.M 1996 Mofo wu Mionzi. Ecol, Morogoro.
Mulugala,N.E and Shorter, A 1971 Nyungu-ya-Mawe: Mlawala Shiijan \vaKinyamwezi. EALB, Nairobi/Dsm.
Ngaiza, M.K&Koda, B 199 1 Unsung Heroines. DUP,Dar es Salaam.
Schmidt,P 1977 Historical Archaeology. Greenwood Press, Westport.
Stahl,K.M 1964 Hislory of the Chagga People of Kiliriianjaro. The Hague.
11.7 TI-IEATRICALARTS
Kaduma,G.Z I972 A Theatrical Description of Five Tanzanian Dances.M.A.Thesis,UDSM.
Mlania,P 1973 Music in Tradiiioiial Theater:The Kaguru Case Study. M.A.Thesis, UDSM.
Muhando,P.0 (Mlania)1984 Traditional African Theatre as a Pedagogical Institution.P1i.DThesis,UDSM.
***
B.8 SPECIAL INSTITUTIONAL LORE
Cory,FI 1963 Taiiibiko (Fika).‘I’NR62:274-282.
Sengo,’I’.S.Y
na Liiczis, !%A I975 Ulmi uti h ~ i i Ukwox.
i
Foiiiidíitioil Ilooks Ltd.,Nnirobi.
Baguma, K A 1974 Utani I<elatioiisli¡ps: The I laya iii Lucas, S.A.(ed)Utriiii I<elalioiisliipsin ’ïaiizania(Miiiico)
Dept.of Sociology, UDSM.
***
IL9 IIRUM LI’ïEItATUlZE
Nil
60
APPENDIX C
INDEX OF RESEARCH O N ORAL Tl¿AI)lTIONS UNDERTAKEN BY
TAKILUKI ZANZIBAR 1979-1999
TAASISI Y A KISWAI-IILIN A L U C H A Z A KICENI - ZANZIBAR
MADA
Metliali
5.
Nyirnbo za iigoina
6. Usiiairi wa kuburudislia
I.
M’I’A1~1’1‘1
MWAKA
Ilcsliiri, Mila iiii sclieri;i I>ciiiI~ii
v ilelidowil i
I970
Ali lkikíiri MOI~’(~,
1081
I(iiIiiiiii.M.Niiiiiiiíiii iiii
Haji Chum M&sa
1981
1981
1981
-
-
I-laditiiizii i’aiikwa I’aknwn
Unyago
I<aliiiia .M.
Nxiinnii
1982
i 982
i982
1982
i982
4. Slicrclic zii iiiwakíi w;i
5. Nyimbo za kazi Usereinala iia
kupanda mpunga
6. Tiiiiibuizo ZR Iiíiriisi
- 1982
I-lajiCliiiiii-Miissa
.M.Niiniiìíiii
I
Climi Mussa
i inji Cliiiiii Mussa
Ali Mbaroiiku Mzee
Ali Mbaioiikii Mzcc.
2. Vitendawili
I983
2.
3. Nyiiilbo 73 kazi - kii1)igì iiitriiníi
-
13.
1 4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
I<iìliiiì;i
I Methali
1
1 Maudliui va nviiiibo za iimiiia va dola I
Nyimbo za kuanishia daku
Nyimbo za kupungia mashetani
Rubamba na Umundi
i-ladith i zu puli kwa-piikuwa
Utenzi w a siku ya wazazi Taasisi
1983
1983
1983
1983
Mwanammtc Kliaiiiisi Acli
I Mai¡ C h u m Mussa na
1083
1983
1983
I.
2.
3.
I-Iekaya
Methali
Migeni
4. Nyimbo za mwaka w a Nairuzi
5. Ushairi wa aiiia zote
1984
1984
1984
1984
I984
1.
I985
-
1
I Ali Mbarouku Mzee
I
I-lajiC h u m Mussa
Ali Mbarouku Mzee na Asia
Ai&l la M baroii k
___-. .~
Asio Abdolu Mbnroiik
Asia Abdulla Mbarouk,
Mohamed Khamis Nassor
Mwanamtiate Khamis Ad¡
..._.___I
I O. Nvimbo za kuchombeza watoto
Ushauri w a kisiasa
I
Ali Bakari Moli’d.
~
--__-_.
M waiiaiiipatc Kliaiiiisi Adi
Mwaiiampate Kliainisi Ad¡
Hai¡C h u m Miissa
Ali Bakari Mohamed
*
Mohamed Khamisi Nassor.
M waiiainpslc Kliamisi Ad¡
Slialila li. Ali na I-IajiCliuin
Mussa na Moh’d Khamis
62
-___
Nyimbo za kuaiiisliia dakii
2.
~
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Lalia~~y~!l<oiii
bciii
_-.
.,
.
.
. .. .
.
.
.
-.
i 985
I985
-~
_...___--__I
Mwaiiaiiipate Khaniisi Adi
na Haji Chiim
Mwanampate
Khamisi Ad¡
-.
Kliarafa
I O85
1985
1985
8.
Nyiinbo za kuouiigia slictani na
iimundi
Methali
M wiinniiipalc Kliamisi Acli
Ali Mbarouk Mzee
Ali Bakar Moh’d
Ali Bakar Moli’d.
1985
Moh’d Khamis Nassor
1.
Wasl1aii.i lll~l~lrlllii
1986
M waiiaiiipale Kliainisi
Adi’Darweish,Ali Mbarouk
Mzee,Haji C h u m Mussa,
Salila H.Ali,Moh’d Khamis
Nassor na Ali Bakar.
M wanamriate Kliainisi Adi
Mwanampate Khamisi Ad¡,
Maryam Darweish na I-liiji
Cliuin Mussa.
Mwanampate Kliamisi Ad¡,
Ali Mbarouk, Haji Clium
Mussa na Maryam Darweisli.
I,~illOj~iya l~llllllxl
.-....
-
.
Laliaja ya Kiluiiibalu
2. Nvinibo za iinoiiia
3.
I
I
Ushauii wa Ujenzi wr?Janiii
4.
5.
1986
1986
1986
Masliairi ya iiiapciizi
1986
Mwaiiaiiipate Kliamisi Ad¡,
Maryam A. Darweish,i-laji
Clium,Moh’d Kh.Nassor,
Ali Mbarouk Mzee na
Maryam A.Darweish iia Ali
B;i ka r Mo li ’d.
6.
-
Sanaa za inaoiiyesho - kiiiyago
1986
8. Ushairi kaiika ngoina ya Juiigubovu
9. Migaiii
1 o.
11.
-
1986
1986
7.
12.
-
I
I
13. Ushairi katika npoiiia va Poiida
14.
-Vyama vya taarab,kusini
15. Lahaja
16. Maudliiii ya iiyiiiibo za Jando
Sanaa za Maoiiyesho (Ngoiijera)
17.
18. Makosa 1 4 k a Kiswuliili diu
1986
1986
1986
I986
I986
1986
Magazeli -na
Iteclio_-I_.
.- .__
19.
Nyimbo
za
iigome(nirloi1~Ö)
-
--
-1986
63
Ali Bakar Moh’d, Maryam
A .Darweish
Haji C h u m Mussa
I-hjiChum Mussa na
Maryam Darweisli.
Maryam A.Danveish
Marvam A.Darweish
Maryam A.Darweish na Haji
Clium
i-laji C h u m Mussa
Haji C h u m Mussa
Ali Bakar Moh’d, Salila
H.Alina Moh’d Khamis
Nassor.
Ali Bakar Moh’d.
Salila H.Ali
Sulilsi 1-1. Ali na Moli’d
-Kliainis Nassor
Salila IlAli
20. Nyimbo za kiiamshia daku
21. Nyiiiibo za ~Umbi iiaNyciiii
22. ...IJsliairi
Iaíika iigoim y:) I3oso
..
____.
.
._
1986
1986
. .I OX6
.
.
k z k a Magazeli na
- Kedio
1. -Maltosa
---
Msainiali w a [Jvuvi
2.
^
_
I O87
L
1987
Majiiia ya Miiaa
Ali Bakari Moh’d
1987
Ali Bakar Moh’d
1987
7. Lahaja-orodlia ya cliakula
8. Maiiciio ya Kiswaliili yciiyc asili ya
Ki i
9. Maiieiio ya iipishi
1 O. Ny¡nibo %LII< lipu iigia iiiashctan i
(kumbwaya)
1 1 . Msamiati wa vyonibo vya baharini
1987
1 O87
1087
npcrczit
v
.---
-
12. Msamiati wa viwaiidani na kazi mbali
inbali
13. Usliaiii w;i lGcliiii - kascla
-
-
.
.
.
~
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
14. V yainii v y a ‘liinrii 13
15. Nyinibo za kuamsliia dakii
16. Visasili
~-
1 987
Ali Bakar Moh’d na Abdulla
II diid
_______
_.
1987
1987
1987
--_
1.
Methali
2.
Msaiiiinii wa ma7.ishi
Mwanampate Khamis Ad¡
Ali Abdalla Ali na Haji
1987
1987
5. Sim o tia inn ta1 i %o y alte
6. Kiswaliili cha kibaliaria
Mol-__
i’tl Kliaiiiis Nnssor
1987
1987
1987
4. Kiswaliili clia sliciia
.
.
.
.
.
~
C h u m Mussa
Mwanampate Khainis na
Aiiiour A.Khaiiiis, Ali Dakar
Moli’d na Salila H.Ali.
Maryam A.Darweisli na
Moli’d Kh.Nassor
Maryam A.Darweish na Ali
Bakar moh’d na Salila H.Ali
Maryam A.Danveish
Ainour A.Khainis
1 iaji Cliuiii Mussa na Salila
1-1. Ali
Haji C h u m Mussa
Ali Bakar Moh’d
-
3.
Moh’d Khamis Nassor
Moli’d Khaiiiis Nassor
1988
1988
3.
Majina ya dawa na matuniizi yake
4. Michezo ya watoto
5. Majina ya watu na asili yake
1988
1988
1988
6. Sanaa za iiiaoiiycslio(iigo1ijccra)
7. - Nyiinbo za tari
8. Sikiikii~iya Iclcl-cl-17itri
1988
1988
1988
64
Siilila i-1.Ali
Salila H.Ali
Salila H.Alina Moh’d
K Ii.Nassor
Mwanampate Kliamis Adi,
Hassan Gora Haji,Ali Bakar
Moli’d na Ali Abdalla Ali
Abdalla Rashid Juina iin
Mwanampate Khamis Adi
Maryam A.Darweish
Maryam A.Darweish
Hassan G.Haji,Anisa S.Said,
Ali Abdalla na Maryam A.
Darweish
Ali B‘akar Moli’d
Ali Bakari Moh’d
Abdalla Rashid Juina na Ali
Abdalla Ali
Migeni
9.
1988
1988
Msaiiiiati wa viwanda
I
Maiiiin va iiii 1x1
I 1988
Simo
Maudliui ya nyiiiibo za
~
Ngonia
Makosa katika kiswaliili dia magazeti
Sanaa za inaonvcslio
1988
1988
1988
Visa na Mikasa
I989
Miiko ya Itikadi
1989
A bdalla Rashid Juma
I
Abdalla Rashid Juma na Anisa
S.Said
Abdalla Rasliid Juiiia
Aiiisa S.Said
Aiiisa S.Saleh na Ali Abdalla
Ali
Aiiisa SSaleli
Ali Abdalla Ali
7
7
I
I
1
-
2.
3.
4.
I 5. I
Msainiati w a Uharusi,Unyumba na
Talalta
Naliuu í Ibara
Msaiiiiati wa ufiiivaiizi ..........
~~aciitiiifiiii iiini...........
Ikjcsln.... ....
I 6.7. I Ngoma
,.
8.
19.
1
i.
1990
1990
1990
1990
Msainiati w a useremala
Wasliairi chipukizi
1990
1990
i 990
Uganga w a mitishamba
1991
2. Wasliuiri inaarufii
-
1990
i 990
199 1
3.
4.
Simo
Miiko na Itikadi
1991
1991
5.
Visa nn i1lik~iSíi
1991
I-iatuambalinibali aiiazopitia
binadaiiiu
-
6.
1991
Mwanampate Khamis Adi, Ali
Abdalla Ali,Hassan Gora Fhji
na I-IaiiC h u m Mussa
Mwanampate Khamis Adi,
Hassan Gora Haji,Ali Bakar
Moh’d, na Anisa S.Said iia
Faida Moli’d Bakar.
Ali Abdalla Ali
Ali Abdalla Ali na Hassan
Gora Haji
tlassaii Gora Haji
I-laiiC h u m na Hassan G.Haii
I-laii Chiiiii Mussa
.y
>>
9,
’1
>Y
Y,
Faida Moh’d Bakar
Ali Bakar Moh’d
Maryam A.Darweish,Hassan
Gora Haji,Haji Churn Mussa
tin Faida Moli’d Bakar
I-InssanG.Hajj, Ali Bakar tiil
Abdalla Rashid Juma
Hassan Gora Haji
Hassan Gora Haji,Ali Bakar
naAbdalla Rashid Juma
J iaji C h u m Miissu,Faida
Moh’d Ali Bakar Moli’d tia
Abdalla Rashid
Abdalla B. Juma na Hassan G.
Haji
vya miti na inajaiii vitumikavyo 1 1992 I Ali Bakar Moli’d
I 1. I Vifaa
inaju ba n i
1
ni
2.
Nahau
1992
Ali Bakar Moh’d.
1993
1993
Aii Bakar Moli’d
Ali Dakar Moh’d,Haji Chuiii
Mussa,Maryam A.Darweisli,
i-lassanG.Maji na Abass
Mdungi.
~~
i. M e t i d
2. Mapisliio
UNDATEII RESEARCHES
‘1’
1’10c
1. Hadithi zenye maudhui ya ngoma
RESEARCHER
-
Abdalla Rashid Juma
Salila H.Ali
Asia Abdalla Mbarouk
Asia Abdalla Mbarouk
Asia Abdalla Mbarouk
2.Methali
3.Nyimbo za kwenye inichezo ya watoto
4.Unyago Pemba
5.Historia ya niichezo ya ng’ombe
6.Nyimbo za michezo ya iigware
Abdalla Rashid Juma
7.Nahau
Anisa S. Said
8.Hadithi fupi fupi
Moli’dKhaiiiis Nassor
9.Nishadza Isliiriki
1 O. Sanaa za inaoiiycslio (iigiiijcra)
’9
I 1 .Vilciidnwili
79
12.I-Iadiihifiipi fupi
Moh’d Khamis Nassor
13.Maneno ya Kiswahili yenye asili ya Kihindi
Ali Abdalla Ali
i 4.Usliairi katika iigoiiia ya Iclciiiaiiiu
Maryani A.Darweisii
Raliina M.Naaman
15.Mjamzito ....... Malezi ya mtoto
16.Mazishi
Haji C h u m Mussa
17.Lahaja ya Ucliumi
18.Nyimbo za Dandaro
19.Nyimbo za mwaka
’Y
’Y
20.Maudhui katika ngoma ya msewe
Ali Bakar Moh’d
21.Maudhui katika nyimbo za kuchombezeawatoto - Faida Moh’d Bakar
22.Michezo ya watoto
Faida Moh’d Bakar
23.Nyimbo za kuchombezea watolo
Maiyaiii A.Darwcisli.
-
’9
’3
’9
-
’9
’1
-
9’
7’
-
-
-
3’
3’
-
66
9’
’9
3’
’3
’9
APPENDIX D
LIST 0 1 7 INS'I'I'I'U'I'IONS DIMLING WIT1 I O K A L 'I'I~AI)I'I'IONS
ü.1 T A N Z A N I A M A I N L A N D
I.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
I o.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
Arts and Languages Directorate, Ministry of Education and Culture
Bagainoyo College of Arts
BAKITA,National Kiswahili Council, Dar es Salaam
DASA'I'A,National Arts Council, Dar es Salaam
Utijora Museum, M w a n z a
Coininission for Science and Technology
Dai'es Salaaiii Televisioii
Fine aiid Performing Arts Dept., University of Dar es Salaam
Independent Television, Dar es Salaam
Kiswaliili Dept., University of Dar es Salaam
Literature Dept., University of Dar es Salaam
National Archives, Dar es Salaam
National Muscum, Dar cs Salaam
Radio One,Dar es Salaam
Radio Tanzania,Dar es Salaam
TUKVIKR,University of Dar es Salaam
Village M u s e u m , Dar es Salaam
IJNIClil:, Dar es Salaani
'I'GNP,
Dar es Salaam
All secondary scliools
All teachers colleges
D.2 ZANZIBAII
I.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
1 o.
I I.
Taasisi ya Kiswaliili na Luglia zu Kigeiii, S.L.P 882,Zanzibar
Chuo cha Walimu Nkurumah, Zanzibar
Idara ya Tainaslia, Mila na Sanaa, S.L.P 772,Zanzibar
UNICEF,Zanzibar
Idara ya Eliinu Msingi na Kati,Zanzibar
Idara ya Nyaraka za Makunibuslio, Zanzibar
Idara ya Habari na Utangazaji, Zanzibar
Radio Zanzibar
Televislieni Zanzibar
C h a m a cha Waandislii w a Vitabu, S.L.P 4105,Zanzibar
BACRO'I'ANAL,Zanzibar
67
APPENDIX E
LIST OP ItEGISTEItISi~PEIWORMINC Sr OISIWOMOTION GROUI>S
E.1 Tarizsiiia Maiiilaiid
I.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
I o.
I I.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
Chamwenyewe Theatre Group, S.L.P.5147,Dar es Salaam
Dojo Acrobatics and Gymnastics,S.L.P.25303,Dar es Salaam
Afrika Ngoma Troupe, S.L.P.61432,Dar es Salaam
Aiigo Arts Group, S.L.P.14219,Dar es Salaani
Miu Kwao 'I'Ioiipe.S.L.1'. 367,Dar es Salaam
ïïic New V¡,i;iiiiiïïiciiírc, S.I,.I'.25098,Diir es SiiI:iiiiii
Utaiiiaduiii Muugazi 'I'roupe, S.L.P.37I, 'I'aiiga
Painbazuko Theatre Troupe, S.L.P.15486,Dar es Salaam
Viiuko Oraiiia Troupe, S.L.P.9192,Dar es Salaaiii
Prof. Black I.lcaríman,S.L.P.103,Kyela-Mbeya
Mirakiiu ï'licalre Troupe, S.L.P.I5 150,Dar es S.
i' I aiiiii
Coiiiiiiiiiiiiy Tliciitrc Group,c/o B A S A T A ,S.L.P.4779, üiir CS Siiliiaiii
The Lighters Arts Group, S.L.P.21765,Dar es Salaani
Bukene Maleiigo Group, S.L.P.9530,Dar es salaam
Mandela Theatre Troupe, c/o BASATA, S.L.P.4779,Dar es Saluaiii
Dar es Salaam Cultural Group, S.L.P.15054,Dar es salaam
Afrika Group International,S.L.P.67029,Dar es Salaain
Ideteiiya Professioal Group, S.L.P.333 I, Dar es Sala:iin
Future Watch Cultural Group,S.L.1'. 1759,Dar es Salaam
Waziri Mkiiii Dodoiiin,c/o FIASATA,S.L.1'.4770,I>iir cs Sal~iiiiii
Kimoiido Group, c/o BASATA, S.L.1'. 4779,Dar es Salaam
Proiiiotoiis Tlicaíre aiid Bcauty Arts,S.L.P.7795,Dar cs Solaíiiii
I>CSCCiidÍiiiiSCuli~iríll'I'roupc, S.L.1'. 1788,K"gci';1
Abiiicsliwcka Nyoiiiu 'I'toupc,S.L.1'.55 127, üai.cs Saliii~iii
Uinoja Club Cultural Troupe, S.L.P.2773,Dar es Salaam
Kicaina Bantu Arts &Acrobatics Promotion,S.L.P.I5 1 16,Dar es Salaam
Sereiigeti 'I'lieatre Troupe, S.L.P.45778,Dar es Salaain
Tung¡ Culiiiral 'I'roupe, S.L.P.65360.Dar es Srilaaiii
Splendid Theatre Group, S.L.P.45978,Dar es Salaam
Buiigo Players Association,S.L.P.1735,Morogoro
Serengeii Dancing Group, S.L.P.25098,Dar es Salaain
Aiiiaiii Draina Group,S.L.P. 10602,Dar cs salaaiii
Parapanda Arts (PAA), S.L.P.25098,Dar es Salaam
Eiideleza Vijaiia Sangula,S.L.P.9293,Dar es Salaam
Simba Theatre Group,S.L.P.22224,Dar es Salaam
Luglia na Utamaduni (Luu-Promoter),S.L.P.35054,Dar es Salaam
Shomala Arts Theatre (Promoter), S.L.P.32967,Dar es Salaam
Ncliaila Dancing Troupe,S.L.P.960I, Dar es Salaam
Uawaziri Culiural Troupc, S.L.P.90436,Dar es Salaaiii
l'lie l'op Magician, S.L.P.138,Saine-Kijijiiii
Saiiaa 'I'oiidoGroiip,S.L.P.14219,Dar cs Salaaiii
Aziiiiio Culiiiral Group, c/o BASATA, S.L.P.4779,Dar es Salaaiii
Woiiiny Theatre Productions,S.L.P.25 142,Dar es Salaairi
The Black Warriors Acrobatics Group, S.L.P.18 124,Dar es Salaam
Up to Date Acting Group, S.L.P.16201,Dar es Salaain
68
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82,
Mbagala Cultiiral Group,S.L.P.10085,Dar es Salaain
Tanza Theatre Troupe,S.L.P.745,Dar es Salaam
Kainongo Mirrow Group,S.L.P.16457,Dar es salaaiii
ïlic African Stars Group, S.L.P.935,Dar CS Salaani
Zama Theatre Group,S.L.P.3 I 833,Dar es Salaam
Hisia Theatre Troupe, S.L.P.2329, Dar es Salaam
Nydnza Folklore Research Trust (Promoter),S.L.P.2948, Dar es Salaain
Iiiiara Troupe,S.L.P.2057,Dar es Salaaiii
The Black Blood Acrobatics, S.L.P.45 143,Dar es Salaani
Hodi ‘I‘heatreProductioii,S.L.P.23053, Dar es Salaam
Ten Best Cultural Troupe,S.L.P.8233,Same-Kijijini
Temeke Theatre Group, S.L.P.8830,Dar es Salaam
Feca Cultural Group of Environmental Cleanliness Awareness,S.L.P.21632,Dar es Salaam
Bagaiiioyo Snake Dance (BSD), S.L.P.56,Bagamoyo
Tlic Black Maii’sVisioii Tlicatrc Group, S.L.P.76689,Dar cs Salaeiii
Tanga African Cultural Group,S.L.P.2249,Tanga
Maislia Leiigo Troupe, S.L.P.7495, Dar es Salaam
Kikuiidi cha Sanaa cha Malezi ya Jainii,S.L.P.25056,Dar es Salaain
Ndoinoiido Mila ’I’hcalrc,S.I,.I’. I 1786,Dar es salaaiii
Cliaiigainoto Intcriiatioiial Group, c/o BASATA, S.L.P.4779,Dar cs Salaaiii
Koiiibora Spoti Ngoma, S.L.P.234, Dar es Salaam
Ilulu Theatre Group, S.L.P.45478,Dar es Salaam
Tumaini Group, S.L.P.72453,Dar es Salaain
Fossam Group,S.L.P.6047,Dar es Salaam
Makuti Modern Theatre Troupc, S.L.P.15984,Dar es Salaaiii
New Generation Troupe (NGT),S.L.P.14333, Dar CS Salaaiii
Ukclcwc Orgaiiizatioii Group, S.L.P.1 15, Ukelcwe
Aziina Modern Theatre Troupe, S.L.P.70243,Dar es Salaam
The Black Eagle Acrobatics Group,c/o BASATA, S.L.P.4779,Dar es Salaam
Uinoja Cultural Troupe, S.L.P.25 162,Dar es Salaani
Waungwana Group Mikoclieni ‘A’,
S.L.P.76492,Dar es Salaam
Tliealre Cultural Dancing Group, S.L.1’.I 93 I, Dar es Salaaiii
Mkongo Cultural Troupe, S.L.P.1609 1, Dar es Salaam
Juhudi Theatre Troupe, S.L.P.62769,Dar es Salaam
Cliaiiia clia Siirakasi (M)Dar cs Salam,c/o BASATA, S.L.1’.4779,Dar cs Salaaiii
Kisaina Bantu Art Promotion,S.L.P.1227,Dar es salaam
Kigamboni Acrobatic Theatre Troupe, c/oBASATA, S.L.P.4779,Dar es Salaam
69
E.2 Zanzibar
I.
7.
.>
,
J.
5.
6.
7.
8.
0.
I O.
I I.
17.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
i S.
19.
20.
21.
27.
23.
24.
25,
20.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
37.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
43.
43.
44,
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
Cliaina clia kucndeleza wacliniri (Ciiakiiwaza), P.O.Ilox 3045,Ziiiiziixir
Cliiiiiiii ~ l i iiiiiitlislii
~ i
\ V ~ vitíibii,
I
l'.O.ISOX 4 105, Ztiiizilìiii.
Laiizil)ar Iiitcr. Filin L'csiivnl, P.O.13ox 3032,%aiizib;ii
Ukufcza (Uiiioja w a kuendeieza fens¡), P.O.
Box 772.Kariakoo. Liiiviixir
ARTIST Kainwe, P.O.Box 341. Tel. 30891,Zanzibar
Kikundi clia Sanaa Uinoja w a vijana, P.O.Box 875. Zanzibar
Zanzibar Ngoina Troupe. P.O.Box 772,Zanzibar
Aliicaii Culture Troupe, Mweriibe shauri,Zanzibar
Super Slar Ihiciiig 'lroupe.I'.O.l3ox 772.Zanzibar
Uiiio.ja Ngoina Troupe. Ainatii Fresh, Zanzibar
I i a I i k II I i i k i K íitn n i bavii, C li ii i iilxiti i, Zíiiizibar
Nyota ya Uiiioja, Nungwi, Zanzibar
-
Chaiiganika, Ofisi ya Mkuu, Wilaya ya Mjini
Beni ya Wanawake, S.L.P42 1 I, MILadu, Zanzibar
Sekembuke Tamthilia Group, P.O.Box 772,Zanzibar
Group Mandoba, Zanzibar
Indian Musical Group, P.O.
Box 3014,Zanzibar
Zanzibar Cultural Club,P.O.Box 1504,Zanzibar
Tweiide Painoja Group, P.O.Box 2672,Zanzibar
Tazania Lijalo, P.O.Box 3812,Zanzibar
Burudani za Mashaka, P.O.BOX1169,Zanzibar
Zuiiiari Dancing Co.,P.0.ßox 772,Zanzibar
l'arabu Uinoja ni Nguvu, Box 1708,Zanzibar
Kupaia Ma.jaaliwa, 'Tarabu Groiip. Aninni Zanzibar
(*iil~~ire
Miisic (:liil), l',O,Ilox 4030,%iiii/.iixir
N;id Ihliwaii Safíia, I'.O.1Jox 3345,Kokoiii,Latizibar
Nyuki Modern Tarab, Zanzibar
Box 772,Zanzibar
Ilyasi &- Twinklin Stars, P.O.
842,Zanzibar
Zeiij Musical Club, P.O.BOX
Nyota Njema Musical Club, Sebleii,Zanzibar
T h e Coconut Band, S.L.P.1806,Zanzibar
Kakanika Musical Club, Mahonda, Zanzibar
Kizazi Kipya, Box 1198,Zanzibar
East African Melody, S.L.P1379,Zanzibar
Vijaiia Modern Tarab, S.L.P.3066,Zanzibar
Subira Musical Club, Kilimahewa,Zanzibar
The Ci-ClefTaarab, Zanzibar
Jamaica, Kwaalanisha,Zanzibar
Ulaci,I luiu Cultural Troupe,Zaii~ibar
Hero Disco Sound, Kiembe Samaki, Zanzibar
Long Rango Music, Amani,.Zanzibar
Rio »e Jarmo,M w e m b e Ladu, Zanzibar
Cíitiieroiiii, Kiliinaiii,Zaiizibar
'l'ti I ¡/¿i ilol i. Kwaiitipura. Zaiizibw
'l'iiiic Square. Zanzibar
Black Roots Culture Troupe,S.L.P.
401 5,Zanzibar
Zanzibar Sound Bend, S.L.P.747,Zanzibar
Islander's Bend, Box 25 I, Zanzibar
Paíiiicca Ngoiiia,Jaiig'oiiibe,Zanzibar
Big Stars. S.L.P.
875,Zanzibar
Iwe Nini, Mwenda Pole,Zanzibar
70
52.
53.
54.
55.
SO.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
Sanaa I.K.U..
P.O.BOX985, Zanzibar
Hatukosani Cultural Troupe, Cliumbani, Zanzibar
Jiíamiiic Group. Nycrcrc, Zniizibíir
I h i i Ilali, Muuiigíiiio,Zaiizilxir
13eni ya Weiiia, Ki.jaiigwaiii,Zaiizihnr
Ainaani Ngoiiia Troupe, Kariakoo, Zanzibar
Uyazi Dancing Troupe, Tcnibo, Zanzibar
Tabasainu Group, S.L.P.4039, Zanzibar
Soweto Cultural Group. Sliakani, Zanzibar
Utamaduni Mafunzo. Mafunzo. Zanzibar
Stone T o w n M o d e m . Soko M u h o g o 405
71
APPENDIX F
I.
2.
3.
4.
5.
h.
7.
X.
9.
I o.
I I.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
I x.
I o.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
21.
28.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
.1.1.
45.
-16.
h4r 1.Chaiiibulikazi. I>cpi. of I-iiic and I’crformiiig Arts.IJIISM
I)r A.I latíir. Ikpt. ol‘l:iiic aiid l’crlì)riiiiiig Arts, IJDSM
Prol: Amaridina Liliaiiiba. Dept.01‘ Fine and l’erforniing Arts. U M M
Mr D.R.Mbiliii!i. Ilept. of Fine and Performing Arts. UIXM
l’rot‘.I’enina Mlama. Dept.of Fine and Performing Arts.UDSM
Prof. E.Hussciii. Kariakoo,Dar es Salaani
Mr I-I.A.
Nakanoga, Dept.of Fine aiid Performing Arts. UDSM
M r G.Kaduma. cio Tanzania lheatre Centre,Dar es Salaam
Prol-.M.M.Mulokozi. Institute of Kiswaliili liesearch,UIXM
Prof. S.A.K.
Mlacha. Institute of Kiswahili Research. UDSM
M r E.Senizaba. Institute of Kisiraliili Rcsearch. IJDSM
Prol-,1).1’.13. Massamba. Institutc of Kis\valiilircscarch, IJIISM
I>r I I. Njozi,I>cpartniciit of l,itcraturc,UlXM
Mr A.O.H.
Korogoto.Department of Literature, UDSM
Mrs I,. Osaki.Department of 12ilerature,UDSM
Mr li. Soiigoyi. 1)cpartnient ofl,¡lcr:itiire, IJDSM
Mr 13, Miisclc. lkpiitíiiiciit ol~l,itcríiíiirc.IJIISM
I)r Y.I.l~iil)iiiim.
l)cpiirliiiciit ol’Kis~viiIiili.IJI)Shl
I)r K.K.K:iliigi. I)cp;ir?iiiciit of Kicw;iliili.IJIISM
I’rof., I~.I~.M.K.
Sciikoro. 1)cp;irtiiiciit 01‘ Kis\v;iliili.IJIISM
IIr J.S.h4íitluiiiii Ila. I kpiiriiiicii l 01’ Kiswalii li, 111 )SM
Mr S.Saiika. Ilcpartmentof Kiswahili, IJIISM
Mr A.Mutenibei. Department of Kicwahili. UDSM
Mr N.O.Minbaga. IJcpaniiieiit of Kiswaliili. IJIISM
h4r Rashid Masiinbi. Directorate of Arts aiid Languages. Dar es Salaam
Mr Peter A.Nyambasi, Haganioyo College of Arts
Mr Juma A.Bakari. Baganioyo College of Arts
Mc.Vuyo Wagi. cio IIWAVITA.Dar cs Salaam
Mr Mnyenyelwa. Parapanda Arts.Dar es Salaani
M s Eiko Kiniura. Japanese I3iibassy. Dar es Saliiani
Mr Saifu Kiango c/o UWAVITA. Oíir es Salaam
Mr Ci. Matcrcgo. Departnient ofï‘licalrcArts. IJIXM
Ih .,I Kalugira. hlakuiiiira ‘I‘licologicalCollege
Prol: I. Kiiiiaiiilio. I listor!. I>cpartiiiciit. lJl>SM
Prof. I. Kntokc. Karagwe.
ür Paul Mseiiitra. Village bluscuiii. Dar es Saiaaiii
Mr T.Mvungi, Taiizania Iiistitute of Educntioii
ProI‘. C.K.O i iiari, Sociology IlcpartiiiciiI, 1J I >Shl
Mr Maliwanga,1)ircctor;itc of Arls aiid I .aiiguagz
Mr I~ichíirtlMíibah. IJNICI3:
Mr Adam 1,usckelo. llar es Salaani
Mr I Iaiiiiiiic lki,liih.Diir es Salaam
Mr Alla Lugoiiic.Ihgainoyo College of Arts
hlr Nkwabi Ng’hangasamala.Baganioyo College of Arts
Mr Michael Kadinde. ßagamoyo College of Arts
llr Johii P.I..K!-:.iide Ihgaino).o College of Arts
Mr Filemon M\rakalindile,Bagamoyo College of Arts
,UrKissaka A. Kissaka. Bagamo) )Collcge ofArts
73
47.
48.
40.
50.
Mr I4aihias Kihiiiia,Bagamoyo College of Arts
Mr Bernard Kiswigu. Bagamoyo College oí Arts
Mr Ahrithm l3al~idliili,I3agaiiioyo C'ollcge ol'Arts
Mr I Iaji Macd;i.13agairioyo Collcgc 01' Arts
SI.
52.
53.
54.
55.
M s ('liristaKoiiilxi, Ikigmoyo C:ollcgc 01' Aris
Mr Jdiii Mporida, I3ag;iiiioyo Collcgc of Arts
Mr .Aiiold Cliiwalala,ikigamoyo Collcgc of Arts
M s Luiza Magaiiga, Bagamoyo Collegc of Arts
M s Elizabeth 13uriani. Bagamoyo College of Arts
hlr Wcrciiia M.Chacha. 13aganioyo College of Arts
Mr i3asil Mbatta. Bagainoyo College of Arts
M r Tlioiiias Ilinilla. Ihganioyo Collcgc of Arts
M s Mary Cliibwaiia,Ilagamoyo College of Arts
M s Ncciiia Mirnmbo. I3againoyo College of Arts
Mr Khalfaiii Matitu. ßagamoyo College of Arts
M s Mivanaidi Zaiiibo,Bagamoyo College of Arts
Mr ,ìl;iiiiitlMoli~iiiicdi.l3~i~~iiiioyo
C'ollcgc of Arts
Mr Irsii S.Mtiiiiibwc.I~ag;ini(iyoC'ollcgc ol.Arts
Mr Siuiiiai I lalili, I3aganioyo Collegc.of Arts
56.
57.
5X.
59.
OO.
6I .
62.
(1.3.
o4
65.
LANGUAGE
I.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1.
8.
9.
I o.
I I.
12.
13.
1.1.
IS.
I (l.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33
34.
3;.
3(J.
l>r C.M.
Rubagumya, Dept.of Foreign Languages and Liiiguistics, UDSM
Ilr S.Y.Othriian,Dept.of Foreign Languages aiid Linguistics,UDSM
I>r h,l.K.Kapinga, Ikpt.of Foreign I,niigii;igcs aiitl I.iiigiiistics. U M M
Ur I.N.Swilla,Dcpt.ol'I~'oreignIaigungcs arid 1,iiiguistics.IJIlSM
I)r 5.13. Maghway. Dept.of loreign Languages and Linguistics. UDSM
Dr J.M.
Rugemalila. Dept. of Foreign Languages and Linguistics,UDShI
Dr J. Lukusa,Dept.of Foreign Languages and Linguistics,UDSM
Dr A.F.Lwaitaina,Dept.of Foreign Languages and Linguistics. UDSM
Ilr D.M.D.
Numi, Dept.of Foreign Languages and Linguistics,UDSM
Dr J L.M.Hawaiiga,Dept.of Foreign Languages and Linguistics,UDSk1
Ilr I. Kapoli, Dept.of Foreign Languages and Linguistics,UDSM
D r D.Ndoloi, Dept. of Foreign Languages and Linguistics. UDSM
I)r h1.A. Kihogoya. Dept. of Foreign lmgiiagcs aiid I .iiigiiisiics. UDSM
Ih I:.I).A.Mriiidoko. Ikpt.ofI:oreigii Imguiigcs ;tiid I.iiipiisiics. iJI)SbI
MI;
hl.lJ.Qorro. I)wt.
ofI:oreign I.aiigiiagcs iiiid I iii:iiistics. I1I)SM
I>r i1.S.Ngoiiyaiii. of I.'oreigii 1,aiiguagcs aiid I.iiigiiistics. IJDSM
Mr h1.Y.Kadcglic,Dept.of Foreign Languages aiid I,iiiguistics, UDSM
Mr Y A .Mweicni, Dept. of Foreign Languages and Ihguistics,UDShl
r)I R.D.
Mekaclia, Deparinient of Kiswahili. 1JI)SM
¡'rol', R.M.
llcsli:i, Ikpartmcnt of Kiswiitiili. IJIISM
Mr A.Muiciiibci, Ikpaitinent of Kis\valiili.UDSM
Ur ).l. Rubanza. Ilepartment of Kiswaliili. UIXM
D r L.K.Kaliigi. üepartiiieiit of Kisirahili, UDSM
Mr S.Sanka, Dcp?rtment of Kiswahili. UDSM
Dr Z.Mochiwa. Ueparlmenl of Kisnahii. UDSM
IJrof.M.M.Mulokozi. Institute of Kis\\-ahiliResearch,UDSM
Prof.A.M.Khaniisi. Institute of Kiswahili Research. IJDSM
iJrol..D.P.Il.Massainba, Institute ofKis\valiiliI<escarcli. IJDSM
IJrof.i I.J.M.
Mwaiisoko. Iiistitutc ol'Kiswaliili 1kw;ircIi. IJIISM
I'rol'. J.S.Mdcc. Iiistitiile of Kiswahili I-kscarcli, IJIISM
Prof: S.A.K.Mlaclia. Institute of Kiswahili Research. UDSM
Dr Z.'Tumbo-Masabo,Institute of Kiswahili Research, UDSM
Dr i. M.Kihore. Institute of Kiswahili Research. IIDSM
Dr J.G.Kiango. Institute of Kiswahili Research, UIXM
Dr Chuwa, Institiitc ,ifKisnahili R2search. IJDSM
Ilr i .'I Msan.jila. liisti1.it: cif Kiswahi'i Research. IJDSM
73
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
41.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
Mr S. Scwangi. Inslitulc of Kiswahili I<esearcli,UiXM
Mr C.T.Ilwcrigc. Iiistiiiitc of Kiswiiliili Rcsciircli, IJiXM
I>r li. Cliiduo,institute oíKiswiiliili I(csciirc1i. 0I)SM
Ms J. Y uiiibi, Iiistiliilc oí Kiswaiiiii I<csc;ircli. Ui)SM
Mr F.Malangaliia, lringa
ih M.Mvuiigi.c/oNatioiial Miisciiiii
Dr A. Kishe, BAKITA
Ms D.Mwaituka. BAKITA
Mr Moliamcd Mwinyi,BAKITA
Mr Akida Harnisi, UKUTA
Mr E.Mollcl,Directorate of Arts and Language
Ms P. Dumea, Directorate of Arts and Language
Dr A.J.Saffari, Chu0 cha Diploniasia Dar es Salaam
Mr Kiputiputi. Chuo cha Biashara,Dar es Salaam
Mr C.W.leinu. Moshi
Prof.G.Mhina,Dodoma
Mr Peler A. Nyambasi,Uagarnoyo Collcgc of Arts
Mr N.Karckezi. BAKITA
Ms M.Mbeo,BAKITA
Mr Mohamed Mwinyi,BAKITA
Mr S.J. Maina,Ministry of Education and Culture
F.2 ZANZIBAR
OKAL 'I'ibîDiï'IONSJ(r LANGUAGIS
I.
Ali Mwalimu Rashid, 'I'AKII,UKI,Zaiizibar
2.
3.
4.
5.
i larnad Dakar Mshiiido,'I'AKiLUKi,Zanzibar
Asha Mhcne Hamad,TAKILUKI,Zanzibar
Mmanga Mjenge Mjawiri,TAKILUKI,Zanzibar
Abbas Makame Ndungi,TAKIIJKI,Zanzibar
Maryam Aiimed Darweisli,TAKILUKI,Zanzibar
Ilassan Gora liaji,TAKILUKI,Zanzibar
Omar Salim Moh'd,TAKILUKI,Zanzibar
Salim Hamad Ali,TAKILUKI,Zanzibar
Abdalla Moh'd Ali,TAKILUKI,Zanzibar
Abdalla Rashid Juma,TAKILUKI,S.L.P203,Chakc Chakc,Pemba
ilaji Chum Mussa, S.L.1' 882,Zanzibar
Shaiiiouii i lashirn, S.L.P772,Zanzibar
Abdalla Rashid Mdowe,S.L..P Nkurumah,Zanzibar
Moh'd Ugoda,S.L.PNkurunidi,Zaiizibar
Ashn ilamis Ilnmnd.S.I..P 882.Zanzibar
Abdura7A Ali Salim,Wizara ya Eliniu,Zanzibar
Ali Bakar, S.L.P203,Zanzibar
6.
7.
8.
9.
I o.
I I.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
74