Lost in the Fun House: A Commentary on Anthropologists' First Contact with History
Museums
Author(s): Cary Carson
Reviewed work(s):
Source: The Journal of American History, Vol. 81, No. 1 (Jun., 1994), pp. 137-150
Published by: Organization of American Historians
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Lostin the Fun House: A
on Anthropologists'
Commentary
FirstContactwithHistoryMuseums
CaryCarson
Timesaretoughforanthropologists.
It wasbad enoughto getkickedoutofthe
ThirdWorldbythefolkswhohadoncebeenthesubjects
oftheirfieldwork.
Then
wordgotbackthattheyhadbeenplaying
unwitting
accomplices
totheimperialist
pooh-bahs
themwiththelanguage
their
conbyproviding
andstereotypes
tojustify
tinuedcontrol.
So hometheanthropologists
theirtailsbehind
came,dragging
them."Toescapetheentanglements
ofourcolonialist
EricGableand
heritage,"
Handlerrecently
skills
Richard
explained,
"manyofus haveturned
ouranalytical
oncolonialism
itself,
andoncolonial
rather
thanoncolonized
representations,
sub"isan excellent
jects."TheAmerican
history
venuefor
museum,
theydiscovered,
thissortofanalysis.'"1
Butnotonewithout
newdangers
researchers.
forunwary
LastyearGableand
in
Handlerpublished MuseumAnthropology
a hair-raising
accountofmisadventuresthatbefellthemclosertohome.Thearticle
deserves
noticeherefortheperitbrings
spective
totheircontribution
tothisjournal."Despitetheimageofopen
accesswhichmuseum
rhetoric
wequickly
cultivates,
learnedthattheseinstitutions
couldbe as autocratically
closedas anyAlbania."Doorsslammedin theirfaces.
Directors
ignored
theircalls."Annoyed
andbewildered
bytheserefusals,"
andbe"wehad,perhaps,
lieving
ofopenness,"
beenbeguiled
bythediscourse
theyhitrock
bottom.
Finally
pullingthemselves
together,
theydecidedtheirdisappointments
mighthavea silver
liningafterall. Maybe"weshouldhavebeengrateful"
to the
"forrevealing
uncooperative
museums
tous something
oftheinstitutional
politics
theexhibits
andrepresentations
thatarethemuseum's
underpinning
publicface."2
totheColonialWilliamsWiththisnewgripon reality,
theymadeapplication
DennisO'Toole,thenthechief
education
andI persuaded
burgFoundation.
officer,
theorganization
were
togivethema break.Thistime,though,
GableandHandler
nottobe snookered
determined
byanybody.
Theywouldkeeptheireyesopenand
forresearch
at ColonialWilliamsburg.
CaryCarsonis vice-president
Whennotrulingwithan ironfist,he studies
and writesabout earlyAmericanhistory,
materialculture,and the roleofhistory
museumsas publiceducators.
I EricGable and RichardHandler,"Colonialist
at ColonialWilliamsburg:'MuseumAnthroAnthropology
pology,17 (Oct. 1993), 26-31, esp. 26.
2Ibid., 26-27.
The Journalof AmericanHistory
June 1994
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137
138
TheJournal
ofAmerican
History
June1994
theirmouthsshut.We were"grateful
to ourpatrons,"
theyrecalledlater,"butalso
curiousabout theiragenda.What wasin it forthem?"Theypondereddeeplyon
thismatter("wespenthoursspeculating
on theirprofessional
motives").Eventually
they"concocteda TrojanHorsetheory."
TheydecidedthatO'Toole and I mustbe
plottingto use themas "ostensibly
unbiasedexpertswhoseacademicauthority
wouldlend weightto insiderintellectuals'
indevelopingcritiqueof institutional
ertia."At firsttheykepttheirsuspicionsa secret.But, as timewentby and they
foundtheyshared"an intellectualoutlookand values"withtheirpatrons,they
graduallylet downtheirguard."Likeanthropologists
drinkinggin and tonicson
thecolonialofficer's
veranda,whenwe wentto dinnerwiththehistorians,
we had
conversationswith them ratherthan interviews..
.
. We rarelysubjected them to
quite the same anthropological
technology
thatwe turned,microphonein hand,
on boththe front-line
workforce
and the business-side
managers."3
Fraternizing
withthenativesis thefirst
Their
no-noofanthropological
fieldwork.
chumminess
He wrotethearticleentiwasnotloston an AssociatedPressreporter.
tled "U. Va. Scientists
Tours"thatGable and HanExamineQuirkyWilliamsburg
dlerquote in theiressayin thisjournal,theone thatended withmyanalogybein museumsand a parlorgame.4
tweenthe transmission
of information
likea bombshell.Once again
The newspaperstoryhit the twoanthropologists
theywereastonishedby the reaction,as theyconfessat lengthin the pages of
Museum Anthropology.Oy-oy-oy!
thingswere gettingconfusingagain! "Our
friendson thefrontline wereangeredbythisarticle."They"feltwe had betrayed
theirtrust.We, in turn,feltwe had betrayed
our informants."
Not onlyhad they
theinterpreters'
trivialized
workas "quirky"and "quaint,"but,theyconcede,"our
critical
appraisaloftheinstitutional
representation
ofhistory
had all tooeasilybeen
inintoa vice-president's
incorporated
mildlypaternalistic
critiqueoftheinevitable
The anthropologists'
"innoeptitudeof the corporation's
front-line
employees."
in a . .. warofculturalrepresencentlyoffered
critique"had become"ammunition
tations,as the YoungTurksstruggledto make a RepublicanDisneylandinto a
democratic
dismal-land."
Stricken
with"painedreflexivity,"
theyrealizedtoo late,
of
"as anyanthropologist
working
todayshouldhaveknown,thatan interpretation
the symbolism
of poweris also an enactmentof power."Frominsidethe Trojan
neitherconservahorse,theyhad "lostsightofthesimplefactthat. .. ultimately,
in challenging
tivesnorliberalsamongthecorporate
were
vicepresidents interested
in the museumhierarchy."
It was anotherhumiliating
existinglinesof authority
demonstration
of the oldestlessonin anthropology.
"Here,in short,"theysaw at
"wehavea colonialsituation,a colonialmenlast,hereat ColonialWilliamsburg,
in museumpractice."5
tality,re-created
Readersof theJournalofAmericanHistorywillbe glad to hearthatthistime
Gable and Handlerare prettysuretheyhave finallygot it straight.
3Ibid.,27-28.
4 D. W. Page,"U. Va. Scientists
ExamineQuirkyWilliamsburg
Town,"NewportNewsDaily Press,June24,
1990,P. C7.
5Gable and Handler,"ColonialistAnthropology
at ColonialWilliamsburg:"
30.
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Museums
withHistory
FirstContact
Anthropologists'
139
ofDocumentsat SomeAmericanHistory
on "TheAuthority
I openmycommentary
fromMuseumAnof the authors'trueconfessions
Museums"withthissummary
and research
prior
assumptions
their
own
because theretheyreveal
thropology,
moreclearlythantheydisclosethemhere.Likeme, Gable and Handler
strategies
Theybelieve,as I do, thatscholars'basicsocialand
are dedicatedconstructionists.
topicsand shapethehistortheirchoiceofresearch
influence
politicalorientations
evidenceand
theyrespecthistorical
ical conclusionstheyreach,howevercarefully
autobiographtheirownextraordinary
method.Byhappenstance,
followhistorical
giveus an unexpectedglimpseof the worldviewtheybroughtto
ical revelations
of theirwork.
the construction
deservediscussionin thesepagesifitweretheirsalone.
Thatviewwouldscarcely
and other
aboutColonialWilliamsburg
It isn't.Gable'sand Handler'sassumptions
widelyheld byuniversity
witha mythology
museumsare consistent
largehistory
theacademics,untoldnumbersof the generalpublic,and evensomeconspiracy
In myopinion,theseviewsarebecoming
oristsemployedbymuseumsthemselves.
thathaslessand less
Theyarepartofa museumfolklore
anachronistic.
increasingly
to do withpresentrealities.WereGable and Handlerto set the agendaforthis
theirmistakesand countertheir
discussion,I wouldbe leftto correct
round-table
oftheepisodestheyhavechosento
withmyowninterpretation
misrepresentations
describe.Readerswouldsimplyhaveto guesswhichone of us had comecloserto
thechance
opportunity,
wewouldall missa moreinteresting
thetruth.Meanwhile,
as a "buofColonialWilliamsburg
characterization
to debatetheanthropologists'
empremisethatinterpreters
museum"and examinetheirfundamental
reaucratic
are expectedonlyto "enlivenand embody
ployedbythisand similarinstitutions
As thepiecein MuseumAnthromeaningsalreadyestablishedbytheirsuperiors."6
mayowemoreto theauthors'ideologythanto
theseconclusions
pologysuggests,
theirresearch.
and instrucprovedto be as significant
itself-theirfieldwork-has
The research
tiveas O'Tooleand I hoped itwouldbe whenwe invitedEricand Richardto make
theirfirst
majorcase study.Those of us theynowdescribe
ColonialWilliamsburg
aremuchamusedto learnthattheygaveus suchhigh
as "theinsiderintellectuals"
I am almostashamedto admit
marksforpoliticalsavvyand tacticalmaneuvering.
thatO'Tooleand I had nothingmoreingeniousinmindthanlettingthemuse Coloapproachto history
nial Williamsburgas a testsite fortheir"anthropological
museums."They told us theywanted to investigate"the way museumsselfTheywereeagerto probethe"deeperculturalvalues
history."
construct
consciously
in a
as a public institution
inherentin the museumitselfand its functioning
So
to
too.
we
said,
us,
Those
like
sounded
questions
interesting
democratic
society."
sure,whynot?7
6 EricGable andRichard
ofDocumentsat SomeAmericanHistory
Museums:'Journal
Handler,"TheAuthority
ofAmericanHistory,81 (June1994), 119-36,esp. 120.
Study
Village:An Ethnographic
7 Richard
Handlerand EricGable,"TheHistoricHouse and theReconstructed
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140
ofAmerican
History
TheJournal
June1994
O'Tooleexpresident,
In recommending
theprojectto ColonialWilliamsburg's
plainedthat"Handleris a seriousscholar,not a journalistor academiccelebrity."
althoughsome
and insightful,
He predictedthat"wewillfindhisworkinformative
his data."
withthewayhe categorizes
and interprets
ofus willnot be comfortable
as beingin thebusiHe continued:"HandlerseesplaceslikeColonialWilliamsburg
of experienceand theirsubsequentcomness of 'the illusoryindividualization
moditization.'
Got that?This is sophomorelevel'culturalhegemony'theory.Forin hissubjectand too empirically
mindedto let
tunately,
Handleris too interested
shacklehim."8
thisanemicintellectualframework
werenotdisappointedbytheempiricaldatathatRichard,Eric,
Our expectations
Anna Lawsoncollected.The middle-level
and theirgraduatestudentcollaborator
havealso provedextraorinsightsthatthetriodrewfromtheircollectedfieldwork
that
dinarilyvaluable.Fromthe start,theirresearchzeroedin on the distinction
or,
fact"and "educatedguesswork,"
manymuseumpeoplemakebetween"objective
Some of theirearliestinteras somewouldprefer,
between"truth"and "fiction."
thatall of us
broughtto lightsomethingsignificant
viewsand fieldobservations
had missed.Wehavetakengreatpriderecently
whoworkforColonialWilliamsburg
in ourpresentation
Fairenough,saidHandler,Gable,and Lawson,
ofblackhistory.
ofslavesand whiteswerecouched
discussions
but werewe awarethatinterpreters'
as wellas whitesoftenspoke
in fundamentally
unequal terms?Blackinterpreters
In conAfrican-American
residents.
tentatively
aboutthetown'seighteenth-century
and asweremoreassertive
aboutCaucasiantownspeople
trast,theirpresentations
sured,evenwhenno morewas knownabout themas individualsthanabout individualblacks.Slaves'storieswereoftentold in the passivevoice and usually
collectively.
Theywereactedupon bymasters,bywhites,or simplyby the forces
weremorelikelyto portray
whitepeople as actors
whereasinterpreters
of history,
in theirown right.
inmeetings
with
toourattention
The anthropologists
first
broughtthesefindings
beingperceivedas
Theyexplainedthatblackhistory,
and interpreters.
supervisors
while the livesof men and
less documented,was made to sound "conjectural,"
womenof Europeandescentwerepresentedas "mattersof fact."Evenbeforethe
in an articlefortheAmericanEthnoloanthropologists
publishedthisinformation
thefoundationsBlack
circulated
widelythroughout
gist,copiesofthemanuscript
withremetalkedabout the problem.Theyexperimented
and whiteinterpreters
dies.Todaymostmakean honestattemptto use languagethatdoesnotmakesome
people'shistoryseem morereal thanit actuallyis, or otherpeople'slessso.
application.
The wholefact/conjecture
issuegoesdeeperthanthisone interesting
of Documentsat Some AmericanHistory
The presentessay,"The Authority
Foundationarchives,
ofFourHistoryMuseumsin theUnitedStates:'proposal,[c. 1989](ColonialWilliamsburg
Va.).
Williamsburg,
memorandum,
Dec. 19, 1989,ibid.
8 Dennis O'Toole to CharlesR. Longsworth,
9 EricGable, RichardHandler,and Anna Lawson,"On the Uses of Relativism:
Fact,Conjecture,and Black
19 (Nov. 1992), 791-805.
AmericanEthnologist,
and WhiteHistoriansat ColonialWilliamsburg,"
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Museums
withHistory
FirstContact
Anthropologists'
141
understand
their
exploresideasthataresureto helpmuseumhistorians
Museums,"
and educatedguessvalueoffactualknowledge
ownambivalence
abouttherelative
practicesat Colonial
haveshed lighton current
work.Again,the anthropologists
Clearly,historiansand
Williamsburgthat need correctionand improvement.
thattherearepedagogical
trainers
can do a betterjob ofexplainingto interpreters
sessions.Documents
sourcesusedin training
reasonsfortheselectionoftheprimary
Theyrevealtheirmeaningthroughthe
do not speakforthemselves.
and artifacts
to others,arrangethemin one
whoselectsomein preference
and teachers
historians
themto mean this,notthat.Everyinterorderratherthananother,and interpret
preterneeds to understandthiscreativeprocess,whetheror not he or she makes
I haveno doubtthatinstructors
at ColonialWilliamsthatidea explicitto visitors.
themintofuture
fromthesepages and incorporate
burgwill liftlessonsdirectly
trainingsessions.
usefulinsights
maybe expectedfromMessrs.Gable and
Stillotheroperationally
a footnotereferHandlerin themonthsand yearsto come.I notewithtrepidation
entitled"Deep
to anotherblast,soonforthcoming,
encein MuseumAnthropology
Whetherourarchaeologists
Dirt:Messingup thePastat ColonialWilliamsburg.'"1
or someoneelse shouldtakecoverfromthissalvoonlypublicationwill tell. The
pointis this:If thesetwoneverwroteanotherwordabout ColonialWilliamsburg
repaidfor
we wouldconsiderourselveshandsomely
(dear God, hearour prayer!),
bookabout
ourcooperation
and hospitality.
We fullyexpectthattheirforthcoming
forwhichthesearticlesareonlytrials,willcontaina treasure
ColonialWilliamsburg,
about teachingand learningin our
troveof reliableand practicalinformation
shelfforyearsto come.
museum.It willoccupyan honoredplace on thereference
Thisand theirotherrecentarticleslead me to believethatGable and Handler's
book will be a workof fictionwhereit presumesto describethe complexprocess
They
at ColonialWilliamsburg.
ofplanningand delivering
educationalprograms
communitiestheyhave chosento studyas "the
the ethnographic
characterize
that most largemuseumshave become."
bureaucratized
corporations
nonprofit
to thegeneralpublicis a "highly
Theywouldhaveus believethatteachinghistory
Fromthere,it is an easystepto a corollary
stratified
business"in suchorganizations.
at ColonialWilliamsburg
interpretation
to them,historical
According
proposition.
addegrees
and byupper-level
is dictatedfromon highbyhistorians
withadvanced
the grunts,are expectedto toe the partyline,
employees,
Front-line
ministrators.
nothingmore.As thetwoofthemsee it,"Ata museumsuchas ColonialWilliamsmeansensuringthatthe storiesthathavebeen chosenat
burg,managinghistory
are the storiesthat reachthe
the highestlevelsof the administrative
structure
public.'"II
anxiousto
thattwoconstructionist
No one shouldbe surprised
anthropologists,
atoneforthe sinsof colonialism,havefoundexactlywhattheycame lookingfor.
at ColonialWilliamsburg,'31.
Gable and Handler,"ColonialistAnthropology
1 Gable and Handler,"Authority
of Documtns,'120, 122, 124.
10
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142
TheJournalof AmericanHistory
June1994
toworkout
villages
havetakentwoorthreegenerations
Historic
housesandmuseum
In themid-1960s,
an effective
matchbetween
theirmediumandtheirmessage.
andfurniture
ColonialWilliamsburg
interpreted
architecture,
gardens,
crafts,
Visitors
craft
demas partsofsocialhistory.
themthrough
experienced
onstrations
byskilledtradesmen
andon guidedtours
performed
andheritage,
hostesses.
History
appealing
led bycostumed
to universal
wereviewedas something
principles,
political
andmoresignificant
thandailylife.
different,
separate,
ColonialWilliamsburg.
Courtesy
We can be disappointedthattheyforcedtheirevidenceto fitthe preconceived
"sophomorelevel culturalhegemonytheory"theystartedwith in 1989. Their
thatI cannotreconcilewithmyown
working
premisecontainsseveralassumptions
orwithmyacquaintancewithotherlargehisat ColonialWilliamsburg
experience
years.I willdeal withonlytwoofthem:the
torymuseumsoverthelasttwenty-four
First
accusationthatbigmuseumsdeliberately
and systematically
denyinterpreters'
controlthe
strictly
Amendment
rightsand thechargethatmuseumadministrators
educationalplanningprocessto protecttheirprofitmargins.
of anthropology.
Gable and Handlerare
First,museumsare not departments
lackaband individualinterpreters
rightaboutthat.Individualmuseumhistorians
soluteacademicfreedomto studyand teachwhatever
subjectstaketheirfancy.All
ofus arepartofa team,or,ifthatsoundstoocozy,weareall partofan organization
drivenbya single,agreed-upon,
educationalmission.In thisrespect,museumsare
like baseball teams or symphonyorchestras.
Ballplayersare discouragedfrom
makingtheirownrulesand oboistsfromplayingthenotesassignedto theviolins.
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FirstContactwithHistoryMuseums
Anthropologists'
143
sincethe late 1960shas laid the groundwork
Social history
scholarship
formuseuminterpretations
thatjoin all aspectsof eighteenth-century
lifeintoa unifiedhistoryof society.The sightsand soundsof
now became
the restoredtown,alwayspopularwithvisitors,
essentialelementsin presenting
ColonialWilliamsburg's
new centraltheme,"BecomingAmericans."
CourtesyColonial Williamsburg.
museumstaff
membersaresubjectto certainstatedtermsofemployment.
Likewise,
Museumsareno placefor
includecollaboration
and teamwork.
Thoserequirements
kind.
primadonnas,includingthe professorial
wholeness
mustachievea coherent
to be successful,
enterprise,
Everyintellectual
withitsmedium.A book mustadd up betweentwocovers.A filmor
consistent
lectureshang togetherin relation
a stageplayseeksdramaticunity.A professor's
coherence
museumachievesintellectual
to thecoursesyllabus.An outdoorhistory
whetherthe visitlaststwohoursor
in each visitor's
personallearningexperience,
town.We
classroomis a restored
thevisitors'
twodays.At ColonialWilliamsburg
and informaleducationalsetting.
are the teamteachersin thisveryunstructured
we believethatsomethingsabouttheeighteenth
As responsible
educators,
century
thatourjob aremoreworthknowingthanothers.It logicallyfollows,
therefore,
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144
TheJournal
ofAmerican
History
June1994
collectivelystartswithdecidingwhatthemostimportant
messagesare and then
figuring
out how to makethempartof everyvisitor's
experience.
To argue,as I haveelsewhere,
thatmuseumslikeoursoughtto be publicmeeting
inhistorical
placeswhereimportant
unfinished
ideasareexchanged
perspective
does
notprecludeour makinginterpretive
choicesas an institution.
Authorsof books,
filmmakers,
and newspaper
editorialwriters
participate
in ourdiscursive
democracy
all sidesof everyissue.We too takestands.Our latesteducawithoutpresenting
"The Williamsburg
tionalmasterplan statesthemexplicitly:
story-whichwe call
'BecomingAmericans'tellshowdiversepeoples,holdingconflicting
personalambitions,evolvedintoa societythatvaluedbothlibertyand equality,eventhough
theirpromiseremained,and stillremains,unfulfilled
formany."Interpretation
at
Colonial Williamsburgdeliberatelyexploresboth the historybehind critical
forcesthatsimulchallengesthatcurrently
divideAmericansocietyand thehistoric
taneouslyuniteit.12
in theiremphasison diversity,
Thosestatements
areprovocative
conflict,
thetensionbetweenliberty
should
and equality,and ourconviction
thatAmericanhistory
ultimately
be a storyabouttheprocessofnationmaking.Visitors
mayormaynot
becausetheissuestheyraiseare verymuchmattersin
agreewiththosestatements
contention.To presentour institutional
pointsof viewas cogentlyas we can, we
mustalreadyhavedebatedtheissuesamongourselves.
We hammerout ourposifromthe one thatGable and Handler
tionsin-housein a mannerverydifferent
-we
imply.Thenwestickto themuntilsomefuturetimewhen- againcollectively
are made,
willsurelyreopenthe discussion.Once decisionsabout the curriculum
orvice-presidents
individualhistorians,
areexpectedto pitch
curators,
interpreters,
in and do theirpart,justas baseballplayersareexpectedto playbaseballorconcert
less diminishesthecoherence
musiciansto followthe composer'sscore.Anything
of the visitor's
experience.
to robots
So, whatam I saying?Does our planningprocessreduceinterpreters
in leadingus to believethat
and theirskillsto rote?Aretheanthropologists
correct
onceupper-upsmakethebasicthemechoices,"makingsenseout ofhistorical
eviIfnotthem,
dence... is no longertheprimary
taskofmostmuseumeducators"?13
whowillmakesenseoftheevidence?Do ballplayers
haveto breaktherulesofthe
theirathleticability?Does a musicalscorestiflethecreative
gameto demonstrate
at ColonialWilgeniusof greatmusicians?No one writesscriptsforinterpreters
overallthemesarecollectively
liamsburg.Once theagreed-upon
arrived
at and subthemesassignedto appropriateplaces of exhibition,individualinterpreters
or
are encouragedto identify"talkingpoints"aroundwhich
groupsof interpreters
in particular
roomsor "stations."
Afterthat,
theycan organizetheirpresentations
as Gable and Handlermusthaveoverheard
hundredsoftimes,every
interpreter
goes
12 CaryCarson,"Front
and Center:LocalHistoryComesofAge,"in Local History,
NationalHeritage:Reflectionson theHistoryof AASLH, byFrederick
L. Rath,Jr.,et al. (Nashville,1991),67n116;CaryCarson,Christy
S.
Coleman,KevinP. Kelly,and WilliamE. White,BecomingAmericans:OurStruggleto Be BothFreeand Equal.
A Plan of ThematicInterpretation
(Williamsburg,
forthcoming).
13 Gable and Handler,"Authority
of Documents."120.
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Museums
FirstContact
withHistory
Anthropologists'
145
and originalas anyimaginacreative,
fresh,
"live."Eachisfreeto be as spontaneous,
plan. On second
followsa curricular
tive classroomteacherwho nevertheless
is a less accurateanalogythan
orchestra
thought,a baseballteamor a symphony
providesthe funa jazz ensemble.Programplanningat ColonialWilliamsburg
Beyondthatbasicchordpattern,all is
and harmonicstructure.
damentalrhythmic
havebecometheirowninspired
nota fewinterpreters
Overtheyears,
improvisation.
CharlieParkersand Dizzy Gillespies.
providesanotherguarantee
The centrality
to museumcurricula
ofsocialhistory
that interpreters'
voiceswill be heard,no matterwhat. Today,because of the
thereis a marriagebetweenthemediumand themesinfluenceofsocialhistory,
museums'deA signofhistory
sengerthatresistsdictatesfromhigherauthorities.
ofeveryday
thiscloserconnectionbetweenmuseumcollections
velopingmaturity,
who use themhas been a long timein themaking.
artifacts
and the interpreters
Mostwereconceivedby,and
Outdoormuseumscomefromsimilarbackgrounds.
orpatriot.
booster,
in theimageof,a foundingfather
ormother,
usuallya collector,
carriedout
A staff
oftenamateurswithlittleorno museumtraining,
oflieutenants,
weregraduthefounder's
vision.As theyearswentby,thesededicatedenthusiasts
archaeolocurators,
preservationists,
allysupersededbya newbreedofprofessional
forsettinggoals shifted
responsibility
gists,and museumhistorians.Inevitably,
to theseprofessionals.
fromthe patriarchs
Theirmetamorphosis
areonlythelatestand lastmuseumcareerists.
Interpreters
than
educators(moreadvancedat someinstitutions
fromdocentsintoprofessional
the
others)has giventhemclaimto a sharein theplanningprocess.Socialhistory,
in
claim.
to
validate
that
came
just
time
along
outdoormuseuminterpreter's
metier,
learn
Visitors
The explanation
liesin thevisualnatureofthemuseumexperience.
objectsthattheysee withtheirown
mosteasilyand bestfromthree-dimensional
eyes.Listeningto guides and readinglabels are secondaryand supplementary.
and howtointerpret
Museumpeoplemakechoicesaboutwhichobjectstohighlight
useofonlya fraction
madeprimary
them.AtColonialWilliamsburg,
interpretation
of the restoredtownduringits firstfiftyyears.As long as its most important
devotionofourforehighpurpose,and [the]unselfish
lessonstaught"patriotism,
werethelegislative
fathers
to the commongood,"themostimportant
classrooms
in
Raleigh
House ofBurgessesand theextralegislative
chambers thereconstructed
repairedin 1769 and 1774 to plot the boycott
Tavern,to whichrumplawmakers
crisiswithParliament.14
of Britishgoods and to debate the gathering
The Capitol and the Raleigh Tavernconsequentlyfiguredamong the first
founderand benefactor,
John
buildingsrebuiltat the directionofWilliamsburg's
from
therestofthetownto "freeitentirely
D. Rockefeller,
Jr.He wenton to restore
thebeautyand charmof
as wellas to preserve
alienorinharmonious
surroundings
Butthesepleasantsightsservedonlyas a backdrop
theold buildingsand gardens."15
14 JohnD. Rockefeller,
Jr.,"The GenesisoftheWilliamsburg
Restoration,"
NationalGeographicMagazine,71
(April 1937),402.
15 Ibid.
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146
ofAmerican
TheJournal
History
June1994
his sonJohnD. Rockefeller
committee
as long as Rockefeller,
III, and an advisory
ofprofessional
historians,
includingSamuelEliotMorison,ArthurSchlesinger,
Sr.,
and ThomasWertenbaker,
believedthatColonialWilliamsburg
had "a roleto play
infurthering
thecauseoffreedom."
Challengedby"theideologicalconflict
between
a freesocietyand a police state,"JohnIII pressuredthe foundationin the 1940s
and 1950sto "participatein the makingof today'shistory-not simplyserveas a
reminderof the achievements
of the past."'16
The founders'
visiondimmedin theyearsfollowing
theseniorRockefeller's
death
fromthe board. A generationof professional
and his son'sresignation
curators,
and preservationists
craftsmen,
who came to theforein the 1960slackedthecold
zeal to makethemuseuma historical
thinktank.Theydid movemuseum
warriors'
educationa giantstepforward
byorganizing
interpretation
around"SixAppeals."
Each focusedon somethingvisitors
came to Williamsburg
to see-the buildings,
gardens,furnishings,
crafts,
archaeological
excavations,
and, ofcourse,earlyAmerican "history
and heritage,"
recollected
mostcogentlyand visiblyon toursof the
capitalcity'spublicbuildings.The SixAppealsenlargedthecorecurriculum,
to be
sure,but alongveryacademiclines.Theydividedthe visitor's
experienceof Williamsburg
intotheseparatedisciplines
represented
bytheprofessionals'
specialties,
namely,architectural
history,
horticulture,
decorative
arts,history
oftechnology,
arand politicalhistory.
chaeologyand preservation,
Interpreters
became,in effect,
littleprofessors.
Theirlecturesand demonstrations
made fulleruse ofcertaincategoriesof objectsthan Williamsburginterpretation
had earlierdone. But they
use
the
the
restored
town
to
scarcelyhelped
public
understandthe people who
in the eighteenth
a community
made Williamsburg
century.
Thattaskawaitedthenextchangingoftheguardin themid-1970s.Sincethen,
newhiresto ourmuseumand to othershavetendedto sharean intellectual
tradiNow
tion,learnedin graduateschool,thatdrawsourdifferent
disciplinestogether.
in folkarelikelyto be trainedin materialculture,architectural
curators
historians
in anthropology,
lore and the studyof vernacular
buildings,archaeologists
and
in thenewsocialhistory.
historians
Furthermore,
and significantly,
career-minded
interpreters
increasingly
sharethisbackground.
Gable and Handlercan takesome
consolationin theironythatthehistory
museumtheyhavechosento studyhas alreadyembracedthe motherdisciplineof anthropology
and actively
promotesher
manyand variousoffspring.
The mostimportantconsequenceof thissharedanthropological
outlookhas
to represent
been ourcommitment
theeighteenth-century
commuWilliamsburg
have
nityfromtop to bottom.Forten years,scholars,craftsmen,
and interpreters
directedtheirenergiestowardreconstructing,
and reinterrestoring,
refurnishing,
pretinga slavequarter,a mentalhospital,a countycourthouse,
additionalworkof
placesforartisans,and numerousdomesticsettings
to theactivities
appropriate
16 Fromremarks
III to theVirginiaPressAssociation,
Jan.22, 1949;see "Williamsburg
byJohnD. Rockefeller
Bulletinof the VPA. (Feb. 1949), 9.
Is Challengedto the Future-SaysRockefeller,"
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Museums
withHistory
FirstContact
Anthropologists'
147
womenand children.Plansfora tenementand twomorequartersin townare on
the drawingboard.
thatexhavebecomevenuesforeducationalprograms
Thesere-created
settings
It is a storyabouttwo
centraltheme,"BecomingAmericans."
plorethefoundation's
peoples-one African,the otherEuropean-who met in a land untransplanted
theydevelopeddistinctively
familiar
toboth.Overthecourseofseveralgenerations,
white
and
cultures.
the
Byreconstructing
black
American,
different,
yetdistinctively
by furnishing
of Williamsburg's
ordinaryinhabitants,
dwellingsand workplaces
wellversed
interpreters
and byemploying
artifacts,
themwithutilitarian,
everyday
has made an investin socialhistory
and materialculture,ColonialWilliamsburg
muchhighhowever
hardto reverse
thatwouldbe extremely
mentin "totalhistory"
mightsomedaywishto do so.
levelbureaucrats
museumshouldtherefore
ceaseto evolve.
Thatis notto saythata socialhistory
whoplayeda rolein
to repopulatethetownwitheveryone
Ourshasn't.The effort
centuryhas graduallyled to the same fragmentation
in the eighteenth
its affairs
areprominent
among
Interpreters
thatplaguessocialhistory
scholarship
generally.
connecttoooftenlacks"community
thosewhocomplainthatthevisitor's
experience
as ifit and
edness."Theyexplainthat"almosteverysiteand programis interpreted
its [historical]inhabitantshad no connectionwithany othersite or personin
town."17
of a reconstructed
Here again, the physicalintegrity
village givesmuseum
ofspecialized
an opportunity
to synthesize
thatwriters
and interpreters
historians
in itsfirstlifewas a
lack.Williamsburg
and teachersof proseminars
monographs
community,
althoughitspopulationwasdividedbyrace,wealth,
fullyfunctioning
thatbroughtindividualsand groups
gender,religion,and all theotherdifferences
thatmediatedtheir
intofrequentconflict.The formaland informalinstitutions
bedcourthouses,
stores,theaters,
commonlifestillline thecitystreets:churches,
rooms,and taverns.The challengeforus is to understandhow the institutions
thanothers.Butwork
tothegreater
advantageofsomeresidents
admittedly
worked,
of socialhistory
and materialculture,we should
theydid. As skilledinterpreters
connectedand controlled
thelivesofthe
be able to explainhowtheseinstitutions
in
we
now
been
at
such
to
include
whom have
theWilliamsburg
pains
townspeople
thecontriFutureprogram
development
alongtheselineswillonlystrengthen
story.
makesto outdoormuseumeducationand onlyconfirm
butionthatsocialhistory
will continueto be itsprincipalpublicspokesmen.
thatprofessional
interpreters
How open is the deliberative
processthatleads to the choiceof interpretive
museumlikeColonialWilliamsburg?
Not open at all, acthemesat a largehistory
cordingto Gable and Handler.That is the secondallegationI wantto challenge.
isa reliusuallyhesitatetoassumethata people'ssocialstructure
Anthropologists
The tableoforganizaable guideto thewaytheyorderroutinesocialtransactions.
atleast
hierarchy,
tionat ColonialWilliamsburg
probablydoesresemblea corporate
17 Learning
typeTeamReports,"
"History
Initiatives
Foundation,
Experience
TaskForce,ColonialWilliamsburg
18.
Foundationarchives),
script,Oct. 1993(ColonialWilliamsburg
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148
TheJournal
ofAmerican
History
June1994
deans, department
when comparedto the much denserlayeringof chancellors,
associates,and assistantsthat separatesthe presidentsof
chairs,full professors,
fromlowlygraduatestudents.Fifteenyearsago therewasa fairlyclear
universities
of anylargemuseum.
verticalline ofcommandrunningthroughtheorganization
have
beenpreachingdeconferences
museum
and
Professional
journals
No longer.
fora decadeormore.Museumadand projectmanagement
centralized
teamwork
areno excepThoseat ColonialWilliamsburg
havebeenthepreachers.
ministrators
leaderin collaborative
is recognizedas an industry
tion.Indeed,our organization
planning.The processcan be openedto admitevenmoresunshine,to be
program
are themessagemakersat
administrators
sure,but thenotionthatupper-echelon
is an anthropoloand interpreters
merelytheirmouthpieces
ColonialWilliamsburg
gists'fairytale.
masterplan. Seventeenyearsago,two
thefoundation's
Case in point:Rewriting
and a curatorwrote"TeachingHisan architect,
a teacher,an archivist,
historians,
formalplan of educafirst-ever
the organization's
toryat ColonialWilliamsburg,"
the authorswere
tion.18
Althoughit wasnot producedat corporateheadquarters,
presidentto writeit in secret
by ColonialWilliamsburg's
instructed
nevertheless
anyoneaboveor belowthem.Lastyear,we decidedto rewrite
withoutconsulting
as nightand day.FourauthorswereasThe
two
theplan.
projectswereas different
a research
and dramatist,
signedto thetaskthistime.Theyincludedan interpreter
who are also historians.Their searchfororhistorian,and two administrators
to all thirty-six
hundredemployeesto
ganizingthemesbeganwithan invitation
new bookson earlyAmericanhistoryand discussthemat a
read fourimportant
The bookclub disparticipated.
newlyorganizedbookclub. Fiftyor so co-workers
Someprewithrecentscholarship.
cussionsbroughtemployees'thoughtstogether
liminarythemesbegan to takeshape.
researchers,
curators,
withinterpreters,
The fourauthorsconsultedfrequently
thepreparation
studying
problemsconcerning
and otherswhoweresimultaneously
ofvisitors,
thephysicalappearanceof the restoredtown,and the
and orientation
Individualseagerto promotepet
ofthevisitors'
learningexperience.
organization
discussed
membersin turnfrequently
Committee
projectsmetwiththecommittee.
of
allAnother
round
and
division
eight,
meetings.
at department
theirprogress
washeldseveralmonthsaftertheworkbegan,when
employeemeetings
foundation,
Theseround-table
sestheauthorshad produceda precisoftheirthemestatement.
colleagues.A draftof the newplan apsionsattracted
upwardsof 125 interested
oftheeducation
Copiesweredispatchedto thefourcorners
pearedafterChristmas.
themto the presidentand senior
divisionin the same mailingthatdistributed
foreducationurgedall recipientsto "takenoteson
The vice-president
officers.
whereyouthinkthe contentis rightas wellas [on] whatis missing.Let us know
iftherearetopicsthathavetoo muchor notenoughemphasis.Do nothold back!
18
Foundation,"TeachingHistoryat ColonialWilliamsburg.
Committee,ColonialWilliamsburg
Curriculum
Foundationarchives);[CaryCarson,KevinKelly,
1977(ColonialWilliamsburg
A Plan ofEducation,"typescript,
1985).
([Williamsburg],
and Dennis O'Toole], TeachingHistoryat Colonial Williamsburg
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Museums
withHistory
FirstContact
Anthropologists'
149
Peopletookhimat hisword.The
commentsto CaryCarson."19
Send yourwritten
and breakroomsacrossthe
in boardrooms
draftbecamea hottopicofconversation
foundation.
of the newplan, "BecomingAmericans:Our Struggleto Be Both
Preparation
planningpractice
is thelatestand bestexampleofa collaborative
Equal,"
Freeand
thathas becomea habit overalmostten years.Projectmanagementtakesmany
names-design reviewcomformsat our museumand answersto manydifferent
planningteams,taskforces,and qualitycircles.All haveone
mittees,interpretive
of rank
people,regardless
thingin common.Theybringtogetherknowledgeable
educational
our
forplanning
and authority
orposition,and givethemresponsibility
arefewer
teamhasachievedthisideal,butovertimethefailures
Notevery
programs.
and the successesmorefrequent.
exceptto Gable and
Decentralizedmuseumoperationis old newseverywhere,
likeColonialWilMuseum,
Ford
theHenry
Handler.Severalyearsago,forinstance,
to plan major
system
projectmanagement
adopteda nondepartmental
liamsburg,
oftheNational
LastyearSpencerCrew,thenewlyappointeddirector
exhibitions.
askedvirtuInstitution,
MuseumofAmericanHistory(NMAH)oftheSmithsonian
reviewing
forces
on
task
serve
to
downto thelevelofservicepersonnel
allyeveryone
thepoliciesand practicesthatgovernthatgiantmuseum.Theseparalleldevelopcan hardlybe dismissed
mentsat HenryFord,NMAH,and ColonialWilliamsburg
most"bureaucratized"
as anomalies.These are the threelargest,mostcorporate,
country.
in
the
museums
history
comeup withtheidea that"atthetop ofthe
So wherehaveouranthropologists
and, in somecases,
curators,
historians,
officers,
executive
hierarchy,
administrative
Partly
choices"at ColonialWilliamsburg?20
makeinterpretive
trustees
deliberately
pubwriting,
whotoldthemthetruth.Thereareindeedworking,
frominformants
museum
at
our
posts
whoalsoholdadministrative
and curators
lishinghistorians
Bedirectors.
and sixdepartmental
eightofthem,to be exact:twovice-presidents
forenow,we supposedthatthatwasa good thing.Who wouldtheanthropologists
we think
preferto place in thesepositions?More"businesstypes"?Furthermore,
instituthe
in
making
role,
theseseniorscholarsshouldhavea hand,evena special
trainingand experiencecan
choices.Theirprofessional
tion'sbasic interpretive
hardlybe said to disqualifythem!
and (Heavenforfend!)
officers
As fortheothers,thenonacademicadministrative
in theorinterest
not
keen
undivided)
show
(if
thetrustees,
theycharacteristically
and individualsamongthemhavealwaysfelt
innovations,
interpretive
ganization's
opinions.But theyhaveneverin all myseventeenyears
freeto expressdissenting
pushedby
to abrogatemajorprograminitiatives
withthe foundationintervened
I been
once
have
Not
own
preferences.
interpretive
their
thestaffor to substitute
because
somebody
toldto changemytuneordownplaythisor thatkindofhistory
19 SteveElliottto EducationDivisionManagement
Jan.21, 1994(ColonialWilliamsburg
Team,memorandum,
Foundationarchives).
20
of Documents,"120.
Gable and Handler,"Authority
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150
TheJournal
ofAmerican
History
June1994
upstairsthoughtit mightdispleasetheticketbuyers.Thattiredold jab landsfew
solid puncheson museumstoday.
WhythenhavesomeofGable'sand Handler'sinterviewees
whisperedthisnonsensein theirears?Becauseeverylargenonprofit
organization
employssomepeople
who disagreewithitsmissionor are disappointedwiththeirownpieceofthepie.
"Philistines"
and "businessmen"
areconvenient
scapegoats.Otheremployees
raised
genuinecomplaints
thatcall ourattentionto seriousstructural
problemscommon
to corporateorganizations
everywhere.
Wheresupervisors
supervisesupervisees,
somewill abuse theirauthority.
Wherethe marketplace
determines
the value of
people's different
skills,issuesof "comparableworth"will arise.The "suitsand
skirts"at ColonialWilliamsburg
shouldspendmoretimeon thefrontline; more
"rank-and-file"
interpreters
shouldparticipatein book club discussions
and learn
to do research.
clock
and committee
Paperwork
meetingstaketimeoffeverybody's
thattheycould betterspendelsewhere.
Theseare realinstitutional
problemsthat
all ofus whoworkforlargemuseumsneed to attendto. It hardlyhelpsus understandand addressthemto insistthatDarthVadermade us do it.
Gable and Handlerbelieveotherwise.
We shouldaskwhy.Whyhavetheyseized
on authoritarian
ruleas thekeytounderstanding
else?Becausetheyhold
everything
an unshakableconviction
is the clockwork
thatdialecticalmaterialism
thatmakes
all the worldgo round.Everyoneis entitledto heror his culturally
constructed
TheoryofEverything.
But in ourtradition
ofscholarly
worldviews,howdiscourse,
evergrand,arestillsubjectto old-fashioned
rulesofevidence,testsforaccuracy,
and
rationalargument.An uncritical
dogmatismthatremainsmutedin thesepages,
in theircompanionpiece in Museum
Gable and Handlercrowfromthe rooftops
Anthropology.
Theirrapsoundslikethis.CapitalistWilliamsburg
is a slaveto "ticketreceipts."
To maximizeprofits,
"administrators
believethatteachinghistory
to a masspublic
[mustbe] as muchconcernedwith'entertainment'
as it is with'education."'One
withouttheotheris "unpalatable."Only"a sanitizedversionof thenation'spast"
can be "sold in the culturalmarketplace."
Productcontroltherefore
requirestopdownadministrative
control.Butbecausethesuccessoftheeducationalproductdeaupends on creatingthe illusionof openness,"the practiceof administrative
is maskedby"theprincipleofscientific
thority"
authority."
Theytellus thatin the
pieceprintedhere.Captainsofindustry
and a fewhigh-living
have
lackeyhistorians
createda "regimeoftruththatmystifies
itselfbymakingscholarship,
notcorporate
hierarchy,
appear as the ultimateauthority."
Big BrotherWilliamsburgcynically
foistson a gulliblepublic"thekindof inspirational
boosterism
thatsomepeople
... believemade our country
great."Meanwhile"thedirtytruthofour collective
past" getssquashedand sweptunderthe rug.21
Oh mygosh,I feelthegroundshifting
again!Who is hidinginsidethatTrojan
horse?Ifit'syou,EricGable and RichardHandler,pleasecomeout.It'sOK. Honest!
The classwaris over.They'vesoundedthe all clear.It's not too late to thinkthis
wholethingoverone moretime!C'mon back to Williamsburg!
All is forgiven!
21 Gable and Handler,'Colonialist
Anthropology
at ColonialWilliamsburg:'
27-28; Gable and Handler,"Authority
of Documents,"131.
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