Biodiversity and Human Health Linkages
Diversity
Entebbe Workshop 23-28 June 2002
of freshwater gastropods in lake habitats with or without
anthropogenic influences in Lake Victoria, Kenya
Charles N. Lange
National Museums of Kenya, Dept of Invertebrate Zoology, P.
Box 40658 Nairobi, Kenya
Exploration of freshwater snails in Africa has been running for many years with systematics,
medical and veterinary malacology as the priority subjects over the years. Over the years of
have investigated the impact of various factors on
malacological exploration,
snails. However, the role of human environmental disturbance on snail diversity patterns has
only been done superficially. But given the proceeding degradation of these freshwater
ecosystems in the developing countries particularly in tropical Africa, one would hypothesise
that human influences can impact snail diversity patterns. As such, comprehensive investigation
of the role of anthropogenic factors on snails’ diversity patterns, could probably contribute to
better understanding and management of problems associated with potential
diseases as well as molluscan conservation. The present study seeks to investigate the
influence of human environmental degradation on freshwater snail biodiversity and implications
on potential snail-borne diseases in Lake Victoria, Kenya. The project is currently six months old
and is being implemented using different snail sampling methods at selected highly disturbed
fishing beaches and least disturbed areas around Ndere and Mbita point region of Lake Victoria.
The first round of snail sampling has just been completed and snail identification is in progress.
An overall observation from this round of sampling was comparatively higher abundance of
pulmonate snails from the fishing beaches compared to the least disturbed areas. The project
will provide explanation on the viability of environmental conservation in control of schistosome
intermediate host snails. The project will also be a valuable foundation for formulation of
conservation management policies for the regional molluscan biodiversity, wetlands and wildlife.
Adaptation of Anopheles mosquitoes to urban environments
Charles Mbogo
Kenya Medical Research Institute, Centre for Geographic Medicine Research
P. Box 428,
Kenya
Investigating and understandingthe relationship among humans, the environment and insect
population dynamics is essential to the development of predictive models of insect adaptation to
changing urban ecosystems in Africa. In order to understand how increased human activity and
urbanization affect insect populations, geographic and ecological investigations were carried out
to examine possible spatial and temporal correlations between climatic changes, demographic
changes, socioeconomic status, variable water conditions, insect population dynamics, and
human behaviour. This study that was aimed at investigating the adaptability of Anopheles
mosquitoes in urban environment was conducted in Kisumu and Malindi towns, Kenya. We
stratified both cities based on the level of planning and drainage observed across the urban
areas. This resulted in five strata for each site: 1) planned, well drained; 2) planned, poorly
drained; 3) unplanned, well drained; 4) unplanned, poorly drained, and 5) rural. The stratification
enabled us to control for the strong environmental and topographical variation that we believed
would influence mosquito larval ecology.
The larval habitats and houses were mapped using GPS. Adult mosquitoes were collected
from the sampled houses using light traps and pyrethrum spreadsheet spray collections, while
mosquito larvae were sampled using the standard dipping technique. Sampling was done at
two-week intervals between April and September 2001. The mosquito adults and larvae were
were further identified by
identified using morphological features. Samples of An. gambiae
PCR.
Our preliminary results showed that 93% and 66% of the breeding habitats were
in Malindi and Kisumu, respectively. Anopheles mosquitoes were found breeding in diverse
larval aquatic habitats such as swimming pools, car tracks, ponds, flower gardens, septic and
water tanks. Among these larval habitats, car tracks and swimming pools produced the highest
number of Anopheles larvae. We have collected An. gambiae and An. arabiensis of the An.
gambiae complex, plus An. merus, a brackish-water adapted species in Malindi. On the species
24
Entebbe Workshop 23-28 June 2002
Biodiversity and Human Health Linkages
level, we predict that there are environmental (including climate) and human-influenced factors
that drive the dynamics of local populations on scale varying from single larval habitats to entire
cities.
In both Kisumu and Malindi, we observed very low densities of adult mosquitoes despite our
mosquitoes were locally abundant in many areas. We predict that
observations that
the abundance and quality of mosquito larval habitats depend upon interactions between rainfall
and physical conditions such as soil types and slope.
Strata 4, unplanned and poorly drained, are one of the poorest areas of the city that contain
the highest mosquito and human densities and the most sub-standard housing and living
conditions. We conclude that people living in these poorest areas have the highest risk of
mosquito exposure because their houses and communities are located next to aquatic mosquito
larval habitats.
Mapping the risk of malaria in Kyebe subcounty, Uganda
George Jared Ochieng
Institute of Environment and Natural Resources, Makerere University
P.O. Box 7298, Kampala, Uganda
Malaria is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in Uganda. It is responsible for 30%
morbidity in Rakai district. Previous studies in Uganda have mapped the mosquito breeding
habits through extensive field surveys. However, these conventional methods are expensive.
In this research, remote sensing (RS) and geographic information systems
which
have been used successfully elsewhere in malaria epidemiology, have been utilized. The major
objective was to use these techniques to map the risk of malaria in Kyebe subcounty and
identify the potential suitable sites for the construction of a new health centre.
(LUC)
Sample sites were selected by random sampling of the different land use and
types from a base map prepared by interpretation of 1 X 1 m digital camera images. Fourth
sampling dipper, segregated, identified
instar mosquito larvae were collected using a
and counted.
complex.
85.6% of the fourth instar larvae captured were of the Anopheles
Degraded papyrus which had 68.2% of all the fourth instar Anopheles mosquito larbae captured
was classified as the most highly preferred breeding habitat (mean number of larvae per dip =
0.23). 68% of Kyebe subcounty was within 2 kilometers of the degraded papyrus. This model
was validated by spatially comparing the distribution of risk with the distribution of population
density. There was a significant correlation (Kendall’s tau-b = -0.42, p = 0.37).
83.4% of the areas at risk of malaria did not have public health centres within 5 kilometers.
GIS techniques were used to determine the potential sites for the construction of a new health
centre, based on the fulfilment of desirable conditions of easy accessibility within a population
catchment area, areas at risk of malaria and areas not previously served by a public run health
facility.
Restricting the harvesting of Cyperus papyrus was recommended. Further research to
determine the critical mass of papyrus that proliferates Anopheles mosquitoes was suggested.
The molecular genetics study of Bulinus snails in Lake Albert
Nalugwa Allen
Molecular Biology
Makerere University, P.0.Box 7298, Kampala, Uganda
The high variability at the morphological level, as well as the small size and similarities
between Bulinus species complicate the correct identification of these snails. Using molecular
data allows direct comparisons of relative levels of genetic differentiation among closely related
organisms. Preliminary analysis of 225 base pairs of cytochrome oxidase subunit I of 69
morphologically similar Bulinus individuals from 5 populations revealed
haplotypes
defined by 11 polymorphic sites. Nucleotide diversity in the total samples was
but ranged
from 0.17% to 0.7% in the different localities.
Significant genetic differentiation was detected between the studied populations with a 4.7%
of the total variation partitioned between populations
= 0.02). Gene flow was low
25
Biodiversity and Human Health Linkages
Entebbe Workshop 23-28 June 2002
between populations despite the short geographical distances separating them, implying that
little or no dispersion occurs between them. The molecular biological techniques used in this
study enables access to more consistent information on the population structure and phylogeny
in Lake Albert. In addition, the study will later provide a starting point for
of the genus
determining those species playing a major role in schistosomiasis transmission.
Emerging issues in reproductive health care with respect to biodiversity management in
Western Uganda
Maud K.
Botany Department,
University
Maternal morbidity in Uganda is the number one cause of mortality (20.4%) followed by
malaria (1
acute lower respiratory infections
AIDS (9.1%) and
diseases (8.4%). Although maternal mortality is high, the major underlying cause is malaria
Pregnant women and children under age five are at high risk.
In western Uganda over 90% of females stay in rural areas, are less educated and have got
low social economic status compared to male counterparts. Therefore women and children
depend mainly on herbal remedies to treat most of the ailments. Particularly for pregnant
women who use medicinal plants that have oxytoxic activity to treat malaria put their lives at
stake or risk of death. Findings show that plants used as antimalarials can cause miscarriages,
premature birth, rupturing of the uterus membranes and death. Ethnobotanical studies have
been carried out in areas around Queen Elizabeth Biosphere Reserve where this has been
documented. Ethnopharmacological and microbiological studies have been carried out in the
laboratory to test the effectiveness of these medicinal plants of which some are active.
Generally, women are the victims of environmental degradation and biodiversity loss. Therefore,
the medicinal plants of value need to be conserved for future use. Furthermore, the cultures and
traditions of the local people need to be preserved/ conserved.
The issue of intellectual property rights
with reference to local people's indigenous
knowledge (IK) and patenting is crucial. The local people need to benefit from conservation
through bioprospecting in natural medicine. However, this is lacking in developing countries like
Uganda. More research in antimalarial herbs is necessary, dosage levels, toxicity and efficacy
studies; some plants are potent and further studies are required. Adding value to traditional
herbal remedies is a way of promoting biodiversity conservation and health related issues. The
26
23-28 June 2002
and Human Health Linkaaes
use of these potent plants would save poor nations like Uganda, the burden of importing
antimalarial drugs. Most of the medicinal plants used for malaria treatment are harvested from
wild populations.
conservation through domestication and propagation is commended.
Opportunities for developing ecosystem based malaria control strategies in vlei irrigation
(Ngwarati village system) schemes.
Moses Chimbari
University of Zimbabwe, Lake Kariba Reseach Station, Kariba, Zimbabwe
While the Broad-ridge and Broad-furrow tillage system is a novel technology from an
agricultural productivity perspective, it has health implications that need to be seriously
considered. The furrows usually retain a 30 cm depth water level which is almost stagnant for a
period of six months and in a very good rainy season, throughout the year. The conditions
provide perfect habitats for the vector mosquito that transmits malaria and for intermediate host
snails for schistosomiasis. Incidentally, every year regardless of it being a good or poor rainy
season, water is available in the Broad-furrows during the malaria season (February to April)
which also happens to be a good schistosomiasis transmission period. The rice crop demands
serious attention (de-weeding) during this period and thus encourages intensive human water
contact, which may put unprotected farmers at a high risk of contracting schistosomiasis.
Usually, vleis are surrounded by human habitation and therefore mosquitoes emerging from the
furrows have ready prey either indoors or within the rice fields in cases where farmers work late.
It is, therefore, likely that introduction of the Broad-ridge and Broad-furrow tillage system in a
vlei may result in an increase of malaria and schistosomiasis cases.
Vleis are only a small hectarage of areas inhibited by people and are often regarded as a
communal resource for grazing the local communal herd. The question of who individually
benefits from the Broad-ridge and Broad-furrow tillage at the expense of others who lose their
grazing areas remains a thorny issue in affected communities. It is definitely not possible for
every member of the community to directly benefit from exploitation of a vlei through the
ridge and Broad-furrow tillage system and, therefore, a mechanism to appease the
disadvantaged needs to be worked out.
There are probably more positive than negative implications arising from development of
Broad-ridge and Broad-furrow tillage units. On top of the list is the obvious agricultural
productivity. Increased productivity translates to a reduction in malnutrition and increased"dollar
power" for the communities. It is important that these benefits are systematically documented
and weighed against the negative impacts in order to calculate the net benefit or loss of
exploiting vleis for agricultural purposes.
The agricultural benefits of the Broad-ridge and Broad-furrow tillage system are known
already. The health implications of this technology have not been considered at all, while the
socioeconomic impacts of the system have not received adequate attention. Given that
Zimbabwe is endowed with approximately 1.2 million hectares of wetland areas with 20% of
them in communal areas, exploitation of vleis in a sustainable way (little negative impact) is
desirable. Indeed, the technology is transferable to other African countries with similar
ecosystems. The major outcomes of the proposed study will, therefore, be the determination of
impacts of the Broad-ridge and Broad-furrow tillage system and development of measures to
prevent or mitigate the identified negative impacts as well as promoting the identified
opportunities. The study is expected to provide evidence that will lead to relaxation of legal
restrictions on exploitations of vleis for agricultural purposes.
General objective
To assess the impacts of the Broad-ridge and Broad-furrow tillage system on transmission of
malaria and schistosomiasis as well as other socioeconomic impacts.
Specific objectives
To monitor the abundance of the vector malaria mosquito and intermediate host snails for
schistosomiasis in areas under vlei cultivation and in control vleis (no crop production).
To compare health centre statistics of malaria and schistosomiasis in health centres close to
areas under vlei cultivation and areas where there is no vlei cultivation.
27
Entebbe Workshop 23-28 June 2002
Biodiversity and Human Health Linkages
To determine the prevalence and incidence of malaria and schistosomiasis in areas under
vlei cultivation and control areas through active surveys.
To assess the socio-economic impacts of vlei cultivation on the communities within the study
areas and surrounding areas.
To develop an intervention strategy that prevents or mitigates transmission of malaria and
schistosomiasis in cultivated vleis.
Schistosomiasis in southern Lake Malawi: driving forces, determinants and control
Peter Furu
Danish
Jaegersborg Alle
2920
Denmark
In the last few decades the interrelationship between development, environment and health
has received increased attention in the scientific community. It is recognizedthat health hazards
are being directly or indirectly influenced by various determinants leading to changes in health
outcomes.
Of the many environment-related health problems existing in Malawi, schistosomiasis in the
southern part of Lake Malawi has received special attention because of its impact not only on
disease burden in the local populations, but also because of a resulting dramatic adverse effect
on the tourism industry of the country.
Lakeshore communities as well as expatriates and international tourists have witnessed a
considerable increase in prevalence of urinary schistosomiasis over recent years, probably
correlated to a chain of socio-economic, environmental and institutional determinants such as
increasing population density, migration, overexploitation of natural resources and an
undeveloped health infrastructure.
According to local chiefs in villages near the Lake Malawi National Park area at the
Nankumba Peninsula, a high influx of fishermen from the north to the area was seen in the
1980s and 1990s. People were attracted by the fishing potential as well as by opportunities for
income generation related to park tourism, and the high population pressure may have
increased the transmission potential. The demand for food and cash has increased the
exploitation of the natural fish resources and it has been hypothesized that the increase in
urinary schistosomiasis transmission could, at least partly, be due to over-fishing resulting in a
decline in the density of molluscivorous fish species.
lntersectoral action is suggested in disease control and future protection of human health
thereby contributing to a sustainable solution to environmental health problems to the benefit of
the lake environment, the local communities and the ailing tourism industry in Malawi. Capacity
building on environmental health issues at appropriate levels in relevant sectors will be the first
step towards long-term solutions.
Workshop evaluation
Prior to the final reflections on the outcome of the workshop and the closing ceremony, the
participants were invited to take part in an evaluation exercise. They were given 20 minutes to
fill in a purposely designed evaluation form with questions relating to the acceptability,
effectiveness and efficiency of the workshop. The analysis of the results is presented in Annex
5.
Final reflections
In the reflection on the outcome of the workshop, one participant proposed the establishment
of a substantial new initiative with a Secretariat to support it and a strategy to mobilize
considerable funding in support of relevant activities in the countries. Most other participants
favoured a more modest step-by-step approach which would address, at the country level, a
number of the issues identified at the workshop, with relatively loose networking to keep the
momentum of the workshop going. The creation of local ownership of the concepts was a
awareness creation had taken
critical issue. There was general agreement that once
place at the country level, institutional linkages had been established and political will had been
28
Entebbe Workshop 23-28 June 2002
Biodiversity and Human Health Linkages
expressed, a leap forward towards an initiativeof greater dimensions would be a next important
step. Most felt, however, that taking that step now implied too many risks that the initiative
activities going would be virtually
might fail and a second attempt to get
impossible. Moreover, some countries had only been represented by one of the two relevant
sectors and their first task would be to prime their counterparts in the other sector.
One possible bottleneck was perceived in the links between academic institutions and the
government (public sector) institutions. There often were diverging interests between these two
and their links should be clarified in terms of essential research questions for improved public
sector functioning and research work that would leave sufficient room for academia. It was
considered a missed opportunity that National Research and Technology Councils had not been
represented at the workshop.
Most countries would need a focal point for follow-up, and a strategic plan should be
formulated that would involve all stakeholders, including relevant
Workshop press release
As an immediate follow-up to the workshop proceedings a press release was written and
endorsed by the organizers and participants and submitted to the local
press office
(see Annex 6).
29
23-28 June 2002
Biodiversitv and Human Health Linkaaes
ANNEX 1
Composition of the Organizing Committee and the Scientific Committee
Organizing committee
Dr Narcis Kabatareine
Dr Panta Kasoma (MUIENR, Uganda)
Mr Peter Furu (DBL, Denmark)
Dr Thomas K. Kristensen (DBL, Denmark)
Ms Henriette Aaen (DBL, Denmark)
Scientific committee
Dr Silvester Nyakanaa Adyeri (MUIENR, Uganda)
Mr Robert Bos (WHO, Switzerland)
Mr Peter Furu (DBL, Denmark)
(UNEP, Kenya)
Dr Hiremagalur
Dr Narcis Kabatareine (VCD, Uganda)
Dr Panta Kasoma (MUIENR, Uganda)
Dr Susana W. Kimani-Njogu(ICIPE, Kenya)
Dr Thomas K. Kristensen (DBL, Denmark)
Dr Wilber Lwambe (ICIPE, Kenya)
30
Enfebbe Workshop 23-28 June 2002
Biodiversity and Human Health Linkages
ANNEX 2
Sundav 23 June 2002:
15.00: Arrival and registration
17.00: informal opening: Welcome by Thomas K. Kristensen, Danish Bilharziasis Laboratory
(DBL), Copenhagen, Denmark
Dinner
Mondav 24 June:
11.oo
Registration
Introduction of participants and organizers
DBL, Copenhagen)
Stage setting (R. Bos, WHO, Geneva), Chair of workshop sessions (H.N
UNEP, Nairobi)
11.20:
11.35 Theme presentation 1: Ecosystem goods and services in the promotion of human
Kasoma,
Kampala)
health and well-being
12.05: Theme presentation 2: Ecosystemdisturbance, biodiversity loss and their implication for
human health (R. Bos, WHO, Geneva)
12.35: Questions to theme presentations by participants
12.50: Lunch
13.30: Introduction and group work on “Generation of
issues matrix”
(Anchor and Facilitator R.
WHO, Geneva and Facilitator P.
DBL,
Copenhagen)
15.00:
15.30-18.00: Group work on ”Generation of
issues matrix”
(R. Bos, WHO; P. Furu, DBL)
19.00: Dinner
20.00: Coffee - “Discussion Club”: Informal presentation of short papers
Tuesdav 25 June:
08.30:
09.00:
09.30:
10.00:
10.30:
11.OO
11.30:
Plenum - wrap-up of yesterday’s proceedings
Group presentation- Development of matrix (Group 1)
Group presentation - Development of matrix (Group 2)
Group presentation - Development of matrix (Group 3)
Group presentation - Development of matrix (Group 4)
Plenum - Introduction to the WHO “DPSEEA model” (R. Bos, WHO)
31
Entebbe Workshop 23-28 June 2002
and Human Health
12.00 Group work on “DPSEEA model”
Bos, WHO; Furu, DBL)
12.30 Lunch
13.30 Group work on “DPSEEA model” (R. Bos, WHO;P. Furu, DBL)
15.00: Coffeeflea
15.30-16.30: Group work on “DPSEEA model” (R. Bos, WHO;P. Furu, DBL)
16.30-18.00: Plenum: Group presentations and discussion on “DPSEEA model” (R. Bos, WHO)
19.00: Dinner
20.00: Coffee - “Discussion
Informal presentation of short papers
Wednesdav 26 June:
08.30: Plenum - wrap-up of yesterday’s proceedings
09.00: Plenum: Introduction to group work on “Knowledge base validation” (R.
WHO)
09.20: Group work on “Knowledge base validation” (R. Bos, WHO;P. Furu, DBL)
10.30:
- Brief introduction to field trip Jinja and Bujagali (P.
11
Coffeeflea
11.15: Departure for field trip
13.00: Lunch on arrival in Jinja
13.45-16.30: Touring the field site (Source of the Nile and stretch near proposed hydro-power
dam site)
18.30: Return from field trip
19.00: Dinner
Thursdav 27 June:
08.30: Plenum - wrap-up of yesterday’s proceedings
09.00: Group work on “Knowledge base validation”
11
11.20: Group presentation (Group 1)
Group presentation (Group 2)
12.00: Group presentation (Group 3)
Group presentation (Group 4)
12.45: Lunch
13.30: Plenum - consolidation of group presentations on “Knowledge base validation”
(R. Bos, WHO)
14.00: Introductionand group work on “Creating the enabling environment for
disciplinary research: Support through awareness creation, policy adjustment,
establishing inter-institutional linkages” (R. Bos, WHO;P. Furu, DBL)
15.00:
15.20-17.30: Group work on “Creating the enabling environment for cross-disciplinaryresearch:
Support through awareness creation, policy adjustment, establishing inter-institutional
linkages” (R.
WHO;P. Furu, DBL)
17.30-18.00: Plenum: Brief summary of the health aspects of the EIA of the Bujagali Hydropower Project (R. Bos, WHO)
Dinner
Informal presentation of short papers
20.00: Coffee - “Discussion
32
1
Entebbe Workshop 23-28 June 2002
Biodiversityand Human Health Linkages
ANNEX 3
List of Participants
Name
1
Mr Peter Furu
2
Dr Thomas K. Kristensen
3
Mr Aslak Jsrgensen
Ms Henriette Aaen
(Training Programme
4
5
6
Dr
Njogu
W.
Dr Hiremagalur N. B.
Dr Charles N. M. Mbogo
7
Dr Richard Kiome Bagine
8
Mr Charles N. Lange
Dr Edwin bibamba
Mr
F L Matatiyo
I
Institution
Danish Bilharziasis Laboratory
Jaegersborg Alle 1 D
2920 Charlottenlund
Denmark
Danish Bilharziasis Laboratory
Jaegersborg
1D
2920 Charlottenlund
Denmark
Danish Bilharziasis Laboratory
JaegersborgAlle 1 D
2920 Charlottenlund
Denmark
Phone: +45 77 32 77 82
Fax: +45 77 32 77 33
E-mail:
JaegersborgAlle 1 D
2920 Charlottenlund
Denmark
Fax: +45 77 32 77 33
Biosystematics Unit
The International Centre of Insect
Physiology and Ecology,
P.O.Box 30772
Nairobi
Kenya
Division of Policy Development and
Law
United Nations Environment
Programme, (UNEP).
P.O. Box 30552
Nairobi
Kenya
Kenya Medical Research Institute,
Phone:
Fax:
E-mail:
Centre for Geographic Medicine
Research, Coast
P.O. Box 428
Kenya
Kenya Wildlife Service
P.O. Box 40241
Nairobi
Kenya
National Museums of Kenya
P.O. Box 40658
Nairobi
Kenya
Malawi
Mzimba District
Box 131
Mzimba
Malawi
Ministry of Health and Population
Capital Hill
P.O. Box 30377
Lilongwe 3
34
Phone: +45 77 32 77 60
E-mail:
Phone: +45 77 32 77 37
Fax: +45 77 32 77 33
E-mail:
2 802501 ext. 3149
2 803360 or 8601
and
Phone:
Fax:
E-mail:
2 623246
2 623861
Phone:
Fax:
E-mail:
12522063
125 22390
net
Phone:
Fax:
E-mail:
2 506169
2 504133
2 742 445
Phone:
Fax:
2 741 424
E-mail:
Nzavi2001Qvahoo.com
Phone:
Fax:
E-mail:
342 222
342 238
or
mzirnba
Phone:
789 563
Fax:
789 431
E-mail:
[email protected]
Biodiversity and Human Health Linkages
Mr Bina Shaba
Mr Robert Bos
Entebbe Workshop 23-28 June 2002
Ministry of Health and Population
Communitv Health Sciences Unit
Private
65
Lilongwe
Malawi
Phone:
752 434 or 757
203 or
756 856
Fax: not working
E-mail:
[email protected]
[email protected]
WHO, PEEM Secretariat
Protection of Human Environment
20, Avenue Appia
1211 Geneva 27
Switzerland
Phone: + 41 22 7913555
Fax: +41 22 7914159
E-mail:
Uganda
of Health
13
Dr
14
Dr Panta M. B. Kasoma
15
Mr George Jared Ochieng
16
Dr Fred Wabwire-Mangen
17
Kabatereine
Ms Maud Karnatenesi-Mugisha
18
Mr Charles C. G. Walaga
19
Ms Rebecca Nalunkuuma
20
Mr Joseph Mulindwa
Vector
Division
15,
Road
P.O. Box 1661
Kampala
Uganda
Institute of Environment and Natural
Resources
Makerere University
P.O. Box 7298
Kampala
Uganda
Institute of Environmentand Natural
Resources
Makerere University
P.O. Box 7298
Kampala
Uganda
Institute of Public Health
Makerere University
P.O. Box 7072
Kampala
Uganda
Botany Department
Makerere University
P.O. Box 7062
Kampala
Uganda
The World Conservation Union,
P.O. Box 10950
Kampala
Uganda
UgandaWildlife Society
P.O. Box 7422
Kampala
Uganda
Uganda Environmental Education
Foundation
P.O. Box 5658
Kampala
Uganda
Phone:
41 25 1927
Fax:
41
6885
E-mail:
[email protected]
Phone:
41 533462 or
41 530135
Fax:
41 530134
E-mail:
Phone:
41 530135
Mobile:
77 416661
Fax:
41 347355
E-mail:
[email protected]
Phone:
Fax:
E-mail:
41
41 531807
imuI.
Phone:
Mobile:
Fax:
E-mail:
41
77 438905 or
41 530134
or
[email protected]
41 233738
Phone:
Fax:
41 342298
E-mail:
[email protected]
[email protected]
Phone:
41 530 891
Fax:
41 342 298
[email protected] or
hotmailo.com
beckiekibuu
41 290740
Phone:
Mobile: 256 77 642865
Fax: No
[email protected] or
[email protected]
35
Entebbe Workshop 23-28 June 2002
Biodiversity and Human Health Linkages
Zambia
Ms Monica M. Chundama
Ms FelicitasC. Mwale
Zambia Coordination Office
Plot 4978
Los Angeles Boulevard
Box 50551,Lusaka
Zambia
Ministry of Health
P.O. Box 30205
Lusaka
Zambia
Phone:
Fax:
E-mail:
1 253749
1 250404
Phone:
1 253053 or
253040
Fax:
E-mail:
1
Department of BiomedicalSciences
Tropical Diseases ResearchCentre,
TDRC
P.O. Box 71769
Ndola
Zambia
Central Board of Health
Ndeke House
P.O. Box 32588
Lusaka
Zambia
Central Board of Health
Ndeke House
P.O. Box 32588
Lusaka
Zambia
Planningand Development
Mazabuka District Health Board
P.O. Box 670263
Mazabuka
Phone:
Fax:
E-mail:
tdrcla
2 621112
2 6211 12
Phone:
Fax:
Mobile:
1
1 253173
96 780969
Phone:
Fax:
E-mail:
1 253179 or 81
1 253 173
Phone:
Fax:
E-mail:
32 30532
32 30532
Ministry of Health and Child Welfare
P.O. Box CY 1122
Causeway
Harare
Zimbabwe
Blair Research Institute
P.O. Box CY 573
Causeway
Harare
Zimbabwe
Phone:
4 728013
Fax:
4 728013
E-mail:
[email protected]
Phone:
Fax:
E-mail:
4 253 97518
4 253 979
Mr
Box A
91255070
9 67780 or 77915
Dr Moses J. Chimbari
Bulawayo
Zimbabwe
University of Zimbabwe
Lake Kariba ResearchStation
P.O. Box 48
Kariba
Zimbabwe
Mobile:
Fax:
E-mail:
Phone:
Fax:
E-mail:
61 3035 or 2981
61 3035
Mr James
Dr Joseph
Mr
Nyirenda
Mr George Mundia
Mr Alexander Chirnbaru
Mr Nzira Lukwa
Hospital
Revised 27 June 2002
Total of 30 participants
36
Biodiversity and Human Health Linkages
Entebbe Workshop 23-28 June 2002
ANNEX 4
Thematic presentations (copy of overhead presentation,
ECOSYSTEM GOODS AND
SERVICES IN THE
HUMAN
HEALTH AND WELL-BEING
Panta Kasoma
University
of Environment
Resources
presentation)
Introduction
.
Life, as we know it today, is the result o f
over 3.5 billion years of biological
evolution. Throughout all this time, each
organism has adapted to meet the demands
of the environment in which it lives. This
capacity to respond adaptively is mediated
through out he vast array of genes, species
and ecosystems that have evolved over
time.
Introduction Contd.
An ecosystem is a community of organisms and their
Species are linked through complex
relationships with other species and the a
biotic component of the earth to form a
support system. As has been noted b y
“We are able to breathe,
Odum
drink and eat in comfort because millions o f
organisms and hundreds of processes are
operating in a co-ordinated manner out
there in the environment.”
Definitions Contd.
physical environment interacting as an ecological
(Lincoln
1982).
differently, an
ecosystem is a self-sustaining. self-regulating
community of organisms interacting with
and the physical environmen: within a
geographic space.
Ecosystem goods are those things
humans get
from the living environment consciously satisfy their
requirements
Ecosystem goods and the link
to human health
Humans get a variety of products
of
natural ecosystems for their use. These
include:
food such as fish from aquatic ecosystems,
and vegetables from
mushrooms,
bush meat from the
terrestrial
same ecosystems.
from the wetlands, savannas and
forests. Other products such as fuel, craft
materials, timber etc..
Ecosystem services are those benefits
which humans receive from their living
environment without proactively soliciting
for them.
Human health has been characterised by
state
the World Health Organisation as
of complete physical, mental and social
well-being and not merely the absence of
disease or infirmity” (Purdom, 1980).
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Entebbe Workshop 23-28 June 2002
Biodiversity and Human Health Linkages
Ecosystem goods and the link
to Human Health Contd.
Ecosystem goods and the Link
to Human Health Contd.
It has been shown, for example, that the health
of
members of fishing households around Lake Victoria.
has declined in recent years because of increased cost of
fish as a result of the export drive (Hams er.
1997).
For various reasons, traditional
medicine, plays a very important role in the health of
Sofowora,
communities in developing countries
1993). An on-going study by Maud Kamatenesi
in
shows that the dependence
on herbal medicine in reproductive health in
districts of Western Uganda is still very high
Leisure through wildlife viewing,
angling, sailing, white water rafting,
mountaineering, trekking, scuba-diving
etc..
Food and medicine have a direct
bearing on health.
The nutritional
status of communities depends on their
access to good
healthy food.
Ecosystem goods and the link
to human health contd.
Ecosystem goods can be a
of
for communities.
well-being of such communities would therefore
of such goods.
improve due to increased incomes
The
of
forest products
in global
trade has been increasingly rapidly in recent years. Currently.
bulk of
trade is between South America and Asia with
the
countries,
Africa
playing a
relatively
role
1997).
no reason why
Africa should not play a bigger
in this trade for
benefit
of its people.
The table below shows
value of
of
in global
4.1
Plants used in
Fibres
Ginseng roots
honey
and truffles
Spices
Ecosystem services and the link
to human health
689.9
399 3
265.2
7
Ecosysten services and the link
to human health contd.
There are numerous services that we get
from natural ecosystems, which, at first
not appear to be linked to human health but
which on closer examination have a very
important bearing on health. The World
Health Organisation has been
for
some time now, of the environment as being
a major determination of health
Uosukainen, 2001).
Forests intercept rainfall and allow rainwater to
percolate gently into the ground . Some of this
feeds the springs and streams which are a
rural communities.
source of safe water for
In Uganda, less than 10% of the total population
have access to piped
(NEMA, 2001).
This illustrates the significant importance of
sources such as
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Entebbe Workshop 23-28 June 2002
Biodiversity and Human Health Linkages
Ecosystem Services and the
Link to Human Health Contd.
Ecosystem services and the link
to human health contd.
However,
when
watersheds
are
devegetated, they lose the ability to
provide adequate amounts of water
consistently; reduced flows lead to
stagnation and falling per capita supplies
of water. Such conditions are ripe for the
spread of diseases such as cholera and
dysentery (Population Reference Bureau,
Clean and reliable water supplies: Ecosystems
such as wetlands are crucial in waste water
treatment. In Uganda, the Nakivubo swamp has
been a recipient of Kampala's wastewater for
many decades. It removes nutrients such as
and
nitrogen and phosphorus, faecal
sediments so that what enters Murchison Bay,
the source of the city's water supply is much
leaner than that enters the swamp (Kansiirne and
1999).
2001).
Ecosystem services and the
Link to Human Health Contd.
Ecosystem services and the link
to human health contd.
It has been estimated that wetland services in
of water treatment and purification
the
by Nakivubo wetland are in the range of Ug.
to 2,664.13 million per annum
Shs
1999). Wetlands are also
(Emerton et
known to remove heavy metals and other
pollutants from water.
This pollution
abatement has
health benefits.
Nutrient storage and recycling:
Ecosystems perform the important
function of recycling nutrients
the various components thereby ensuring
the maintenance of life. This function is
vital in agricultural productivity and if it is
compromised, this will lead to
poverty and hence worse health conditions
amonp communities.
Ecosystem services and the link
to human health contd.
Link to human health contd.
Climate regulation: Vegetation influences
climate at the macro and micro levels. At
smaller scales, vegetation is known to have a
moderating influences on local climates and
may create quite specific micro-climates
(Dougherty, 2001). Alteration of vegetation
in such circumstances may lead to some
undesirable health impacts.
Epidemic incidents of malaria in
Africa's highland areas including
Uganda's has been attributed to
temperature changes associated with
land-use change in such areas
2000).
(Lindblade et
I
39
I
Biodiversity and Human Health Linkages
Entebbe Workshop 23-28 June 2002
Pollination
Pollination Contd.
A lot of people do not realise that for
plants to produce fruits and seeds, they
must be pollinated. Many crops that meet
our nutritional
requirements
need
pollinators to be productive. The diverse
crops and other plants have evolved to
rely on specific pollinators ranging from
bees,
flies and beetles to bats and
birds.
pollinators require natural
ecosystems to survive.
Food
security and ultimately health and
well-being would be threatened by
the demise of the pollinators.
I
Habitat Maintenance
Bio-indication
Ecosysrem relationship resemble a web of
connections from one living thing to many other
living and non-living things.
ecosystem stands
2001). Healthy and intact
alone
ecosystems
the survival of and maintain a
balance between living things and the resources
they need to survive. For example the
dioxide balance of the atmosphere
is maintained at a certain level.
Increasingly, various organisms ranging
from microbes to vertebrates are being used
as indicators of phenomena such as aquatic
pollution (Jeffrey and Madden, 1991). Such
biological indicators can provide early
warning about potentially dangerous
environmental conditions and thus protect
human health.
CONCLUSION
Habitat Maintenance Contd.
It apparentfrom the foregoing that ecosystems play a
fundamental role our health and well-being. The
disregard for this role may be as a result of
ignorance or a failure to attach monetary value to the
goods and servicesprovided by natural ecosystems. It is
therefore in our interest to continue to
so as to
publicize the role of ecosystems human well-being as
well as encouraging resource economists to attach some
monetary value to the ecosystem
and services to
convince the skeptics! Thank you very much.
Insect and other pests that would affect
our health or our agriculture are often
kept in check through natural
interaction, thus reducing the need for
and cost of artificial control measures;
which themselves
have health
implications through pollution.
40
I
Entebbe Workshop23-28 June 2002
Biodiversity and Human Health Linkages
ECOSYSTEM DISTURBANCE,
BIODIVERSITY LOSS, AND
THEIR IMPLICATIONS FOR
ECOSYSTEM DISTURBANCE,
BIODIVERSITY LOSS, AND
THEIR IMPLICATIONS FOR
HUMAN HEALTH
Prepared for the
Regional
Workshop on Biological Diversity and Human
Health (Entebbe, 24-28June
Robert
World Health Organization
Dept Protection of the Human
Scope of the presentation
DEFINITIONS, BOUNDARIES
Definitions. boundaries
Health:
a complete state of physical, mental and social
well-being, not merely the absence of disease
m the
Driving forces
Variation in pathogens, vectors and
variation, landscape epidemiology
through
DEFINITIONS, BOUNDARIES
Prevalence
the number of infections or disease cases as a
in a defined population at a specific
moment in time
incidence
the number of new infection or disease cases
a percentage in a defined population over a
of time, usually a year
Health:
a complete state of physical, mental and social
well-being, not merely the absence of disease
41
Entebbe Workshop 23-28 June 2002
Biodiversity and Human Health Linkages
DEFINITIONS,BOUNDARIES
DEFINITIONS.
Biological diversity
variations at all levels of biological
organization:
variation within local populations or species
variation in all or part of a local community
- community variation in the living of an
ecosystem
DEFINITIONS.BOUNDARIES
DEFINITIONS,BOUNDARIES
. The
hierarchy in biodiversity relevant to
infectious diseases:
The Global Burden of Disease (BOD)
disease incidence may be influenced by
-
at the
pathogens,
- diversity of
of
Disability Adjusted Life
A health economics composite indicator that
allows a weighted comparison of disease
burdens as a decision-makingcriterion the
planning of health sector interventions
or
of
and
and
and
DEFINITIONS. BOUNDARIES
DEFINITIONS,BOUNDARIES
Biodiversity, ecosystem disturbance and health:
which diseases
Biodiversity, ecosystem disturbance and health:
which diseases
- Environmental determinants
- Communicable
- Social determinants
- Malnutrition
- Accidents and injuries
-
disorders
42
Entebbe Workshop 23-28 June 2002
Biodiversity and Human Health Linkages
DEFINITIONS,BOUNDARIES
Biodiversity, ecosystem disturbance and health:
which diseases
ecosystem disturbance and health:
which diseases
-
- social
-
of
-
of
-Malnutrition
and
-
Burden of Disease
DEFINITIONS.BOUNDARIES
Biodiversity, ecosystem disturbance
which diseases
1711
1
I
Burden of Disease
Global Climate Change
Changed Land Use
Human
I
I
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Entebbe Workshop 23-28 June 2002
Biodiversity and Human Health Linkages
VARIATION IN PATHOGENS,
VECTORS AND RESERVOIRS
vs.
Plasmodium
morphologically
genetically even more
distinct
variation
to expression in
in virulence
in ecological
Agricultural Development
MI
VARIATION IN PATHOGENS,
VECTORS AND RESERVOIRS
VARIATION IN PATHOGENS.
VECTORS AND RESERVOIRS
Plasmodia and
Anopheles
complexes with variation
vectorial capacity
resting sites
biting behaviour
larval ecology
capacity to develop insecticide resistance
antigenic
VARIATION IN PATHOGENS,
VECTORS AND RESERVOIRS
VARIATION IN PATHOGENS,
VECTORS AND RESERVOIRS
Anopheles spp.: species complexes with variation in
vectorial capacity
resting sites
biting
larval ecology
capacity to develop insecticide resistance
In
all determinantsthat influence
epidemiology and
options
Anopheles gambiae in Mali:
Bamako breeding
to
basins,
sites such as slow-moving streams and
pools, mid to
of the rainy
Savanna breeding only during
rainy
breeding in flood
and irrigation
schemes; only form found during the dry
season.
44
Biodiversity and Human Health Linkages
Entebbe Workshop 23-28 June 2002
VARIATION IN PATHOGENS,
VECTORS AND RESERVOIRS
IN PATHOGENS,
VECTORS AND RESERVOIRS
variation:
Pathogen
interactions:
variation and specificity
the phenomenon of buffering:
Examples
the proportion
is critical to
and aquatic snail species
and
fly
species
VARIATION IN PATHOGENS,
VECTORS AND RESERVOIRS
VARIATION IN PATHOGENS,
VECTORS AND RESERVOIRS
Variations in the human host:
variation:
Innate immune responses against pathogens:
the phenomenon of buffering:
the proportion of
hods is critical to pathogen dilution
in
greater pathogen and
biodiversity,
for
in a
it
sickle
malaria
to H N
anaemiaand
in
immune responses and
resistance
which
m
may
dilution
may not have a buffering
ECOSYSTEM DISTURBANCE
Climate change
Are disease changes linked to biodiversity
changes, or simply density effects linked to
temperature and rainfall?
Many confounding factors (population change,
agricultural development)
Claims from Rwanda, Ethiopia and
Climate Change
Changed
Use
Hydrology
Human Settlements
The “El Niiio”
in 1997 in East
Africa were clearly a density dependent
45
Entebbe Workshop 23-28 June 2002
Biodiversity and Human Health Linkages
ECOSYSTEM DISTURBANCE
ECOSYSTEM DISTURBANCE
Other land use pattern changes
Deforestation
Reduction in vectors
vectors in
Province Kenya
and in the
mountains forest in Tanzania
Agricultural development - habitat
simplification
Livestock - trends in husbandry
Roads and transport
forest destruction in West Africa led
and G.
tachinoides populations; similarly, in East
Africa, forest and bush clearance has been an
acceptable form of trypanosomiasis control
to the decline of
ECOSYSTEM DISTURBANCE
ECOSYSTEM DISTURBANCE
Urbanization
the lack of diversity in city centres
The
diversity in
areas
Hydrological changes
Irrigation schemes
- malaria as a
- malaria
to
.
ofhabitat simplification
related
Dams
Coastal developments, brackish water
MI
ECOSYSTEM DISTURBANCE
ECOSYSTEM DISTURBANCE
Health interventions
Pesticides
Agricultural development
Chemical inputs
Crop varieties
Pest Management
Drugs
Biological control
Overpopulation ?
46
Biodiversity and Human Health Linkages
Entebbe Workshop 23-28 June 2002
An assessment of
links can
only be done a! the local level
Mapping is an
tool identify
possible study
for
links
Community involvement in nature
conservation can be strongly promoted by
introducing a health component
research goes beyond
academic value only where there are clear
opportunitiesfor a win-win situation from the
47
Entebbe Workshop 23-28 June 2002
Biodiversity and Human Health Linkages
ANNEX 5
Summary of workshop evaluation
Overall expectations for the workshop:
Were your expectations met as regards the content and output of the workshop?
Yes
No
Somewhat
12
Please explain:
Learnt more about
relationship, but would have wanted to go through a case study
The first day was very important to explain the bio themes. This was not done.
There was enhanced understanding of the research linkages between medical
institutions in health and the wide array of biodiversity issues
At the time of evaluation way forward was not clear. This is worrying considering donor
apathy in a number of countries
The different aspects and dimensions of biodiversity linkages with health has been well
articulated during workshop
The knowledge gaps to be explored have been identified hence setting the way forward
to research work
Identification of the way forward for further national and international linkages was not
made clear
Bridging the gap between conservation and biodiversity, health and development not
clearly sorted out. However mechanisms of addressing pathways have been identified
An eye opening workshop realizing the linkages between biodiversity and human health
The subject is rather difficult. All the same issues were brought out, and if the
proceedings are clearly written, we should be able to have a clear document that meets
my expectations
We lacked concrete examples from the participants
48
and Human Health
Entebbe
23-28 June 2002
Structure and content of the
How do you rate the following elements of the workshop?
Structure and content of the workshop: Other comments
We should have been provided with a workbook
Too much group work
Sometimes the outputs from the groups not clear
More material needed
Other interesting themes should have been presented though the facilitators did not turn
The design of the workshop in turns of manageable number of participants and group
work sessions enable all the participants to participate in the discussions
Overall the workshop was well planned
More thematic papers should have been arranged realizing the nature of the workshop
At certain points groups were not sure how to go about the group work
Information on the field trip would have been given well in advance so that particular
attention be given to the targeted issues
49