Undergraduate Review
Volume 13 | Issue 1
Article 7
2001
Winslow Homer and The Gulf Stream
Erin Lippitz '01
Illinois Wesleyan University
Recommended Citation
Lippitz '01, Erin (2001) "Winslow Homer and The Gulf Stream," Undergraduate Review: Vol. 13: Iss. 1, Article 7.
Available at: http://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/rev/vol13/iss1/7
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Lippitz '01: Winslow Homer and The Gulf Stream
Lte Review
; from records of La Guide Internacionale du
le by Robert Wagner, is played by the
ca, conducted by Carl Bamburger (falens 90).
Winslow Homer and The GulfStream
By Erin Lippitz
gdom of Dreams in Uterature and Film
a State UP, 1986.
'hose Obscure Objects of Desire: The
. Women in the Films of Luis Bunuel."
,Is International. Vol. 52. Ann Arbor, MI:
ilms International, 1991.
"Convictions and Contradictions of Luis
pi: Essqys in Film and the Humanities 6.2 (1987):
The Primal Screen: Fantasy and Spectatorship
:'uis Buiiuel". Dissertation Abstracts
56. Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms
15.
~d Eye:
P,1993.
Bunuel's Un Chien Andalou. Minneapolis:
Winslow Homer was an artist of amazing breadth with a varied
and wide range of subject matter and style. Homer depicted frontline
Civil War soldiers, the bourgeois class in the Gilded Age, black share­
croppers in the south during Reconstruction and lonely stretches of the
New England coast. These popular themes gave Homer's work a mod­
ern feel; he gave irony to popular art, he added psychological depth to
his narratives and he depicted landscapes with a personal edge (Cotter
55). Although Homer created realist paintings, he was, early in his
career, essentially a figure painter. The early Homer focused on human
forms , which were the center of his artwork, while the setting was sec­
ondary. As his work and style progressed, these figures disappeared
altogether from his work and Homer began focusing on the landscape,
mainly the sea.
During the Civil War, Homer was working as a free-lance maga­
zine illustrator and artist-reporter in New York while studying painting
on the side at the National Academy of Design. He was given an
assignment as war correspondent by Harper's Weekly and was sent to
the Virginia front. Homer made sketches from life in the Union camps
and later turned them into illustrations. Because of his work for the
magazine, Homer's first works were basically pictures of war, yet instead
of showing men actually fighting, he chose to depict life in the camps at
the edge of war. The soldiers Homer depicted do not display courage
or fear but boredom and sadness. Death was not addressed. It was this
realism that distinguished Homer from the mainstream painters of the
day. No other artist left so authentic a record of how the Civil War sol­
dier looked and acted (Goodrich, Great 13). He saw things in American
life that no other artist had seen and he painted them in new ways.
After the war Homer turned towards depicting civilian life and it
is for this that he is known. He captured moments in American life by
painting ordinary citizens. Most often Homer painted those subjects
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Undergraduate Review, Vol. 13, Iss. 1 [2001], Art. 7
40 The Undergraduate Review
ignored by his contemporaries: women, children and African Americans.
This work from the late 1860s and 70s forms almost a social history of
the nation. His early work is a broad picture of American society; he
made no judgements but simply contrasted different ways of life. K.
Chowder explains Homer's eagerness to depict traditional American life;
"Perhaps he shared the national longing for the age of innocence,
before blood was shed in the Civil War, when America was still rural,
untainted by industrialization and urbanization" (120). Homer com­
bined these aspects of nature and humanity with a naturalism that was
native and personal and depicted them with a fresh outlook; thus, he
appeals equally to the artist and the layman.
While Homer was creating his American histories, the art world
was still ruled by the romanticism of the Hudson River School. While
Homer's generation turned towards Europe, Homer drew almost all his
material from the American scene. Homer was never influenced by any­
one else's work; in fact, he once stated, "If a man wants to be an artist
he should never look at pictures" (qtd. in Chowder 120). It is difficult
to detect anyone particular influence of a painter or school in Homer's
early work. His style was more closely based on nature than other art;
he was concerned with man and his relation to nature and eventually
became the greatest painter of the outdoor world. He simply painted,
with an innocent eye, what he saw: "When I have selected the thing
carefully, I paint it exactly as it appears" (qtd. in Goodrich, Great 26).
His philosophy seems to have been completely naturalistic, that painting
was a realistic representation of nature. It is clear, though, that Homer
added stronger realism and deeper emotional content to his works while
continuing in the native genre tradition.
Homer was one of the first to get away from the Hudson River
School studio conventions and to capture light and color as it appeared
to the eye. From the beginning of his career he did much of his work
outdoors. Between 1865-1866, Homer turned his eye toward Europe
and the works executed in this time reflect the models of Boudin and
the young Monet and their emphasis on the effect of light on a subject.
Homer saw things in broad masses of light and color and he painted
what he saw. To him, light and its. effect on the object were almost as
important as the object itself, though the object did remain central. No
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2
matter how object or figure oriented Homer's'
retained a feeling for the purely physical appei
line and the patterns they created (Goodrich, (
Homer worked on a canvas he deleted details t
meaning of the painting. In these ways Home
French Impressionists. Homer and the Impre~
in outdoor light and its effect on an object as ,
stylisms such as the simplified massing of lighl
According to Cotter, "[t]he Impressionists use(
molecular dispersal, turning nature into evanes
changing light. Part of the perennial appeal oj
insubstantiality, its sustained intoxication with .
work was appealing to the American public in
the American scene as well as its closeness to I
Impressionistic works of the time.
Homer's work up to 1879 forms a soci
his late work is almost an opposite; Chowder
as personal visions of the eternal human predi
vulnerability of all life in the face of death (12
evolved from a vision of sunny, cheerful Ame:
elemental conflict, isolation, danger and death.
human figure is at the mercy of nature, beneal
it. Nicolai Cikovsky attributes this change in p
for American values in a time of political carr
(qtd. in Chowder 123). It is clear that around
kind occurred in Homer's life and altered it. I
after this crisis, death is an immense presence.
In 1880, Homer made a trip to Europl
effect on his art. He settled in the English fis]
arriving just in time for the "serious" seasons I
when the weather was stormy and the sea was
Here he worked almost entirely in watercolors
the sea and the men and women who lived ne
were a series of pictures dealing with the hard
these men and women. The central theme W2
the drama of the struggle against it. Homer's
change at this point. His figures grew rounde
~e
Review
:aries: women, children and African Americans.
860s and 70s forms almost a social history of
k is a broad picture of American society; he
simply contrasted different ways of life. K.
's eagerness to depict traditional American life;
ltionallonging for the age of innocence,
the Civil War, when America was still rural,
ion and urbanization" (120). Homer com­
ture and humanity with a naturalism that was
epicted them with a fresh oudook; thus, he
5t and the layman.
creating his American histories, the art world
lllticism of the Hudson River School. While
d towards Europe, Homer drew almost all his
In scene. Homer was never influenced by any­
~ once stated, "If a man wants to be an artist
ictures" (qtd. in Chowder 120). It is difficult
it influence of a painter or school in Homer's
more closely based on nature than other art;
an and his relation to nature and eventually
~r of the outdoor world. He simply painted,
.t he saw: "When I have selected the thing
as it appears" (qtd. in Goodrich, Great 26).
lave been completely naturalistic, that painting
.on of nature. It is clear, though, that Homer
d deeper emotional content to his works while
~nre tradition.
f the first to get away from the Hudson River
l and to capture light and color as it appeared
nning of his career he did much of his work
1866, Homer turned his eye toward Europe
. this time reflect the models of Boudin and
r emphasis on the effect of light on a subject.
d masses of light and color and he painted
t and its effect on the object were almost as
,elf, though the object did remain central. No
Lippitz '01: Winslow Homer and The Gulf Stream
Lippitz 41
matter how object or figure oriented Homer's work was, he always
retained a feeling for the purely physical appeal of color, pigment, and
line and the patterns they created (Goodrich, Great 17). Often, as
Homer worked on a canvas he deleted details to heighten the essential
meaning of the painting. In these ways Homer can be compared to the
French Impressionists. Homer and the Impressionists shared interests
in outdoor light and its effect on an object as well as some of the same
stylisms such as the simplified massing of lights and shadows.
According to Cotter, "[t]he Impressionists used paint as a kind of
molecular dispersal, turning nature into evanescence, a relativity of
changing light. Part of the perennial appeal of that work, surely, is its
insubstantiality, its sustained intoxication with beauty" (56). Homer's
work was appealing to the American public in its truthful depictions of
the American scene as well as its closeness to the popular
Impressionistic works of the time.
Homer's work up to 1879 forms a social history of America but
his late work is almost an opposite; Chowder describes these paintings
as personal visions of the eternal human predicament and the pathetic
vulnerability of all life in the face of death (126). Homer's work had
evolved from a vision of sunny, cheerful America to a lonely universe of
elemental conflict, isolation, danger and death. In these later works the
human figure is at the mercy of nature, beneath it, and overpowered by
it. Nicolai Cikovsky attributes this change in part to a growing distaste
for American values in a time of political corruption and money-lust
(qtd. in Chowder 123). It is clear that around 1880 a trauma of some
kind occurred in Homer's life and altered it. In many of Homer's works
after this crisis, death is an immense presence.
In 1880, Homer made a trip to Europe that had a profound
effect on his art. He settled in the English fishing village of Cullercoats
arriving just in time for the "serious" seasons of autumn and winter
when the weather was stormy and the sea was at its most dangerous.
Here he worked almost entirely in watercolors and first began painting
the sea and the men and women who lived near it. These first works
were a series of pictures dealing with the hard and dangerous lives of
these men and women. The central theme was the peril of the sea and
the drama of the struggle against it. Homer's style underwent a great
change at this point. His figures grew rounder and fuller, in fact, in
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42 The Undergraduate Review
painting after painting his women appear Athena-like striding across the
beach. Homer also began using more deep and subtle color, giving his
canvas a more atmospheric effect. The sea is present in all of these
paintings, calm or turbulent, but it is the human grandeur that Homer
idealizes in his figures that stands between the painter and the sea.
When Homer returned to New York in 1882, he brought with
him the dramatic ambience of Cullercoats and began to translate it into
sea rescue paintings with American themes. In most of these similarly
themed works, the gazes of the protagonists rarely meet, which creates
a strange image. The faces of the women are typically obscured and
their state is unclear as well as the identity of their rescuers. The
women still retain the Athena-like quality as seen in Homer's work done
in Cullercoats, yet at the mercy of the raging sea they are helpless.
Homer offers these fragments of the narrative, never finishing the story,
and thus teases the viewer. Many of these same qualities can be seen in
a later work, The Gu!f Stream, and will be discussed at a later point.
Homer eventually settled back in the United States in Prout's
Neck and built a studio overlooking the ocean that would be his home
for the remainder of his life. Homer turned his back on the modern
world and escaped from contemporary society. He lived alone but stat­
ed that his new life was genuinely satisfying: "This is the only life in
which I am permitted to mind my own business ... I am perfectly happy
and contented" (qtd. in Goodrich, Great 22). Homer had a portable
studio built, a little house on runners that he could move close to the
sea yet be protected from human intrusion. It is here in 1890 that
Homer began his simplest works: he began to paint seascapes, many of
which were depicted without figures. These paintings are simply the sea
and the earth shown in a perpetual battle of waves against rock.
Chowder describes these pictures not as a world without people but a
world in which the painter is at long last alone with the sea (128).
Homer's closeness with the ocean further changed his art. In
his Prout's Neck paintings the human figures gradually retreat from the
scene and the tone becomes famously pessimistic. His style becomes
stronger, more masculine, and more skillful while the scale of his pic­
tures becomes larger. The dominant theme becomes the sea, and the
drama of man/woman's struggle against it is replaced by the drama of
the ocean itself. It was the sea at its stormiest that he loved and it was
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4
the power and the danger of the sea that mo,\;
realistic and immediately vivid in their impact.
story was expressed in pictorial terms are HOI
most melodramatic and lurid of which is The
1899.
The Gu!f Stream, begun in the months
death, is probably Homer's most famous pain
sion of his favorite theme of the perils of thf
the storytelling technique of his earlier paintiJ
product of Homer's late style (Flexner 172).
what is happening in the picture. A single bI::
boat faces death in several forms: hunger, thi:J
and even a waterspout. In the distance, a shi)
oblivious to the victim, as the Gulf Stream Cl"
ther out to sea. The man himself seems una'li
and appears to have resigned himself to his iI
face of all this disaster, the man retains a cert
seem to ask for an end to his isolation and he::
painting is less heroic and more realistic than
the-sea works; there is no dramatic rescue heJ
and the man's fate has neither explanation no
The Gu!f Stream is a storytelling pictur
pIe of the dramatic tease that was Homer's Sf
narrative before a resolution can be reached t
of the story to the spectator. Homer has chc
has placed him in a particularly enigmatic ane
leaving a few significant details for the viewel
mast, bright red flecks of blood on the water
aU build a story which the viewer is expected
viewer to decide in which direction the victin:
Although the sea appears to have con
still maintains strength and power. Much like::
women from CuUercoats, the sailor is physica
almost unflappable in his position on the bo:::
faces away from his danger, seeming to embc
against the most terrible odds. He has accept
fight against it. It is here that the viewer real
Lte Review
women appear Athena-like striding across the
more deep and subtle color, giving his
ic effect. The sea is present in all of these
nt, but it is the human grandeur that Homer
t stands between the painter and the sea.
nned to New York in 1882, he brought with
:e of Cullercoats and began to translate it into
American themes. In most of these similarly
)f the protagonists rarely meet, which creates
~s of the women are typically obscured and
~ll as the identity of their rescuers. The
lena-like quality as seen in Homer's work done
nercy of the raging sea they are helpless.
lents of the narrative, never fInishing the story,
r. Many of these same qualities can be seen in
1am, and will be discussed at a later point.
settled back in the United States in Prout's
verlooking the ocean that would be his home
ife. Homer turned his back on the modern
:ontemporary society. He lived alone but stat­
enuinely satisfying: "This is the only life in
mind my own business ... I am perfectly happy
~oodrich, Great 22). Homer had a portable
on runners that he could move close to the
human intrusion. It is here in 1890 that
t works: he began to paint seascapes, many of
out fIgures. These paintings are simply the sea
perpetual battle of waves against rock.
pictures not as a world without people but a
r is at long last alone with the sea (128).
s with the ocean further changed his art. In
s the human fIgures gradually retreat from the
les famously pessimistic. His style becomes
, and more skillful while the scale of his pic­
e dominant theme becomes the sea, and the
;truggle against it is replaced by the drama of
Ie sea at its stormiest that he loved and it was
1 using
Lippitz '01: Winslow Homer and The Gulf Stream
Lippitz 43
the power and the danger of the sea that moved him. These scenes are
realistic and immediately vivid in their impact. The works in which the
story was expressed in pictorial terms are Homer's most dramatic; the
most melodramatic and lurid of which is The Cu!f Stream painted in
1899.
The Cu!f Stream, begun in the months following his father's
death, is probably Homer's most famous painting and his strongest ver­
sion of his favorite theme of the perils of the sea. This work returns to
the storytelling technique of his earlier paintings but is completely a
product of Homer's late style (Flexner 172). There is no doubt about
what is happening in the picture. A single black man on a dismasted
boat faces death in several forms: hunger, thirst, circling sharks, waves
and even a waterspout. In the distance, a ship passes by under full sail,
oblivious to the victim, as the Gulf Stream carries the stranded man fur­
ther out to sea. The man himself seems unaware of his possible rescue
and appears to have resigned himself to his imminent death. Yet in the
face of all this disaster, the man retains a certain dignity; he does not
seem to ask for an end to his isolation and he does not ask to live. This
painting is less heroic and more realistic than Homer's earlier perils-of­
the-sea works; there is no dramatic rescue here, there is no fIght for life,
and the man's fate has neither explanation nor logic.
The Cu!f Stream is a storytelling picture and is a supreme exam­
ple of the dramatic tease that was Homer's specialty. Homer freezes the
narrative before a resolution can be reached but leaves the construction
of the story to the spectator. Homer has chosen an unusual subject and
has placed him in a particularly enigmatic and tantalizing episode while
leaving a few signifIcant details for the viewer to pick up: the sheared off
mast, bright red flecks of blood on the water and the thrashing sharks
all build a story which the viewer is expected to end. It is up to the
viewer to decide in which direction the victim's fate lies.
Although the sea appears to have condemned this man to die, he
still maintains strength and power. Much like Homer's Athena-like
women from Cullercoats, the sailor is physically strong and seems
almost unflappable in his position on the boat. He is stoic, dazed and
faces away from his danger, seeming to embody man's will to endure
against the most terrible odds. He has accepted his fate and he does not
fIght against it. It is here that the viewer realizes that only against such
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Undergraduate Review, Vol. 13, Iss. 1 [2001], Art. 7
44 The Undergraduate Review
forces of nature is this sailor helpless.
The Cuff Stream is a strong canvas for Homer and bears resem­
blance to one other work with a similar theme, The Slave Ship by Joseph
Turner. These two works deal with contemporary events and put man
against the sea. The paintings use the unfInished story technique to
draw the viewer into the works and to encourage them to fInish the
story on their own; both contain similar elements. For example, the
thrashing sharks present a very real and immediate danger to the black
men in both pieces. The blood in the water in The Cuff Stream suggests
that someone has already been killed. Whereas the unfortunate sailors
in The Slave Ship have been thrown overboard and have no hope of sur­
viving against the piranha-like fIsh, the subject in The Cuff Stream hero­
ically clings to life despite his terrible odds. Both works use vigorous
brushstrokes giving the paintings an atmospheric setting to convey the
tense and emotional predicament in which the sailors are caught. Both
artists rely on color as well to present aspects of the story, with the
color red standing out. Turner's use of red in the sky and water gives
the piece a sense of the sublime and almost sets the background aflame.
It is clear then from this type of rendering that this piece is not meant
to appear hopeful. The slaves have been left and the ship shows no sign
of returning. Homer uses red in a more subtle manner, placing it
around the sharks to create one facet of the story and placing a few red
slashes across the back of the small boat giving the story an added twist.
Unlike Turner, Homer leaves a small sense of hope in his painting-the
setting is beautiful for this sailor and in the distance a tiny ship appears,
which one can only hope is headed in the direction of the stranded
sailor. Although Homer does leave a glimmer of hope he also creates
an ironic scene for his sailor by putting him in the beautiful light of the
Gulf but leaving the danger to be read from the menacing sharks and
the approaching waterspout.
By Victorian standards, Homer's content was deemed vulgar, as
it lacked the polite elegance of the day. Those who at the time still
accepted the smooth fInish of traditional oil paintings regarded Homer's
vigorous brushstrokes as crude and completely missed their expressive
qualities and appropriateness to his theme. Homer rendered The Cuff
Stream as a very technical piece. The boat is tipped sharply, forming a
diagonal that should pull the observer directly into the picture, but the
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6
sailor is cut off from the viewer by dark, chc
ground. Homer used violent brushstrokes t(
atmosphere and to give the viewer a sense of
form in this piece was admired for its reseml
uralism, these essences of Homer's artistry"
When The Cuff Stream was fIrst exhibited ma
brutal and one critic even went so far as to rc
explanation for his painting. Homer wrote it
full description of my picture of the Gulf St
that I have painted a picture that requires an)
these ladies that the unfortunate Negro who
boiled will be rescued and returned to his fril
after live happily" (qtd. in Goodrich, Homer
Homer may be known for his pastor:
early America, but what he is most famous f(
The Cuff Stream. There is little doubt that thi
powerful fascination and remain popular yeal
his culminating masterpiece; the power of hi
it one of his greatest technical achievements.
The Cuff Stream "that rare thing in these days:
partly because every object in the picture rec
emphasis that shows no favor to the dramati
story never outweighs the artistic interest" (q
170). The Cuff Stream returns to Homer's fat
theme and pits man against the mercy of nat
ing is a beautiful portrait of the sea.
WORKS CITED:
Chowder, K. "Winslow Homer: The Quint
Smithsonian 26.7 (1995): 116-129.
Cotter, Holland. "Winslow Homer: Americ:;;
84 (Dec. 1996): 54-63.
Flexner, James. The World of Winslow Homer.
Lte Review
~or
helpless.
a strong canvas for Homer and bears resem­
with a similar theme, The Slave Ship by Joseph
; deal with contemporary events and put man
rings use the unfInished story technique to
;vorks and to encourage them to fInish the
contain similar elements. For example, the
l very real and immediate danger to the black
blood in the water in The Gu(f Stream suggests
been killed. Whereas the unfortunate sailors
n thrown overboard and have no hope of sur­
-like fIsh, the subject in The Gu(f Stream hero­
his terrible odds. Both works use vigorous
aintings an atmospheric setting to convey the
icament in which the sailors are caught. Both
11 to present aspects of the story, with the
'urner's use of red in the sky and water gives
ublime and almost sets the background aflame.
type of rendering that this piece is not meant
laves have been left and the ship shows no sign
s red in a more subtle manner, placing it
te one facet of the story and placing a few red
:- the small boat giving the story an added twist.
lves a small sense of hope in his painting-the
s sailor and in the distance a tiny ship appears,
is headed in the direction of the stranded
does leave a glimmer of hope he also creates
~or by putting him in the beautiful light of the
~er to be read from the menacing sharks and
)tit.
dards, Homer's content was deemed vulgar, as
.ce of the day. Those who at the time still
,h of traditional oil paintings regarded Homer's
crude and completely missed their expressive
less to his theme. Homer rendered Th(j Gu(f
piece. The boat is tipped sharply, forming a
the observer directly into the picture, but the
Lippitz '01: Winslow Homer and The Gulf Stream
Lippitz 45
sailor is cut off from the viewer by dark, choppy waves in the fore­
ground. Homer used violent brushstrokes to create the dangerous
atmosphere and to give the viewer a sense of urgency. Although his
form in this piece was admired for its resemblance to photographic nat­
uralism, these essences of Homer's artistry were completely overlooked.
When The Gu(f Stream was fIrst exhibited many found the subject matter
brutal and one critic even went so far as to request from Homer an
explanation for his painting. Homer wrote in 1902, "You ask me for a
full description of my picture of the Gulf Stream. I regret very much
that I have painted a picture that requires any description. You can tell
these ladies that the unfortunate Negro who now is so dazed and par­
boiled will be rescued and returned to his friends and home and ever
after live happily" (qtd. in Goodrich, Homer 162)
Homer may be known for his pastoral country life scenes of an
early America, but what he is most famous for is his astounding painting
The Gu(f Stream. There is little doubt that this painting will retain its
powerful fascination and remain popular year after year. This piece is
his culminating masterpiece; the power of his brushstrokes alone makes
it one of his greatest technical achievements. The Evening Post called
The Gu(f Stream "that rare thing in these days, a great dramatic picture,
partly because every object in the picture receives a sort of overall
emphasis that shows no favor to the dramatic passages. As a result the
story never outweighs the artistic interest" (qtd. in Goodrich, Homer
170). The Gu(f Stream returns to Homer's famous perils of the sea
theme and pits man against the mercy of nature but above all this paint­
ing is a beautiful portrait of the sea.
WORKS CITED:
Chowder, K. "Winslow Homer: The Quintessential American Artist."
Smithsonian 26.7 (1995): 116-129.
Cotter, Holland. "Winslow Homer: American Vistas." Art in America
84 (Dec. 1996): 54-63.
Flexner, James. The World of Winslow Homer. New York: Time Life
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Undergraduate Review, Vol. 13, Iss. 1 [2001], Art. 7
46 The Undergraduate Review
Books, 1965.
Goodrich, Lloyd. The Creat American Artist Series: Winslow Homer. New
York: George Grahiller, 1959.
Winslow Homer. New York: Macmillan, 1944.
By Kyle Painter
Homer, Winslow. The Cu!f Stream. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
York.
Turner, Joseph Mallord William. The Slave Ship. Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston.
http://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/rev/vol13/iss1/7
The Politics of Art: The View of
the Aeneid
8
When Augustus took control of Rom.
gain power. One of these was, of course, mil
after Antony and Cleopatra were defeated, Au
keep his power without keeping a large miliw
The major way that he was able to do this wa:
public's view of himself through various mea:
Paul Zanker has shown, Augustus used very e
symbolic images, located on coins, buildings, ~
popular opinion. Using such tools, he was abl
ideology of the public, making them believe t
from the enemies of the republic.
Another art form which historians see
Augustus' attempt at ideological control is po.
famous poets of the Augustan era, Horace, P:
all three praised their emperor. However, it iE
debate as to how much autonomy these poetE
claim that these poets were virtually pawns of
to him just like his artists made sculptures to .
ary critics have asserted that there is a certain
Augustus within the work of these poets. Til:
Virgil and his epic, the Aeneid. I will first disc
involving the Aeneid and its political and poeti
proceed to analyze as a test case the portrayal
found in Book 8 and compare it to the pro-A
history of Cassius Dio to see how close are tI
politically charged topic.
Virgil uses several means of commen­
Aeneid, but one of the most spectacular of th.