UNCORRECTED PAGE PROOFS
1
CHAPTER
ORIGINS OF THE COLD WAR
‘When we met at Yalta, in addition to laying our strategic and
tactical plans for the complete and final military victory over
Germany, there were other problems of vital political consequence.
Days were spent in discussing these momentous matters and we
argued freely and frankly across the table. But at the end, on every
point, unanimous agreement was reached. And more important
even than the agreement of words, I may say we achieved a unity
of thought and a way of getting along together. Never before have
the major Allies been more closely united—not only in their war
aims but also in their peace aims. And they are determined to
continue to be united with each other—and with all peace-loving
nations—so that the ideal of lasting peace will become a reality.’
Franklin D. Roosevelt, Address to Congress on the
Yalta Conference, 1 March 1945
Introduction
On 8 May 1945 celebrations
broke out across Europe as the
Allied forces officially announced
Germany’s surrender of its
armed forces. Victory in Europe
Day (or VE Day) was a public
holiday notable for massed
crowds cheering and dancing in
some of the world’s most famous
streets, including the ChampsÉlysées in Paris, Piccadilly in
London (where sailors and
young girls formed a conga line),
and Times Square in New York,
where a model of the Statue
of Liberty was erected. Music,
10
flags, fireworks, hugs and kisses
unified society after six years of
war, devastation and loss. Peace
had been achieved in Europe.
This
chapter
explores
the
changing
dynamic
of
international relations in the two
years following the end of World
War II. During this time, the postwar negotiations made by the
Allied Powers would shape the
lives of all in Europe and create a
division in territory and ideology,
which would come to dominate
world politics for 50 years.
People in New York celebrating
on VE Day, 1945.
11
UNCORRECTED PAGE PROOFS
OVERVIEW
Key QUESTIONS
In this chapter
• How did the Yalta Conference
demonstrate the Allied Powers’
use of diplomacy, negotiation
and unity?
Yalta Conference:
Germany divided
• What tensions between USA and
USSR became apparent at the
Potsdam Conference?
Potsdam Conference
• H
ow did Stalin expand his
sphere of influence?
World War II ends in
Europe
ho first suggested that
• W
Eastern and Western Europe
were divided?
KEY events
4–11 February
Yalta Conference
8 May
Victory in Europe
Day (VE Day) after
Germany surrenders
17 July–2 August
Potsdam Conference
West (USA):
containment
East (USSR):
expansionism
The Truman Doctrine
‘salami tactics’
The Marshall Plan
1946
• Leader of the USSR after Lenin died in 1924
• During World War II he successfully captured
Berlin from the Axis Powers
• Stalin’s expansionist intentions caused tensions to
rise during post-war negotiations
• Over the next five years he secured most of Eastern
Europe, an area considered to be behind the ‘Iron Curtain’
• Died in 1953, leaving the USSR as a powerful military power.
A policy adopted by the USA to
prevent communism spreading
to other nations. Its defensive
strategies aimed to secure US
military and economic power.
Diplomacy
The ability to negotiate and discuss
international relations with tact and
sensitivity.
Expansionism
A policy or practice that aims to
increase the size of a country by
expanding its territory.
Sphere of Influence
When one nation exercises political
and economic control over the
territory of other nations.
FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT
• President of the United States 1933—April 1945
• In December 1941 declared war on Japan and
joined the war in Europe, providing the Allies with
much-needed support
• His diplomacy was fundamental in post-war
negotiations at Yalta; his greatest legacy was his push
for the UN to be established in order to improve international
cooperation.
Satellite State
A previously independent country
under occupation or heavy political,
economic and military control by
another country.
ECONOMIC
PERSUASION
TERRITORIAL
COERSION
Poland
MILITARY
FORCE
POWER
POLITICAL
AUTHORITY
• President of the US after Roosevelt’s death in 1945
• Used atomic weapons against Japan, which brought
about the end of the war in the Pacific
• This display of power heightened tensions between
Truman and Stalin, leading to new strategic policies
and alliances as both leaders tried to extend their
spheres of influence
• The Truman Doctrine outlined a policy of containment towards the USSR,
provoking many subsequent actions between the two superpowers, and
firmly establishing the Cold War.
Historical inquiry – causes and consequences
1947
12
12 March
Truman Doctrine
announced
Referring to the origins of the Cold War, John Lewis Gaddis states ‘Geography, demography, and
tradition contributed to this outcome but did not determine it. It took men, responding unpredictably to
circumstances, to forge the chain of causation.’ As you work through this chapter, consider both arguments.
Use the material and ideas you have developed to answer one of the following questions:
5 June
Marshall Plan
announced
1. To what extent were the origins of the Cold War due to territorial matters?
SECTION A: COMPETING IDEOLOGIES
SKILLS FOCUS
5 March
Churchill’s ‘Iron
Curtain’ speech
Containment POlicy
HARRY S. TRUMAN
KEY concepts
August
Atomic bomb dropped
on Hiroshima and
Nagasaki, Japan
JOSEPH STALIN
• British Prime Minister during WWII, who was
famous for his iconic speeches
• Took part in negotiations at Yalta and Potsdam
• Suspicious about Stalin’s actions; in 1946 he
warned the world about the Soviet takeover of
Eastern Europe in his famous ‘Iron Curtain’ speech
• Replaced by Clement Atlee in July 1945, but later re-elected.
Power struggle
1945
KEY TERMS
WINSTON CHURCHILL
Iron Curtain between
East and West
• W
hat was the response of
the USA to the political and
territorial changes occurring in
Europe?
Key players
2. How important were the personal attributes of key world leaders in determining the origins of the Cold War?
Twentieth Century 2: POST-WAR CHALLENGES
13
Yalta Conference
UNCORRECTED PAGE PROOFS
Winston Churchill: ‘Poor Neville believed he could trust Hitler. He was wrong. But I
don’t think I’m wrong about Stalin.’ February 1945
cold war
presidents
S o u rc e 1. 01
Map showing
changes to
European
territories
decided at Yalta
Conference
Similar to the Treaty of Versailles after World War I, the Yalta Conference was
established to discuss the future of Europe after World War II. This landmark
meeting of the ‘Big Three’ Allied leaders took place 4–11 February 1945. The
location of Yalta, in the Crimea, was chosen because Stalin refused to leave the
Soviet Union. In discussion with Churchill and Roosevelt, several important
matters were raised regarding territorial boundaries and political agreements, as
outlined below:
• SURRENDER: The unconditional surrender of Nazi Germany was the first
priority for all leaders. This was signed three months after the conference, on
7 May 1945.
• ZONES: They agreed on the need to de-Nazify and demilitarise Germany,
and decided to divide the country into four zones: US, French, British and
Soviet. The German capital Berlin, situated within the Soviet zone, would
also be divided into four zones. Austria was also split into the same four
zones.
germany divided
post-world war ii
cHAPTER 1: ORIGINS OF THE COLD WAR
• UNITED NATIONS: The creation of a United Nations (UN). This was a
key aim for Roosevelt, and membership of the Security Council was finalised
at Yalta. Stalin agreed to the idea of a veto vote within the Security Council,
along with France, Great Britain, USA and China. The UN officially came
into existence on 24 October 1945.
• REPARATIONS: German reparations were to be established, with Stalin
demanding US$20 billion, of which half would be for the Soviet Union.
While not agreeing on this figure during the conference, the leaders did agree
that part of the reparations would include the forced labour of Germans who
had to repair damage, as well as the removal of national industrial assets such
as machinery, ships and shares in German enterprises. New phrases emerged
in Germany to describe those who removed the debris, such as ‘rubble
women’.
• JAPAN: Stalin agreed to enter the war in the Pacific against Japan once
victory had been achieved in Europe. In return, he sought parts of Manchuria
and some islands off the eastern coast of the Soviet Union.
• JUSTICE: Nazi war criminals were to be brought to justice.
• DEMOCRACY: Democratic and free elections were to be held in all
countries previously under German rule, according to a ‘Declaration on
Liberated Europe’ proposed by Roosevelt. He believed this would assist the
formation of temporary governments. Most importantly, it was hoped that
Poland would be able to complete this process as their government was
currently in exile in London. However, the Soviet Union had already created
a communist government in Poland. Stalin agreed to allow Poland universal
suffrage in the form of a secret ballot within one month of the conference,
based on the advice of Churchill and Roosevelt. (This election never took
place, and led to the breaking of trust between the nations.) By 1 April 1945,
Roosevelt documented his thoughts to Stalin, stating that the lack of progress
would lead the ‘people of the United States to regard the Yalta agreement as
having failed.’
There were many
names given to the
area now known as
Russia during the
twentieth century. In
1922, the Treaty on the
Creation of the USSR
was approved. ‘USSR’
stands for the Union
of Soviet Socialist
Republics, and is
commonly shortened
to ‘the Soviet Union’.
The USSR originally
consisted of six
republics, which grew
to fifteen by 1940. In
the Russian Cyrillic
alphabet, ‘USSR’ is
represented as ‘CCCP’,
which you will see
sometimes in cartoons
and on posters. The
USSR dissolved in
late 1991, after many
republics formed
independent states.
• POLAND: The Polish borders also changed significantly because of Stalin’s
insistence on a ‘friendly’ Poland. With the borders moving westwards,
Poland would now occupy part of Germany, and Russian territory expanded
to the agreed Curzon Line. Stalin believed that access through Poland had
always been the main method of attack on the Soviet Union, hence it was
necessary to establish a communist government. Despite suspecting Stalin’s
motives, Churchill reluctantly agreed to this change of borders. In Britain,
his agreement was criticised harshly, especially as it was Hitler’s invasion of
Poland that originally sparked Britain’s declaration of war.
Source 1.02
Stalin’s Toast at the start of the Yalta
Conference, February 1945
I am talking as an old man, that is why I am talking so much, but I want to
drink to our alliance, that it should not lose its character of intimacy, its free
expression of views. In the history of diplomacy I know of no such close alliance
of the three Great Powers as this, when allies had the opportunity of so frankly
expressing their views… I propose a toast to the frankness of the three-power
alliance. May it be strong and stable; may we be as frank as possible.
14
SECTION A: COMPETING IDEOLOGIES
Conrad Black, Franklin
Delano Roosevelt: Champion
of Freedom (New York: Public
Affairs, 2003).
Twentieth Century 2: POST-WAR CHALLENGES
15
UNCORRECTED PAGE PROOFS
Photo of the Big Three
taken on 4 February 1945.
Check Your Understanding
Answer the following questions:
1. Create a table summarising the agreements made at the Yalta Conference, as outlined below:
Conditions agreed to
unanimously
Conditions agreed to after
negotiation
Conditions that caused tension
Activities
S o u rc e 1. 03
cHAPTER 1: ORIGINS OF THE COLD WAR
3. Explain which condition you believe had the greatest impact on:
• Germany
• Europe
• the world.
4. By referring to sources 1.02, 1.03 and 1.04, explain how communication among the Big Three might have
affected the dynamics of the Yalta Conference.
Skills: Historical Perspectives
Write a front-page newspaper article from the perspective of one of the countries represented at the Yalta
Conference: Great Britain, the USSR or the USA. The date of the article will be 12 February 1945. In the
article, include:
• a provocative heading
S o u rc e 1. 04
Photo of the Big Three
taken on 9 February 1945.
• an image or cartoon that grabs the reader’s attention
• an explanation of which agreements your country would see as a success, and those considered a loss or
point of difference. (You do not need to cover them all.)
• an outline of the attitudes and thoughts of your country’s leader and the general public. You could write
pretend quotes to convey empathy.
• a quote from a primary source.
Stunde Null (Zero hour)
While most of Europe celebrated VE Day on 8 May 1945, Germans witnessed
the arrest of the Reich Government and the beginning of Stunde Null, or zero
hour. This term, often used in the military, described the massive and catastrophic
turning point in the everyday lives of the population. Germans were desperately
fleeing westwards from Eastern Europe to avoid Soviet occupation. Those who
did not flee were either expelled or deported to labour camps. By 1950, this
figure reached over 11 million people, and it was believed that almost 15 000
people a day were being expelled from Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and
Romania. With so many people displaced and flooding the newly formed zones
in Germany, security became a major issue. The Big Three therefore ordered
the arrest of anyone considered a threat, with each country arresting between
90 000–120 000 suspects. They also established non-fraternisation policies,
which prevented the interaction of Allies with German citizens.
Stunde Null was a time of famine, inflation and massive unemployment in
Germany. In 1945 the French zone only produced enough food for half the
population. This was due to extremely cold weather affecting the harvest, which
Germans labelled ‘the miserable winter’. A member of the Catholic Church in
Cologne even suggested that stealing food or coal for your family was acceptable,
sparking robberies called fringsen, meaning ‘to steal to survive’. The food supply
16
SECTION A: COMPETING IDEOLOGIES
Twentieth Century 2: POST-WAR CHALLENGES
17
UNCORRECTED PAGE PROOFS
S o u rc e 1. 05
cHAPTER 1: ORIGINS OF THE COLD WAR
The following issues were agreed upon by the Big Three:
A bombed-out building
in Wittenberg Platz,
Berlin. Many of the signs
posted give directions to
merchants’ new locations.
• The division of Germany and subsequent demilitarisation of its factories, as
discussed at Yalta.
• The Japanese Government would be called upon to proclaim an
unconditional surrender. Japan would then be occupied by Allied forces until
the complete disarmament of their military forces and the establishment of a
peaceful and responsible government.
• Nazi war criminals would be prosecuted swiftly, with the first list of
defendants published before 1 September 1945.
Source 1.06
The state of the accused
at the Nuremberg Trials,
including Karl Doenitz,
Franz von Papen,
Albert Speer, Hermann
Göring, and Joachim von
Ribbentrop.
for the city of Königsberg, for example, had been destroyed, and some people
resorted to eating human flesh in the form of fried meatballs. Malnutrition
affected the economy, as the starving workers were unable to work hard. The
destruction of transport systems during World War II prevented the movement
of coal for industry, creating mass unemployment, and the black market
became prominent as people paid for goods with cigarettes or by bartering.
De- industrialisation caused the further loss of over 3500 factories in Germany;
these factories were dismantled and shipped to the various allied countries as war
reparations. With such a devastating loss of infrastructure, almost 5 million jobs
were wiped out. Demographically, Berlin’s population was reduced to 65 per cent
of its pre-war size, and there were sixteen women to every ten men. A quarter of
the population was over sixty years old, and there were over 50 000 orphans who
had no recollection of who they were.
Matchup quiz on
conferences
Potsdam Conference
Josef Stalin: ‘If any foreign minister begins to defend to the death a peace
conference, you can be sure his government has already placed its orders for new
battleships and airplanes.’
Five months after the Yalta Conference, the Allied leaders arranged to meet again
in Potsdam, a Berlin suburb. Now that the common enemy had been defeated,
it was time for the suggestions put forward at Yalta to be finalised. However, the
atmosphere of this conference—which spanned two weeks (17 July –2 August)—
changed dramatically because of new leadership. President Roosevelt had died
on 12 April 1945 and was replaced by US Vice President Harry Truman. Further,
Winston Churchill was replaced by Clement Atlee during the conference, after
losing the British general election. Truman was considered more anti-communist
than Roosevelt, and relations between the three countries were clouded by a sense
of mistrust, suspicion and rivalry.
18
SECTION A: COMPETING IDEOLOGIES
• The ‘humane and orderly’ transfer of all ethnic German populations living
in Eastern Europe to Germany. This led to 10 million people being forcibly
moved, and it is believed that 500 000 expelled people died due to starvation,
hypothermia and violence.
The following issues were considered controversial:
• POLAND: While the changing borders of Poland were ratified at Potsdam,
there was much suspicion over the political situation in the country. Both
the US and Great Britain were aware that Stalin’s Red Army currently
occupied Poland after removing the Nazi forces from the region. The
Potsdam protocols acknowledged the desire to protect the Polish Provisional
Government and restated the need for free elections; however, in reality
both Churchill and Truman knew that Stalin had already swiftly organised a
communist government.
The Nuremberg war
crimes trials began in
November 1945, and
twenty-four members
of the Nazi party were
charged. Eleven were
sentenced to death
for crimes against
humanity, three
received life sentences,
four received fixed-term
sentences and three
were acquitted. The
trials lasted over 200
days.
Twentieth Century 2: POST-WAR CHALLENGES
19
UNCORRECTED PAGE PROOFS
Summary
video About
conferenceS
• REPARATIONS: Disagreements arose over reparations. Truman was
determined not to repeat the mistakes of the Treaty of Versailles, whereas
Stalin wanted to cripple Germany because of the devastation it had caused
to the Soviet Union, which lost up to 27 million people during World War
II. However, a monetary figure, as Stalin put forward during Yalta, was never
agreed upon. Eventually the Potsdam Agreement settled on the following terms:
• Reparations should not impinge on the German people’s right
to subsist independently and free from the need of foreign
assistance.
• Claims for the Soviet Union should be met from the removal
of assets within their own occupied Eastern Zone. The Soviet
Union will also settle the reparation claims of Poland.
• Claims for all other entitled countries should be recovered from
the Western Zones.
at potsdam: perspectives on the conversation about the atomic bomb
S o u rc e 1. 08
Harry S. Truman, Year of
Decisions (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday and Company,
1955), 416.
S o u rc e 1. 09
Winston Churchill, Triumph
and Tragedy (Boston:
Houghton-Mifflin, 1953),
669–70.
• The Soviet Union can remove 10 per cent of all industrial
equipment within the Western Zone, if it is not considered
necessary for the German economy.
• All countries agreed to not interfere in the claiming of shares for
German enterprises within each other’s zone.
S o u rc e 1. 07
A replica of the atomic
bomb named ‘Fat Man’
that would be dropped on
Japan in August 1945.
• ATOMIC BOMB: The issue of the atomic bomb also heightened suspicion
during the conference. One day before the Potsdam Conference began, the
US successfully tested an atomic bomb, which was known as ‘the Manhattan
Project’. While it is believed
that Stalin knew about this
from Soviet intelligence, it
was not until a week later, on
24 July 1945, that Truman
personally told Stalin that
the US had ‘a new weapon
of unusual destructive
force’. Without specifically
mentioning its true potential,
there was much speculation
about what Stalin must have
been thinking and whether he
understood the magnitude of
the information.
Activity
Create a table that summarises the continuities and changes that occurred between the Yalta and Potsdam
Conferences:
Continuities
Diplomatic relations between leaders
International affairs and events
20
SECTION A: COMPETING IDEOLOGIES
S o u rc e 1. 10
Georgii Konstantinovich
Zhukov, The Memoirs of
Marshal Zhukov (New York:
Delacorte Press, 1971),
674–675.
President Truman
On July 24 I casually mentioned to Stalin that we had a new weapon of
unusual destructive force. The Russian Premier showed no special interest.
All he said was he was glad to hear it and hoped we would make good use of
it against the Japanese.
Winston Churchill
I was perhaps five yards away, and I watched with the closest attention
the momentous talk. I knew what the President was going to do. What
was vital to measure was its effect on Stalin. I can see it all as if it were
yesterday. He seemed to be delighted. A new bomb! Of extraordinary power!
Probably decisive on the whole Japanese war! What a bit of luck! This was
my impression at the moment, and I was sure that he had no idea of the
significance of what he was being told … his face remained gay and genial.
As we were waiting for our cars I found myself near Truman. ‘How did it go?’
I asked. ‘He never asked a question,’ he replied. I was certain therefore that
at that date Stalin had no special knowledge of the vast process of research
upon which the United States and Britain had been engaged for so long ...
Soviet Marshal Georgii Zhukov:
At that moment Churchill fixed his gaze on Stalin’s face, closely observing
his reaction. However, Stalin did not betray his feelings and pretended that
he saw nothing special in what Truman had imparted to him. Both Churchill
and many other Anglo-American authors subsequently assumed that Stalin
had really failed to fathom the significance of what he had heard.
In actual fact, on returning to his quarters after this meeting Stalin, in
my presence, told Molotov about his conversation with Truman. The latter
reacted almost immediately. ‘Let them. We’ll have to talk it over with
Kurchatov and get him to speed things up.’ I realized that they were talking
about research on the atomic bomb.
S o u rc e 1. 11
Charles E. Bohlen, Witness
to History 1929–1969
(New York: W. W. Norton,
1973), 247–248.
Charles Bohlen (Truman’s interpreter):
Across the room, I watched Stalin’s face carefully as the President broke the
news. So offhand was Stalin’s response that there was some question in my
mind whether the President’s message had got through. I should have known
better than to underrate the dictator.
Activity
Skills: Continuity and change
Settlements regarding the end of World War II
cHAPTER 1: ORIGINS OF THE COLD WAR
Changes
Skills: Perspectives
1. Why is it important for a historian to always research more than one perspective when gathering evidence?
Think about how each perspective above shaped or changed your opinion as you read them.
2. How have the memoirs of the individuals above ensured that this short moment in history has remained a
contestable topic?
3. What is your final opinion regarding this debate about Stalin’s possible understanding, or lack thereof, of the
atomic bomb? What evidence or perspective is missing above that would further help to clarify your opinion?
Twentieth Century 2: POST-WAR CHALLENGES
21
UNCORRECTED PAGE PROOFS
FEATURE
cHAPTER 1: ORIGINS OF THE COLD WAR
sample response
analysing a source
S o u rc e 1. 12
By referring to the source and using your own
knowledge, explain how trust was significant in shaping
the decisions made at the Potsdam conference.
A British cartoon showing
reactions to Truman’s secret
weapon.
At Potsdam the Big Three struggled to build a mutual
1
trust due to the new leaders involved, perceived
2
3
Source analysis
question:
territorial ambitions and indirect communications.
By referring to the source
and using your own
knowledge, explain how
trust was significant in
shaping the decisions
made at the Potsdam
conference.
introduction of two new leaders to the negotiation
Firstly, the Potsdam conference witnessed the
table. President Truman replaced Roosevelt, after his
death on 12 April 1945 and Churchill was replaced by
Clement Atlee mid-way through the conference after
losing the British General Election. The mutual respect
and common ground established at Yalta was lost and
new relationships had to be formed. Until personal
characteristics were understood, each leader was
cautious to confirm any decision, as portrayed in the
How to structure your answer
This question requires you to correctly identify
the context of the source and communicate your
historical knowledge of the situation or event. There
are three important elements to any answer.
Strong Topic Sentence: Your first sentence to
this question must make a statement. There
are two possible methods suggested:
a) Is there a common theme amongst all the
reasons supplied? E.g. ‘The lack of trust amongst
the Big Three turned the diplomatic intentions of
Potsdam into an international power struggle.’
In this case lack of trust is the theme.
b) Or can you list the reasons you will discuss
in order e.g. ‘New leadership, secretive
communications and competitive rivalry all
greatly affected the decisions made at Potsdam.’
Body of Paragraph: You should aim to outline
three reasons in your answer. In some cases
reasons can be classified e.g. political,
social, economic. In general make sure each
reason satisfies the following criteria:
22
SECTION A: COMPETING IDEOLOGIES
Signposting
three reasons in
topic sentence
a) Begins with a linking phrase to clearly signpost
the start of a new reason e.g. firstly, secondly,
thirdly, another, furthermore or additionally.
Introducing each
new reason
(highlighted).
b) As depicted in the visual by...
Take note of all these
elements in the response
on the next page.
Additionally, the presence of Stalin’s Red Army in Poland,
despite the push for elections during Yalta in February
Stalin’s determination to receive reparations from
the Eastern zone of Germany and 10% of industrial
equipment from the Western zone. Both Truman and
c) Explicitly outlines how it is significant or
important in relation to the question.
a) As shown in the extract by the statement
image by the posture of Stalin and frown on Atlee’s face.
1945 caused a lack of trust. This was heightened by
b) Provides specific historical details such as:
• dates
• key terms
• statistics
• events
• names
• places
Referring to the Source: In order to satisfy the
question, you must provide a quote or refer to a
symbol in the source. For images you may also
refer to the caption. It is best to incorporate your
reference within one of the reasons outlined
as then the source is given a context. Make it
obvious to the reader by using phrases like:
Specific
knowledge
(underlined)
Atlee were concerned that Stalin’s true intentions were to
Analysis of
question
(in bold)
Referring to the
source (in italics)
occupy these areas and instil a communist government,
defying any agreements made during the conference.
Furthermore, the subtle and secretive communications
in regards to the Manhattan Project’s successful testing
of an atomic bomb only increased the suspicion and
tension between the Big Three. As depicted in the source,
the bomb was Truman’s secret weapon which he used as
a power tactic towards Stalin. For these reasons the
Big Three found it hard to work together in confidence
evaluating the
reliability of a
source
with many decisions being formed due to competitive
bargaining rather than diplomatic discussion.
Twentieth Century 2: POST-WAR CHALLENGES
23
UNCORRECTED PAGE PROOFS
FEATURE
Atomic diplomacy
cold war symbols
Common Cold War symbols seen in political cartoons and posters
Leaders
US
Soviet
Other
Truman –
round
glasses,
big grin and
often wearing
a suit
Stalin – large
thick moustache,
smoking a pipe
and wearing a
military jacket
Winston Churchill –
often smoking a
cigar
Stars and
stripes of US
flag
National Symbols
Hammer and sickle
Brown bear
Dollar symbol to
show economic
strength or
capitalism
Red star or
red flag to
symbolise
unity under
communism
Ideological Symbols
The phrase ‘atomic diplomacy’ described US foreign policy after the tense
Potsdam Conference. Because the USA was the only country with atomic
weapons, it was believed that US military power could be used as a threat to
pressure other countries to align with US diplomatic goals. At the Potsdam
Conference, Stalin’s agreement to enter the Pacific War three months after the
war in Europe had ended greatly concerned the US Government. It was believed
that this would only increase the Soviet Union’s sphere of influence in the Pacific
region and impact on the balance of power.
Realising Stalin’s intentions for Eastern Europe, Truman did not want to see
another co-occupation similar to Germany; instead he wanted the Japanese
occupation to be led entirely by the USA. The decision to use nuclear technology
to end the Pacific War was not debated at length as it was firmly believed that
it would bring a faster end to the conflict and ensure fewer war casualties. As
Truman put it, ‘When you have to deal with a beast, you have to treat him as a
beast.’ Additionally, the use of such a weapon justified the cost of the Manhattan
Project, which amounted to US$2 billion (US$26 billion in today’s currency).
Molotov – small
moustache, fierce
eyebrows and
round glasses
Uncle Sam or
Eagle
cHAPTER 1: ORIGINS OF THE COLD WAR
Barriers to symbolise the Iron
Curtain or division such as
fences, tennis court nets, and
walls. Usually someone spying
or peering over them
Apart from ending the war, atomic diplomacy may have also been used by the
USA in attempts to persuade the Soviet Union to allow free elections in Eastern
Europe. However, if this was the case it did not achieve its goal. Atomic weapons
only made Stalin more anxious about the security of the Soviet Union and
determined to protect its borders with a buffer zone. The atomic age had just
begun, and the actions of the USA in July and August 1945 would profoundly
shape international relations for the duration of the twentieth century.
Source 1.13
president truman’s Radio Report on the use
of the Atomic Bomb in Japan, 9 August 1945
The British, Chinese, and United States Governments have given the Japanese
people adequate warning of what is in store for them. We have laid down the
general terms on which they can surrender. Our warning went unheeded; our
terms were rejected. Since then the Japanese have seen what our atomic bomb
can do. They can foresee what it will do in the future.
Bombs to highlight military
strength and power
Capitalist
Often wearing a top hat, striped
pants, and overweight
Worker/Proletariat
Fists or arm wrestles to show
Often holding a tool and wearing strength or a power struggle
an apron
Archive of Cold
War SOURCES.
Harry S. Truman Library
and Museum, http://
www.trumanlibrary.org/
publicpapers/?pid=104
The world will note that the first atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, a
military base. That was because we wished in this first attack to avoid, insofar
as possible, the killing of civilians. But that attack is only a warning of things
to come. If Japan does not surrender, bombs will have to be dropped on her
war industries and, unfortunately, thousands of civilian lives will be lost. I urge
Japanese civilians to leave industrial cities immediately, and save themselves
from destruction.
I realize the tragic significance of the atomic bomb.
Society
Having found the bomb, we have used it. We have used it against those who
attacked us without warning at Pearl Harbor, against those who have starved
and beaten and executed American prisoners of war, against those who have
abandoned all pretense of obeying international laws of warfare. We have used
it in order to shorten the agony of war, in order to save the lives of thousands
and thousands of young Americans.
VIDEO OF Truman’s
speech
We shall continue to use it until we completely destroy Japan’s power to make
war. Only a Japanese surrender will stop us.
24
SECTION A: COMPETING IDEOLOGIES
Twentieth Century 2: POST-WAR CHALLENGES
25
UNCORRECTED PAGE PROOFS
cHAPTER 1: ORIGINS OF THE COLD WAR
Source 1.14
Timeline of events leading up to the end of the pacific war
VP Day (Victory in
the Pacific) or VJ Day
(Victory over Japan)
is celebrated on 15
August in Australia. In
1945, the Australian
Government declared
a public holiday and
the capital cities
witnessed the biggest
crowds to have ever
assembled. It was time
to celebrate the ending
of a war that took 34 000
Australian lives. In New
York, VJ day has been
symbolised by several
photos of a sailor and a
nurse kissing in Times
Square. It has become
one of the most iconic
images of the twentieth
century. For the 65th
anniversary of VJ day,
an eight-metre tall
sculpture of the kissing
couple was placed in
Times Square and a
lookalike competition
was held.
Truman and Churchill demanded the
unconditional surrender of Japan at
the Potsdam Conference.
A Japanese newspaper published
the censored version of the Potsdam
terms under the heading ‘Laughable
matter’. The Supreme War Council
consensus was lost and Prime
Minister Suzuki announced that, ‘The
government does not regard [the
Potsdam Declaration] as a thing of any
value; the government will just ignore
it. We will press forward resolutely
to carry the war to a successful
conclusion.’
The city of Toyama was completely
destroyed by 173 B-29 American
bombers. Toyama produced aluminium
and steel and had 150 000 residents at
the time of the bombing. The Potsdam
Conference ended.
This similar image
was taken at the
same time by US Navy
photographer Victor
Jorgensen.
27
July
1945
28
July
1945
30
July
1945
1–2
August
1945
Japan’s Supreme War Council
discussed the demands and decided to
gain clarification of the terms through
the Soviet Union. At this stage, they
did not reject the terms. The Japanese
Government feared that the Allies
might make the terms known to
the public. Therefore they released
a censored version of the Potsdam
terms.
Days after transporting half of the
world’s enriched uranium for the bomb
called Little Boy, the USS Indianapolis
was torpedoed by a Japanese
Imperial Navy submarine. The heavy
cruiser sunk in just twelve minutes.
Although 900 men out of a crew of
1196 managed to survive the initial
attack, only 317 men survived the
following days because of dehydration,
saltwater poisoning and shark attacks.
6
August
1945
8
August
1945
9
August
1945
Japanese occupation
After World War II ended, Japan was occupied by the USA. All major Japanese
cities except Kyoto had been destroyed during the war, including their industries
and transport infrastructure. War crimes trials took place. In 1947, a new
constitution was formed, removing all political and military power from the
emperor, who was reduced to being a figurehead. Universal suffrage was
granted to the Japanese people, and article nine of the constitution outlined the
abandonment of the use of war as a way to settle international disputes. Despite
these new political freedoms, Japan was in a critical situation economically.
During 1947–48 there was a severe shortage of food, as well as a shortage of
the raw materials needed to stimulate markets and industry. Rehabilitating the
Japanese economy was the highest priority for the USA, as they feared that
a communist takeover could occur in East Asia if Japan were weak. The US
occupation of Japan ended on 8 September 1951, when forty-eight nations
signed the Treaty of San Francisco. From this point, Japan was once again a
sovereign nation.
Check Your Understanding
The Soviet Union enters the war
against Japan by invading Manchuria
from three fronts, an hour before
midnight. Japan was caught
completely by surprise.
Another atomic bomb, called Fat Man,
is dropped over Nagasaki at 11:02
am. It is estimated that 75 000 people
are killed instantly. Truman holds a
radio broadcast announcing that the
bombings have taken place.
1. Explain what the phrase ‘atomic diplomacy’ means.
2. How many days passed from the start of the Potsdam Conference to the ending of World War II? Would
you consider this a fast end to World War II, as Truman had hoped?
3. After reading Source 1.13, discuss why Truman might have felt so confident in explaining the use of the
atomic bomb and threatening to use it again in the future. Compare his tone to the dialogue of world
leaders in the twenty-first century.
Activities
The first use of an atomic bomb as
a weapon took place in Hiroshima at
8:15 am. Little Boy was released from
the Enola Gay B-29 bomber and killed
80 000 people instantly. The blast was
equal to roughly 15 000 tonnes of TNT,
and wiped out 90 per cent of the city.
Japan did not surrender.
26
July
1945
Hiroshima, Japan after the
atomic bomb was dropped.
Skills: Ethical Dimensions of History
Hindsight allows us to assess the humanity of those before us. Hold a class discussion about the actions of
the US Government towards Japan. To what extent was the use of the bomb justified? Remember to include
reasons that support and oppose each question raised.
• Do you think the use of the atomic bomb resulted in fewer war casualties than the alternative of
continuing invasions and battles?
• How did dropping the atomic bombs compare to the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor?
Victory in the
Pacific Day
26
SECTION A: COMPETING IDEOLOGIES
14
August
1945
Japan unconditionally surrendered to
the Allies.
• Did dropping atomic bombs on Japan ultimately bring peace to the world?
• Do you believe that the post-war occupation of Japan was successful in re-establishing a country
devastated by war? Provide evidence to support your answer.
Twentieth Century 2: POST-WAR CHALLENGES
27
Iron Curtain
UNCORRECTED PAGE PROOFS
Winston Churchill: ‘The United States stands at this time at the pinnacle of world
power. It is a solemn moment for the American Democracy. For with primacy in
power is also joined an awe-inspiring accountability to the future.’
Winston Churchill famously used the term ‘Iron Curtain’ when describing the
actions of the Soviet Government during 1945. In multiple telegrams between
the Yalta and Potsdam peace conferences, Churchill expressed to Truman his
concerns that this metaphorical divide was being built between Eastern and
Western Europe. Additionally, Churchill complained to Stalin about the ‘iron
fence’ that was being established in Bucharest during the Potsdam Conference.
However, it wasn’t until 5 March 1946 that international recognition was given
to the term, after Churchill’s US lecture tour. At Westminster College in Fulton,
Missouri, he described the geographic location of the Iron Curtain in his ‘Sinews
of Peace’ speech. Churchill’s intention was to warn the Western world of the
threat Stalin posed and urge the USA to remain an accountable stakeholder
in world politics. He wanted to prevent US isolationism from re-occurring by
reminding the audience of the consequences faced due to inaction during the
threat of Nazi invasion. Furthermore, Churchill encouraged unity among the
nations of the Western world to quell the spread of communism.
The ‘Long Telegram’
Despite the US Government conveying an alarmed
response to Churchill’s speech, they were well
aware of the growing polarisation between the
West and the Soviet Union. On 9 February 1946,
Stalin had given an election speech stating that
World War II was caused by capitalism because
it promoted uneven and unequal economic
development. He stated that ‘the capitalist world
is sent into two hostile camps and war follows’ and
then declared the Soviet social system victorious,
having emerged successful after World War II and
The George Washington University National Security Archive, http://
www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/coldwar/documents/episode-1/kennan.
htm
the ‘long’ telegram, sent
by george kennan
S o u rc e 1. 15
1. How is Churchill portrayed in this cartoon?
2. What is the possible motive for creating this
cartoons?
3. To what extent does this image provide an
accurate depiction of Churchill’s speech?
28
SECTION A: COMPETING IDEOLOGIES
George Kennan in 1947.
USSR still lives in antagonistic ‘capitalist
encirclement’ with which in the long run there
can be no permanent peaceful coexistence …
At bottom of Kremlin’s neurotic view of world
affairs is traditional and instinctive Russian
sense of insecurity … For this reason they
have always feared foreign penetration, feared
direct contact between Western world and
their own ... And they have learned to seek
security only in patient but deadly struggle
for total destruction of rival power, never in
compacts and compromises with it … Much
depends on health and vigor of our own
society. World communism is like malignant
parasite which feeds only on diseased tissue.
Activity
Skills: Perspectives
1. Many historians have contested the views of Kennan’s telegram. Research and summarise two perspectives in
relation to the ‘Long Telegram’. They can support or oppose Kennan’s message, or offer a different viewpoint.
Check Your Understanding
1. Why did Churchill believe unity was needed among the Western countries?
2. Why did Churchill regard the USA as an important country in establishing such unity?
Activity
Activity
Source Analysis
proven its ‘complete vitality’.1 Following Stalin’s
speech, the US government contacted the US
embassy in Moscow, asking for an analysis of the
Soviet position. George Kennan, a US embassy
diplomat, replied on 22 February with an 8000word telegram stating his views on the Soviet
Union and suggesting policies that should be
implemented. His message was very strong, and
it shaped the future policy of containment. Source
1.16 contains extracts from Kennan’s telegram.
S o u rc e 1. 16
At the time, the public still regarded the Soviet Union as an ally, and the term
‘Iron Curtain’ was not well received; many people were even angered by the
message. In their minds, not even a year had passed since the Allied victory
in World War II and hearing such doom and gloom was not appreciated. The
announcement of yet another threat to world peace was simply exhausting. The
press published many cartoons showing Churchill exaggerating his apparent
paranoia, and one newspaper even suggested his speech was an ‘ideological
declaration of war against Russia.’ The US Congress was reportedly ‘shocked’ and
jolted by the sentiment. Truman’s government had not publicly acknowledged any
of the tense communications with Stalin, so although they agreed with Churchill
Soviet cartoon of Churchill
in 1946. Churchill is
shown with two flags,
‘Anglo-Saxons must
rule the world’ and the
other threatening an
‘Iron Curtain’. Hitler
and Goebbels are in the
background.
cHAPTER 1: ORIGINS OF THE COLD WAR
3. Why might the US Government have preferred that Churchill not discuss the Iron Curtain?
Twentieth Century 2: POST-WAR CHALLENGES
29
UNCORRECTED PAGE PROOFS
S o u rc e 1. 17
Winston Churchill,‘The Sinews
of Peace’ (speech, Missouri,
5 March 1946), NATO On-line
Library, http://www.nato.int/docu/
speech/1946/s460305a_e.htm
Churchill’s Iron Curtain Speech, 5 March 1946
Churchill’s Iron
Curtain speech
Winston Churchill, 1941.
A shadow has fallen upon the scenes so lately lighted by the Allied victory.
Nobody knows what Soviet Russia and its Communist international
organization intends to do in the immediate future, or what are the limits, if any,
to their expansive and proselytizing tendencies. I have a strong admiration and
regard for the valiant Russian people and for my wartime comrade, Marshal
Stalin. There is deep sympathy and goodwill in Britain—and I doubt not here
also—towards the peoples of all the Russias and a resolve to persevere through
many differences and rebuffs in establishing lasting friendships. We understand
the Russian need to be secure on her western frontiers by the removal of all
possibility of German aggression. We welcome Russia to her rightful place
among the leading nations of the world. We welcome her flag upon the seas.
Above all, we welcome constant, frequent and growing contacts between the
Russian people and our own people on both sides of the Atlantic. It is my duty
however, for I am sure you would wish me to state the facts as I see them to you,
to place before you certain facts about the present position in Europe.
From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has
descended across the Continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of
the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague,
Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia, all these famous cities
and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere,
and all are subject in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to
a very high and, in many cases, increasing measure of control from Moscow.
Athens alone—Greece with its immortal glories—is free to decide its future
at an election under British, American and French observation. The Russiandominated Polish Government has been encouraged to make enormous and
wrongful inroads upon Germany, and mass expulsions of millions of Germans
on a scale grievous and undreamed-of are now taking place. The Communist
parties, which were very small in all these Eastern States of Europe, have been
raised to pre-eminence and power far beyond their numbers and are seeking
everywhere to obtain totalitarian control. Police governments are prevailing
in nearly every case, and so far, except in Czechoslovakia, there is no true
democracy. Turkey and Persia are both profoundly alarmed and disturbed at the
claims which are being made upon them and at the pressure being exerted by
the Moscow Government. An attempt is being made by the Russians in Berlin
to build up a quasi-Communist party in their zone of Occupied Germany by
showing special favours to groups of left-wing German leaders …
Activities
Source Analysis
Role Play: Empathy
1. How has Churchill portrayed diplomacy in the first
paragraph? Include an example in your answer.
In groups of three, create a role play that
communicates one perspective held about
Churchill’s ‘Iron Curtain’ speech. It is important
to convey empathy for those involved. Divide the
following perspectives among the class to ensure all
perspectives are covered:
1. How does his message change in the second
paragraph? Support your answer with two specific
quotes.
2. Make a list of the various countries mentioned in
Churchill’s speech and outline what happened to
two of them.
3. What is the tone of the speech? Does it change
within this extract?
4. By referring to the source and using your own
knowledge, explain the significance of free
elections in Europe after World War II.
30
SECTION A: COMPETING IDEOLOGIES
• General public perspective.
• Winston Churchill’s perspective (possibility to
portray his feelings the next day and one year
later).
• US Government perspective.
• Joseph Stalin’s perspective.
• Media perspective.
cHAPTER 1: ORIGINS OF THE COLD WAR
they were not pleased to see it so candidly announced. Stalin commented in
the Soviet newspaper Pravda that Churchill was a ‘warmonger’ and compared
him to Hitler. (Churchill’s ‘Sinews of Peace’ speech was not published in the
USSR until 1998.) Over 1946–47, as more information was released about the
international relations between the USA and the USSR, people came to accept the
‘Iron Curtain’ metaphor as a reference to the division occurring within Europe. In
hindsight, many would consider Churchill’s speech a prophecy of the Cold War.
‘Salami’ Tactics
Mátyás Rákosi (Head of the Hungarian Communist Party): ‘Cutting [countries] off
like slices of salami.’
Despite the initial hostile reactions to Churchill’s ‘Iron Curtain’ speech, the West
became increasingly aware of the Soviet Union’s expansionist policies as the year
progressed. Although not mentioned until 1952, Hungarian Communist leader
Mátyás Rákosi coined the term ‘salami tactics’ to describe Stalin’s 1945–1947
actions. In retrospect, Rákosi suggested that the Soviet Union sliced off all noncommunist political parties in Eastern Europe. He boldly stated that ‘the presence
in the country of the Soviet army precluded any attempt at armed rebellion.’ Stalin
was determined to protect Russia from a future attack by increasing its sphere
of influence. By gaining control of these independent countries between East
Germany and Russia, Stalin was able to create a buffer zone of satellite states.
These satellite states became known as the Eastern Bloc. The occupation of each
country completely disregarded the intent of the Potsdam Conference, which had
outlined the importance of holding free elections in Eastern Europe. In some
cases these occupied countries also had to repay war reparations to the Soviet
Union based on the Paris Peace Conferences, which were held in the latter half of
1946. The following countries were affected.
• Albania: Communists took power without opposition (1945).
• Bulgaria: A communist party gained power, then executed the leaders of all
other parties (1945).
• Poland: A coalition government was formed in 1945, but all non-communist
leaders were arrested and party members were forced into exile (1947).
• Romania: Communists gradually took control after being elected in 1945.
Romania was forced to pay $300 million in reparations to the Soviet Union.
• Hungary: Elections were permitted and non-communists won a majority
of seats. However, Rákosi, a communist, gradually pressured other parties
to remove those who were not willing to work with the communists. By
1947, he gained control of the police and brutally oppressed all opponents.
Hungary also had to pay $200 million in reparations to the Soviet Union.
Soviet propaganda
posters
The set amount for
war reparations was
decided at the Paris
Peace Conference,
held from July to
October 1946. Many
countries that had to
pay reparations also
had their pre-war
borders restored.
Italy was forced
to end its colonial
empire, recognising
the independence
of Albania, Libya
and countries within
Eastern Africa.
• Czechoslovakia: A communist party was elected in 1945; by 1948, all other
parties had been banned and their leaders killed.
• Yugoslavia: No interference was needed to promote communism, as the
leader, President Tito maintained a strong and respected regime within the
country. Because Yugoslavia had not been liberated by the Red Army during
World War II, it remained independent.
Twentieth Century 2: POST-WAR CHALLENGES
31
UNCORRECTED PAGE PROOFS
Activity
S o u rc e 1. 18
SECTION A: COMPETING IDEOLOGIES
Map showing the Iron Curtain and the satellite states that formed the Eastern Bloc under Stalin’s control
iron curtain and the eastern bloc
32
cHAPTER 1: ORIGINS OF THE COLD WAR
skills; historical inquiry
This task can be completed individually or in pairs. Choose one country
that was located behind the Iron Curtain. Research the political and social
events that took place in this country 1945–1948. Formulate three key
historical inquiry questions that help you to evaluate the extent to which
free and democratic elections were undertaken, as proposed by Roosevelt
in his ‘Declaration on Liberated Europe’.
Possible methods of presentation include the following:
• A poster
Make sure it is visually appealing by including images of leaders, maps,
symbols, and a timeline. Possibly incorporate a concept map or diagram
to separate each inquiry question. Make sure you clearly answer the
question by making a judgment.
• A presentation
Use the inquiry questions as the basis for each PowerPoint slide,
and ensure the majority of your information is contained within the
speech. Include images of leaders, maps, symbols and a timeline in
your presentation. Conclude by answering the question and making a
judgment.
In response to the
Eastern Bloc that
Stalin had formed, the
American and British
zones within West
Germany combined
on 1 January 1947 to
form the ‘Bizone’. The
agreement stated: ‘It
is the aim of the two
governments to attain
a self-supporting
economy in this area
by the end of 1949.’ In
1949 France also joined
the merger and the
area became known as
‘Trizonia’.
Source 1.19
Bloc Heads
Before the war in Europe ended, in May, 1945, the Soviets had already begun
to establish ‘people’s democracies’ in the countries of Eastern Europe. When
Winston Churchill gave his Iron Curtain speech, in March, 1946, it was clear
that Stalin had no intention of withdrawing from Eastern Europe, or of allowing
regimes unfriendly to the Soviet Union to install themselves there … For
the next six years, the Soviets, using tactics of intimidation, imprisonment,
execution, assassination, election rigging, and show trials, eliminated all
political opposition. It turned those nations into one-party states and installed
puppet regimes.
Louis Menand, ‘Bloc Heads:
Life behind the Iron Curtain,’
The New Yorker, 12 November
2012.
What Churchill and Roosevelt did not foresee is … that the Soviet Union
would not stop at installing friendly regimes in the countries on its borders
but would embark on a totalitarian remake of the entire region, complete with
ethnic cleansing. It’s not clear, though, that even Stalin foresaw the direction
that events would take. All the evidence is that the Kremlin believed that the
Communists would easily win open elections in the liberated countries. It was
only when this proved to be a delusion that the Soviets began seriously to force
the issue.
Truman Doctrine
Senator Vandenberg: ‘Scare the hell out of the American people.’
The Truman Doctrine was the US response to George Kennan’s ‘Long Telegram’
and Stalin’s expansionist ‘salami tactics’. It was designed to combat the spread
of communism in Europe. Most of the countries that were vulnerable to
communism were poor countries with unstable economies. By pouring aid
into these countries, Truman hoped to strengthen their economies and make
them less susceptible to the appeal of communism. Aware of the Iron Curtain
Make Mine
Freedom: US life
vs the ‘ISMs’.
Twentieth Century 2: POST-WAR CHALLENGES
33
UNCORRECTED PAGE PROOFS
Many Greek children were
orphaned after World War
II. They suffered starvation
and 85 per cent contracted
tuberculosis.
S o u rc e 1. 21
A 1948 Soviet image
showing Truman as an
hysterical war drummer.
On March 12 1947, Truman asked US Congress for $400 million to assist
Greece and Turkey. Half of this amount would be solely for military purposes,
with Greece receiving $125 million for economic aid. His speech reiterated the
importance of allowing people to live in free societies, compared to those people
he considered to be living under ‘totalitarian regimes’. Truman promoted Western
political ideology and clearly expressed his intentions to halt expansionism, but
did not openly threaten the USSR. The doctrine created an ‘us versus them’ or
‘good versus evil’ culture within America and heightened public suspicion of
anyone who might not fully support the capitalist way of life. Media highlighted
the positives of living in a free country, in order to ensure that the USA was
unified with the government’s
political stance.
Truman’s speech had
international significance. It
established a division between
countries in Europe and
their sphere of influence, and
marked the solid involvement
by the USA in European affairs,
possibly fulfilling the obligation
mentioned by Churchill in
1946. This was a fundamental
change to the US foreign
policy previously maintained
by President Roosevelt. In
France, the French Communist
Party had become the biggest
single political party, with 26
per cent of the vote in the postwar elections. A similar case
was reported in Italy, where the
communist party had over 1.17
million members. However,
after Truman’s address both
parties were expelled in
May 1947.
34
SECTION A: COMPETING IDEOLOGIES
Source 1.22
Excerpts from the Address of President
truman to Congress, 12 March 1947
The gravity of the situation which confronts the world today necessitates
my appearance before a joint session of the Congress. The foreign policy and
the national security of this country are involved. One aspect of the present
situation, which I wish to present to you at this time for your consideration and
decision, concerns Greece and Turkey.
The very existence of the Greek state is today threatened by the terrorist
activities of several thousand armed men, led by Communists, who defy the
government’s authority at a number of points, particularly along the northern
boundaries.
The peoples of a number of countries of the world have recently had
totalitarian regimes forced upon them against their will. The Government of the
United States has made frequent protests against coercion and intimidation, in
violation of the Yalta agreement, in Poland, Romania, and Bulgaria. I must also
state that in a number of other countries there have been similar developments.
At the present moment in world history nearly every nation must choose
between alternative ways of life. The choice is too often not a free one.
One way of life is based upon the will of the majority, and is distinguished by
free institutions, representative government, free elections, guarantees of
individual liberty, freedom of speech and religion, and freedom from political
oppression.
The second way of life is based upon the will of a minority forcibly imposed
upon the majority. It relies upon terror and oppression, a controlled press and
radio, fixed elections, and the suppression of personal freedoms.
It is necessary only to glance at a map to realize that the survival and integrity
of the Greek nation are of grave importance in a much wider situation. If
Greece should fall under the control of an armed minority, the effect upon its
neighbor, Turkey, would be immediate and serious. Confusion and disorder
might well spread throughout the entire Middle East.
Should we fail to aid Greece and Turkey in this fateful hour, the effect will be far
reaching to the West as well as to the East.
Marshall Plan
After World War II the industrial and agricultural output of most European
countries had been severely disrupted, leaving the population on the brink of
famine. The recently formed United Nations was providing some humanitarian
assistance but by June 1947 the USA decided that it would have to extend
the assistance offered in the Truman Doctrine to more countries in Western
Europe. Earlier in the year Truman had appointed George Marshall as the US
Secretary of State, believing him to be the ‘the greatest military man America
ever produced.’2 Marshall realised that the USA was the only major power not
significantly damaged by the war and, in conjunction with State Department
officials including George Kennan, developed the Marshall Plan. On 5 June
1947, Marshall announced this plan, officially known as the European Recovery
Program (ERP), which aimed to rebuild the economies of Europe and ultimately
ensure the future political stability of these countries. By strengthening European
Harry S. Truman Library
& Museum, http://www.
trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/
index.php?pid=2189&st=&st1=
source
analysis
1. Identify and list
four differences in
the two lifestyles
described by
Truman.
Activity
S o u rc e 1. 20
that had developed during 1946, Truman decided that a policy of containment
was vital once Greece and Turkey became Stalin’s next potential targets. On 21
February 1947, Britain announced it could no longer support Greece and Turkey
financially or militarily. Both were in a poor political state with weak governments
and crumbling economies. In Greece, a communist-led insurgency known as the
National Liberation Front was on the rise and the country was in a state of civil
war. In Turkey, the Dardanelle Straits were considered a strategic vantage point for
the USSR. To prevent further expansion, Truman considered it was the duty of the
USA to continue to aid Greece and Turkey to prevent communism from spreading
into the Middle East or around the Mediterranean. It was decided that President
Truman must address the US Congress about the situation and emphasise its
seriousness with a public broadcast over the radio.
cHAPTER 1: ORIGINS OF THE COLD WAR
2. Why were both
Greece and
Turkey considered
important
countries to
assist?
Activity
Exam Practice
Using three or four
points, explain how
political uncertainty led
to the announcement
of the 1945–1947
Truman Doctrine.
This question requires
an extended response.
Use the points below to
structure your answer:
• Decide on three or
four main reasons or
events that led up to
the Truman Doctrine.
Be succinct.
• Discuss each reason
chronologically.
• Explain the cause
and effect or
significance of each
reason to show
the progression of
political uncertainty
over time.
• Your answer should
end when the Truman
Doctrine is reached.
Twentieth Century 2: POST-WAR CHALLENGES
35
UNCORRECTED PAGE PROOFS
S o u rc e 1. 23
provided by the USA included food, fuel, other staples and machinery. All
shipments were to be clearly marked ‘For European Recovery – supplied by the
United States of America.’ There were set conditions and directives to be fulfilled
by each recipient, and the USA established its own administrative organisation to
oversee all developments in order to avoid corruption or skimming. Due to the
huge impact this aid would have on US taxpayers, the media was not informed
of Marshall’s speech. In fact 51 per cent of Americans had not ever heard of ERP
even as negotiations were taking place in Paris. Over time, the US Government
began investing in European industries, maintaining that all raw materials must be
supplied by US companies. This displeased many US businesses, who felt that they
were only assisting the growth of their future market competition. Despite this, the
US economy flourished during the years of the Marshall Plan, providing many jobs
and strong trade deals because of Europe’s reliance on American products.
Summary of
Marshall
Plan Funding
provided to
each country,
1948–1952
George C Marshall Foundation
at http://marshallfoundation.
org/marshall/wp-content/
uploads/sites/22/2014/04/
funding.jpg
Activity
Source
Analysis
1. Calculate the
percentage of
funding allocated
to each of the four
countries that
received the most
money.
2. Why do you think
some countries
received more
money than others?
3. What do you
think might have
happened regarding
Netherlands
and Indonesia in
1949? Explain your
reasoning.
countries economically and promoting the benefits of capitalism, Marshall was
convinced that any communist ambitions would be overturned. Despite this, the
invitation to take part was extended to the Soviet Union, as Marshall believed that
excluding them would be perceived as distrust. Marshall’s speech outlined the
need for Europeans to cooperate and asked all leaders to develop their own plans,
which could then receive US funding.
quiz: Truman
Doctrine and
Marshall Plan
36
cHAPTER 1: ORIGINS OF THE COLD WAR
By July 1947, negotiations over the Marshall Plan were underway in Paris. After
several days, Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov ended discussion,
stating that the Soviet Government ‘rejects this plan as totally unsatisfactory.’
Following Molotov, the majority of Eastern European countries also rejected the
offer, although Poland and Czechoslovakia agreed to attend. This, however, did
not eventuate as both countries were prevented from attending, demonstrating
the power of Stalin’s sphere of influence. Altogether, sixteen nations received
funding through the Marshall Plan, which totalled US$13 billion in aid,
disseminated as either loans or grants. This was substantially less than the
requested US$22 billion drafted by delegates in Paris. The type of aid initially
SECTION A: COMPETING IDEOLOGIES
Source 1.24
Many specific projects were undertaken in order to rebuild Europe. In particular,
‘Noses Left’, cartoon from
the USA was able to greatly assist in improving industry efficiency. Technical
a British newspaper, 9 July
assistance programs saw 3000 Europeans visit the USA to learn new techniques in
1947.
industrial and agricultural production.
The Ford Motor Company in Britain
received new machinery to produce a
wide range of vehicles, and the Otis
Elevator Company helped to modernise
British factories. Other projects
included improving the French aircraft
industry; improving textile and leather
industries in West Germany; building a
new hospital in Portugal; constructing
railroads and wharfs in some French
and British colonies to increase trade;
and allocating US$50 million towards
medicine to combat tuberculosis. The
German city of Stuttgart had been
reduced to rubble during World War
II and owed its rapid rebuilding to
the funding provided by the Marshall
Plan. Funding ended in 1951 after
reporting the fastest period of economic
growth in European history. Industrial
Activity
production increased by 35 per cent
and agricultural production exceeded
Source Analysis
pre-war levels, helping to eradicate the
1. Identify the two groups depicted in this image.
poverty and hunger experienced only a
2. Identify two differing perceptions towards the Marshall Plan
few years earlier. More importantly, the
conveyed in this image.
ERP encouraged the implementation
3. By referring to the source and using your own knowledge,
of democratic governments and
explain the significance of the Marshall Plan on economies
liberalisation within Western Europe. It
worldwide.
contained communism by encouraging
4. To what extent is the image an accurate depiction of the views
new free-trade markets among
held towards the Marshall Plan? When evaluating its reliability,
cooperating countries, and allowed the
consider which views are shown in the cartoon and which views
USA to market itself as a generous yet
are not.
extremely powerful nation.
Twentieth Century 2: POST-WAR CHALLENGES
37
cHAPTER 1: ORIGINS OF THE COLD WAR
Chapter review
Extension
Create a concept map that displays the cause and
effect of various political actions, policies and
speeches made between 1945 and 1947.
Use the internet to collect four to six political
cartoons or posters from the early Cold War
period that convey different perspectives (i.e.
Soviet, US and UK). For each cartoon, complete
the following:
Exam practice
Using three or four points:
1. explain how the USSR developed its sphere of
influence in the years 1945–1947.
2. explain how the USA developed its sphere of
influence in the years 1945–1947.
Essay
Write an essay on one of the topics below, using
evidence.
As World War II concluded, the Big Three were
determined not to repeat the mistakes made
when forming the Treaty of Versailles after World
War I. They had all witnessed the horrid effects
of imposing heavy reparations on a country, and
hoped to negotiate a more sustainable outcome
this time around. While diplomacy seemed the
key to achieving a more unified world, it could
be suggested that diplomacy was merely used to
mask the many threats and power plays that were
taking place during post-war discussions. As this
chapter has revealed, many prominent speeches
of the twentieth century were made during the two
years following World War II and, while this form
of communication may be considered diplomatic,
the motives and messages being conveyed did
not meet the definition ‘to act with conduct and
sensitivity.’ The decision to use the atomic bomb;
the decision to prevent free elections in Eastern
Europe; the decision to force emigration based
on nationality; the decision to only fund countries
if they agreed to a certain political model; and the
decision to separate a country into zones instead
of keeping it united: all of these decisions reveal
38
SECTION A: COMPETING IDEOLOGIES
the actions of power-hungry leaders desperate
to outdo each other by acquiring more money,
territory and allies. And what was the cost of all
these actions? It was the loss of innocent lives
and personal liberties throughout Europe and
Japan. People had already endured a war, yet
were still deprived freedom of choice.
Unfortunately, despite establishing the United
Nations, such divisive political actions decided
upon by the two superpowers—the USA and
the USSR—appeared to only further polarise
international society, greatly contradicting
Roosevelt’s optimistic statement, ‘Never before
have the major Allies been more closely united’
that is outlined in the opening spread for this
chapter. As the two superpowers’ spheres of
influence grew larger, the second half of the
twentieth century was set to be dominated by
political suspicion, threats and more civil conflict.
Only the mutual fear of the advancing atomic
weaponry would prevent armed military conflict
(or ‘hot war’) from occurring, so the term ‘Cold
War’ became used to describe the international
relations between the USA and the USSR.
• John Lewis Gaddis states, regarding
the origins of the Cold War, ‘Geography,
demography, and tradition contributed to this
outcome but did not determine it. It took men,
responding unpredictably to circumstances, to
forge the chain of causation.’
To what extent do you believe that territorial
ambitions, competing ideologies and political
leaders shaped the actions and agreements
formed in the two years following World War II?
TEST YOUR
LEARNING
Conclusion
UNCORRECTED PAGE PROOFS
• Outline the context of the cartoon, noting its
date, setting and the circumstances at the
time.
• What message is implied by the cartoon or
poster?
• What common symbols are used in the cartoon
or poster?
• How does the cartoon help you to understand
more about the time period? Briefly evaluate
its usefulness.
• What is missing from the cartoon or poster?
Once complete, synthesise the common strengths
and shortcomings of each perspective.
Test
Quiz – Chapter 1
• Evaluate the differences and similarities
between Stalin’s expansionist policies and
Truman’s containment policies.
further reading
Gar Alperovitz, The Decision to
use the Atomic Bomb (New York:
Vintage, 1996)
This book outlines the reasons why the
atomic bomb did not need to be used
by the USA. The author is critical of
US military reasoning, believing it was
mainly used as a political statement to
the Soviet Union. A technical read.
Anne Applebaum, Iron Curtain: The
Crushing of Eastern Europe 1945–
1956 (London: Allen Lane, 2012)
Drawing on recently released archives
and personal accounts, the author
conveys what daily life was like in
Eastern Europe under the communist
regime.
Churchill, Truman and Stalin
shake hands after the Potsdam
Conference.
Michael Dobbs, Six Months in
1945: FDR, Stalin, Churchill, and
Truman—from World War to Cold
War (New York: Knopf, 2012)
John Lewis Gaddis, The United
States and the Origins of the Cold
War, 1941–1947 (New York: Columbia
University Press, 2001)
This is the final book in a Cold War trilogy
by the author. It describes the roles of
the political leaders in dividing Europe
into separate spheres of influence. It
captures the fierce competition as each
leader was determined to maintain their
national interests.
The author examines foreign policy
between the USA and Soviet Union at
the end of World War II, emphasising
how domestic policy, bureaucracy,
perceptions and personalities influenced
the key decisions made in Washington
during this era.
Thomas Fleming, Truman (New
York: New Word City ebook
publishers, 2014)
This ebook provides a detailed biography
of President Truman, highlighting his
staunch determination and patriotism.
Twentieth Century 2: POST-WAR CHALLENGES
39