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978-0-521-12958-9 - Planetary Landers and Entry Probes
Andrew J. Ball, James R. C. Garry, Ralph D. Lorenz and Viktor V. Kerzhanovich
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PLANETARY LANDERS AND ENTRY PROBES
This book provides a concise but broad overview of the engineering, science and
flight history of planetary landers and atmospheric entry probes – vehicles
designed to explore the atmospheres and surfaces of other worlds. It covers
engineering aspects specific to such vehicles, such as landing systems,
parachutes, planetary protection and entry shields, which are not usually treated
in traditional spacecraft engineering texts. Examples are drawn from over thirty
different lander and entry probe designs that have been used for lunar and
planetary missions since the early 1960s. The authors provide detailed
illustrations of many vehicle designs from space programmes worldwide,
and give basic information on their missions and payloads, irrespective of the
mission’s success or failure. Several missions are discussed in more detail,
in order to demonstrate the broad range of the challenges involved and the
solutions implemented. Planetary Landers and Entry Probes will form an
important reference for professionals, academic researchers and graduate students
involved in planetary science, aerospace engineering and space mission
development.
Andrew Ball is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the Planetary and Space
Sciences Research Institute at The Open University, Milton Keynes, UK. He is a
Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society and the British Interplanetary Society.
He has twelve years of experience on European planetary missions including
Rosetta and Huygens.
James Garry is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow in the School of Engineering
Sciences at the University of Southampton, UK, and a Fellow of the Royal
Astronomical Society. He has worked on ESA planetary missions for over ten
years and has illustrated several space-related books.
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Andrew J. Ball, James R. C. Garry, Ralph D. Lorenz and Viktor V. Kerzhanovich
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Ralph Lorenz is a Scientist at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics
Laboratory, USA. He is a fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society and the
British Interplanetary Society. He has fifteen years of experience in NASA and
ESA spaceflight projects and has authored several space books.
Viktor Kerzhanovich is a Principal Member of Technical Staff of the
Mobility and Robotic Systems Section of the Autonomous Systems Division,
NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, USA. He was a participant in all Soviet
planetary Venus and Mars entry probe programmes.
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Andrew J. Ball, James R. C. Garry, Ralph D. Lorenz and Viktor V. Kerzhanovich
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PLANETARY LANDERS AND
ENTRY PROBES
ANDREW J. BALL
The Open University
JAMES R. C. GARRY
Southampton University
RALPH D. LORENZ
Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory
VIKTOR V. KERZHANOVICH
NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory
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Andrew J. Ball, James R. C. Garry, Ralph D. Lorenz and Viktor V. Kerzhanovich
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CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore,
São Paulo, Delhi, Dubai, Tokyo
Cambridge University Press
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521129589
© A. Ball, J. Garry, R. Lorenz and V. Kerzhanovich 2007
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2007
This digitally printed version 2009
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-0-521-82002-8 Hardback
ISBN 978-0-521-12958-9 Paperback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or
accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in
this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is,
or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
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Andrew J. Ball, James R. C. Garry, Ralph D. Lorenz and Viktor V. Kerzhanovich
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Contents
Preface
page xi
Acknowledgements
xii
List of acronyms and abbreviations
xiii
PART I
1
2
3
4
Engineering issues specific to entry probes, landers or
penetrators
1
Mission goals and system engineering
3
1.1
1.2
3
7
Systems engineering
Choice of landing site
Accommodation, launch, cruise and arrival from orbit or
interplanetary trajectory
14
2.1
2.2
2.3
14
15
23
The launch environment
Transfer-trajectory choice
Arrival strategies
Entering atmospheres
24
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
Entry dynamics
Thermodynamics of entry
TPS technologies
Practicalities
24
27
31
32
Descent through an atmosphere
36
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
36
36
39
40
44
Overview and fundamentals
Extreme ballistic coefficients
Drag enhancement devices
Parachute types
Testing
v
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Contents
4.6
4.7
5
6
7
8
9
Additional components of a descent control system
Mars – retro-rockets in atmosphere
45
45
Descent to an airless body
47
5.1
The gravity turn
5.2
Efficient descent
5.3
Realistic trajectories
5.4
Example – direct descent – Surveyor
5.5
Examples: Luna 16 and Apollo
5.6
Small bodies
5.7
Instrumentation
5.8
Powered re-ascent
5.9
Hover
5.10 Combined techniques – system engineering
48
48
48
49
50
50
51
54
54
55
Planetary balloons, aircraft, submarines and cryobots
56
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
56
63
66
68
69
Balloons
Powered aerobots (airships)
Aeroplanes and gliders
Other heavier-than-air concepts for aerial mobility
Submarines, hydrobots and cryobots
Arrival at a surface
71
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
71
72
78
80
Targeting and hazard avoidance
Landing gear
Penetration dynamics
Splashdown dynamics: Titan landers, Earth-return capsules
Thermal control of landers and entry probes
84
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
85
86
87
91
91
Surface coatings and radiation balance
Internal heat transfer
Thermal environment during descent
Thermal testing
Thermal modelling
Power systems
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
System requirements
Power and energy budgets
Radioisotope sources
Solar power
Battery technology
Other power sources
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94
95
96
98
101
103
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Andrew J. Ball, James R. C. Garry, Ralph D. Lorenz and Viktor V. Kerzhanovich
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9.7
9.8
vii
Power and thermal control
Nuts and bolts
103
104
10 Communication and tracking of entry probes
105
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
Entry probes: communication basics
Main telecom equation
Frequency measurements
Data transmission
Link budget
Tracking
107
112
114
115
117
117
11 Radiation environment
121
12 Surface activities: arms, drills, moles and mobility
124
13 Structures
130
14 Contamination of spacecraft and planets
132
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
14.6
PART II
Sources of contamination
Current regulations for spacecraft-borne bioload
Techniques for cleaning and sterilizing
Problems specific to spacecraft
Cleanliness as a separate goal
Sample return
Previous atmosphere/surface vehicles and their payloads
134
136
136
143
145
146
147
15 Destructive impact probes
151
16 Atmospheric entry probes
153
16.1
16.2
16.3
16.4
16.5
16.6
First Soviet Venera and Mars entry probes
Venera 4–8 (V-67, V-69, V-70 and V-72) entry probes
Pioneer Venus probes
VeGa AZ balloons
Galileo Probe
Huygens
17 Pod landers
17.1
17.2
17.3
17.4
17.5
Ranger Block 2 Seismo capsules
Luna 4–9, 13 (Ye-6 and Ye-6M) landers
Mars 2, 3, 6, 7 (M-71 and M-73) landers
Mars 96 Small Stations
Mars Pathfinder
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159
159
170
173
175
177
178
179
185
186
190
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Andrew J. Ball, James R. C. Garry, Ralph D. Lorenz and Viktor V. Kerzhanovich
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Contents
17.6 Beagle 2
17.7 Mars Exploration Rovers
18 Legged landers
18.1
18.2
18.3
18.4
18.5
18.6
18.7
18.8
18.9
18.10
Surveyor landers
Apollo lunar modules
Luna 17, 21 (Ye-8) landers and the Lunokhods
Luna 15, 16, 18, 20 (Ye-8-5) landers
Luna 23, 24 (Ye-8-5M) landers
Soviet LK lunar lander
Venera 9–14 (4V-1) and VeGa (5VK) landers
Viking landers
Mars Surveyor landers
Mars Science Laboratory
19 Payload delivery penetrators
19.1 Mars 96 penetrators
19.2 Deep Space 2 Mars Microprobes
19.3 Lunar-A penetrators
20 Small body surface missions
20.1
20.2
20.3
20.4
Phobos 1F
NEAR Shoemaker
Rosetta lander Philae
Hayabusa (MUSES-C) and MINERVA
PART III
Case studies
21 Surveyor landers
21.1 Design
21.2 Flight performance
22 Galileo probe
22.1 Equipment
22.2 Flight performance
191
196
199
199
199
203
203
203
203
203
203
227
234
238
240
243
245
247
247
253
253
257
261
263
264
265
267
268
270
23 Huygens
273
24 Mars Pathfinder and Sojourner
284
25 Deep Space 2 Mars Microprobes
289
26 Rosetta lander Philae
299
27 Mars Exploration Rovers: Spirit and Opportunity
304
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Andrew J. Ball, James R. C. Garry, Ralph D. Lorenz and Viktor V. Kerzhanovich
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27.1 The spacecraft
27.2 The rovers
27.3 Problems encountered
Appendix: Some key parameters for bodies in the Solar System
Atmosphere models
Bibliography
Engineering
Reference
Planetary sciences
Historical
Some useful web sites
ix
304
307
311
313
313
316
316
319
319
320
321
References
323
Index
338
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Andrew J. Ball, James R. C. Garry, Ralph D. Lorenz and Viktor V. Kerzhanovich
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Preface
This book is intended as a concise but broad overview of the engineering, science
and flight history of planetary landers and atmospheric probes. Such vehicles
are subject to a wide range of design and operational issues that are not
experienced by ‘ordinary’ spacecraft such as Earth-orbiting satellites, or even by
interplanetary flyby or orbital craft. Such issues deserve special attention, and we
have attempted to bring together in one place brief discussions of many of these
aspects, providing pointers to more detailed (but dispersed) coverage in the wider
published literature. This volume also draws heavily on real examples of landers
and probes launched (or, at least, where the launch vehicle’s engines were started
with that intention!).
More than 45 years have passed since the first vehicles of this type were
designed. To a certain extent some past missions, of which there are over one
hundred, may now be considered irrelevant from a scientific point of view,
outdated from an engineering point of view and perhaps mere footnotes in the
broader history of planetary exploration achievements. However, we believe they
all have a place in the cultural and technical history of such endeavours, serving
to illustrate the evolving technical approaches and requirements as well as lessons
learned along the way. They stand as testament to the efforts of those involved in
their conception and implementation.
Part one of the book addresses the major engineering issues that are specific to
the vehicles considered, namely atmospheric entry probes, landers and
penetrators for other worlds. For material common to spacecraft in general we
would refer the reader to other, existing sources. Part II aims to collect together in
one place some key information on previous vehicles and their missions, with
reference to the main sources of more detailed information. Part III covers some
of these missions in further detail as ‘case studies’.
January, 2006
xi
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Andrew J. Ball, James R. C. Garry, Ralph D. Lorenz and Viktor V. Kerzhanovich
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Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Susan Francis and her colleagues at Cambridge
University Press for their encouragement and patience. Many colleagues and
contacts have helped with specific queries, including: Dave Atkinson, Aleksandr
T. Basilevsky, Jens Biele, Jacques Blamont, Peter Bond, Jim Burke, Ed Chester,
Chad Edwards, Alex Ellery, Bernard Foing, Sven Grahn, Aleksandr Gurshtein,
Leonid Gurvits, Ari-Matti Harri, Mat Irvine, Bobby Kazeminejad, Oleg
Khavroshkin, Vladimir Kurt, Bernard Laub, Mikhail Ya. Marov, Serguei
Matrossov, Michel Menvielle, Don P. Mitchell, Dave Northey, Colin T. Pillinger,
Sergei Pogrebenko, Jean-Pierre Pommereau, Lutz Richter, Andy Salmon, Mark
Sims, Oleg A. Sorokhtin, Yuri A. Surkov, Fred W. Taylor, Stephan Ulamec,
Paolo Ulivi, David Williams, Andrew Wilson, Ian P. Wright, Hajime Yano, and
Olga Zhdanovich. We would also like to thank Professor John Zarnecki and the
staff at the Open University Library. The diagrams that populate Part II were
drawn using information gleaned from a variety of sources. While researching
specific details for spacecraft, the authors were glad to receive help from the
following people: Charles Sobeck, Bernard Bienstock, Corby Waste, Pat
Flannery, Marty Tomasko, Marcie Smith, Dan Maas, Doug Lombardi, Debra
Lueb, Martin Towner, Mark Leese, Steve Lingard and John Underwood.
xii
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List of acronyms and abbreviations
ACP
ADS
AFM
AIAA
ALSEP
AMICA
AMTEC
ANC
APEX
APX
APXS
ARAD
ARES
ASAP
ASI
ATMIS
AU
AXS
AZ
BER
BOL
BPSK
CASSE
CCD
Aerosol Collector/Pyrolyser
Active Descent System
Atomic Force Microscope
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package
Asteroid Multiband Imaging Camera
Alkali Metal Thermionic Emission Technology
ANChor
Athena Precursor EXperiment
Alpha-Proton X-ray spectrometer OR Alpha Particle X-ray
spectrometer
Alpha-Proton X-ray Spectrometer OR Alpha Particle X-ray
Spectrometer
Analog Resistance Ablation Detector
Atmospheric Relaxation and Electric field Sensor
Ariane Structure for Auxiliary Payloads
Atmospheric Structure Instrument
ATmospheric structure and Meteorological Instrument
System
Astronomical Unit
Alpha-X-ray Spectrometer
Aerostatic Zond
Bit Error Rate
Beginning-Of-Life
Binary Phase-Shift Keying
Cometary Acoustic Surface Sounding Experiment
Charge-Coupled Device
xiii
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CD
CDMS
CDMU
CFRP
CHARGE
CIRCLE
ÇIVA
CNES
CNP
CNSR
CoM
CONSERT
COSAC
COSPAR
CPPP
CR
CRAF
CSM
DAS
DC
DCP
DESCAM
DGB
DIM
DIMES
DISR
DLBI
DLR
DNA
DoD
DPI
DSC
DSN
DS-2
DTE
DVLBI
DWE
List of acronyms and abbreviations
Compact Disk
Command and Data Management System
Command and Data Management Unit
Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic
CHemical Analysis of Released Gas Experiment
Champollion Infrared and Camera Lander Experiment
Comet nucleus Infrared and Visible Analyser
Centre National d’Études Spatiales
Comet Nucleus Penetrator
Comet Nucleus Sample Return
Centre of Mass
COmet Nucleus Sounding Experiment by Radiowave
Transmission
COmetary Sampling And Composition experiment
COmmittee on SPAce Research
Comet Physical Properties Package
Cosmic Ray
Comet Rendezvous/Asteroid Flyby
Command and Service Module
Long-lived Autonomous Station
Direct Current
Data and Command Processor
DEScent CAMera
Disc-Gap-Band
Dust Impact Monitor
Descent Image Motion Estimation System
Descent Imager – Spectral Radiometer
Differential Long Baseline Interferometer
Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt (German
Aerospace Centre)
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Depth of Discharge
Descent Phase Instrument
Differential Scanning Calorimeter
Deep Space Network
Deep Space 2
Direct To Earth
Differential Very Long Baseline Interferometry
Doppler Wind Experiment
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xv
EADS
EASEP
EDI
EDL
EDLS
EEPROM
EM
EPDM
EPI
ESA
ESS
ETR
FBC
FBS
FMCW
FRCI
FSK
GAP
GCMS
GCR
GPR
GRAM
GZU
HAD
HASI
HGA
IDD
IDL
IF
IKI
European Aeronautic, Defence and Space Company
Early Apollo Surface Experiments Package
Entry, Descent and Inflation
Entry, Descent and Landing
Entry, Descent and Landing System
Electrically-Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory
ElectroMagnetic
Ethylene Propylene Diene, Modified
Energetic Particles Instrument
European Space Agency
Environmental Sensors Suite
Eastern Test Range
Faster, Better, Cheaper
Fan-Beam Sensor
Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave
Fibrous Refractory Composite Insulation
Frequency-Shift Keying
Gas Analysis Package
Gas Chromatograph/Mass Spectrometer
Galactic Cosmic Ray
Ground-Penetrating Radar
Global Reference Atmospheric Model
Ground Sampling Device
Helium Abundance Detector
Huygens Atmospheric Structure Instrument
High Gain Antenna
Instrument Deployment Device
Interactive Data Language
Intermediate Frequency
Institute for Space Research
IMP
IMU
IPIU
IR
ISAS
ISEE-3
ISIS
ITU
IUS
Imager for Mars Pathfinder
Inertial Momentum Unit
Instrument Power Interface Unit
InfraRed
Institute of Space and Astronautical Science
International Sun – Earth Explorer 3
In Situ Imaging System
International Telecommunication Union
Inertial Upper Stage
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List of acronyms and abbreviations
JPL
KEP
KhM-VD
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Kinetic Energy Penetrator
Running Model – Wind Engine
KSC
LAS
LCPS
LET
LGA
LGC
LIDAR
LIR
LK
LM
LN
LNMS
LRD
LRF
LRV
LS
LSFR
LTA
MAE
MAG
MAGNET
MAHLI
MAPEX
MARDI
MARIE
MB
MBS
MECA
MECA
MEDLI
MEEC
MEKOM
Kennedy Space Center
Large Atmospheric Structure
Large Cloud Particle Size Spectrometer
Linear Energy Transfer
Low Gain Antenna
Large Gas Chromatograph
LIght Detection And Ranging
Large Infrared Radiometer
Lunar Ship
Lunar Module
Large Nephelometer
Large Neutral Mass Spectrometer
Lightning and Radio emissions Detector
Laser Range-Finder
Lunar Roving Vehicle
Lunar Seismometer
Large Solar Flux Radiometer
Lighter Than Air
Materials Adherance Experiment
Magnetometer
Magnetometer for NetLander
MArs HandLens Imager
Microelectronics And Photonics EXperiment
MARs Descent Imager
MArtian Radiation envIronment Experiment
MössBauer spectrometer
MössBauer Spectrometer
Mars Environmental Compatibility Assessment
Microscopy, Electrochemistry and Conductivity Analyser
MSL Entry, Descent and Landing Instrumentation
Mars Experiment on Electrostatic Charging
Meteorological Complex
MER
MESUR
MET
Mars Exploration Rover
Mars Environmental SURvey
Meteorological Package
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MET
MEx
MFEX
MGS
MI
MIC
MIC
MINERVA
Mini-TES
MIP
MIS
MLI
MMRTG
MNTK
MOx
MPAe
MPL
MPRO
MSB
MSL
MUPUS
MUSES-C
MUSES-CN
MTUR
MVACS
MWIN
NASA
NEAR
NEIGE
NEO
NEP
NFR
NII
NII PDS
NIRS
NMS
xvii
Modular Equipment Transporter
Mars Express
Microrover Flight EXperiment
Mars Global Surveyor
Microscopic Imager
Mars Microphone
Microscope
MIcro/Nano Experimental Robot Vehicle for Asteroid
Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer
Mars In situ Propellant production precursor
Meteorology Instrument System
Multi-Layer Insulation
Mutli-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator
International Scientific and Technical Committee
)
(
Mars Oxidant experiment
Max-Planck-Institut für Aeronomie
Mars Polar Lander
atMospheric PROpagation
Small Solar Battery
Mars Science Laboratory (previously Mars Smart Lander)
MUlti-PUrpose Sensors for surface and sub-surface science
MU Space Engineering Spacecraft C
MUSES-C Nanorover
atMospheric TURbulence
Mars Volatiles And Climate Surveyor
atMospheric WINd
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Near-Earth Asteroid Rendezvous
NEtlander Ionospheric and Geodesic Experiment
Near-Earth Object
Nephelometer
Net Flux Radiometer
Scientific Research Institute
Scientific Research Institute for Parachute Landing Service
ð
Þ
Near-InfraRed Spectrometer
Neutral Mass Spectrometer
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List of acronyms and abbreviations
NPO
Scientific Production Association
NTS
ODS
ODT
OKB
NEC Toshiba Space Systems
Optical Depth Sensor
Orbiter Delay Time
Experimental Design Bureau
ONC
OPTIMISM
PANCAM
PAW
PBO
PC
PCM
PCU
PEN
PI
PLL
PLUTO
PM
PP
PROM
PrOP
Optical Navigation Camera
Observatoire PlanéTologIque: MagnétIsme et Sismologie
sur Mars
PANoramic CAMera
Position Adjustable Workbench
Polybenzoxazole
Personal Computer
Pulse Code Modulation
Pyro Control Unit
PENetrator
Principal Investigator
Phase-Locked Loop
PLanetary Underground TOol
Phase Modulation
Permittivity Probe
Programmable Read-Only Memory
Instrument for the Evaluation of Passability
PROP-F
Mobile Robot for the Evaluation of the Surface of Phobos
PROP-M
Mobile Robot for the Evaluation of the Surface of Mars
PrOP-V
Instrument for the Evaluation of the Surface of Venus
PSE
PSK
PTFE
PTUW
PV
RA
RAATS
RAC
RAD
Probe Support Equipment
Phase-Shift Keying
PolyTetraFluoroEthylene
Pressure, Temperature, hUmidity and Wind
PhotoVoltaic
Robotic Arm
Robotic Arm Atmospheric Temperature Sensor
Robotic Arm Camera
Radiation Assessment Detector
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xix
RAD
RADVS
RAM
RAT
RF
RHU
RIFMA
Rocket-Assisted Descent
Radar Altimeter & Doppler Velocity Sensor
Random Access Memory
Rock Abrasion Tool
Radio Frequency
Radioisotope Heater Unit
Roentgen Isotopic Fluorescence Method of Analysis
RKK
Rocket-Space Corporation
RMS
RNII
Root-Mean-Square
Russian Scientific Research Institute
RNII KP
Russian Scientific Research Institute for Space Device
Engineering
ROLIS
ROMAP
RPA
RTG
RX
SAA
SAM
SAMPLL
ROsetta Lander Imaging System
ROsetta lander Magnetometer And Plasma monitor
Retarding Potential Analyser
Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator
Receiving
South Atlantic Anomaly
Sample Analysis at Mars
Simplified Analytical Model of Penetration with Lateral
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Small Atmospheric Structure
Stereo Camera System
Sampling, Drilling and Distribution system
SEISmometer
Surface Electrical, Seismic and Acoustic Monitoring
Experiments
Single Event Upset
Système Internationale
Systems Improved Numerical Differencing Analyzer
Silicone-Impregnated Reusable Ceramic Ablator – Secondary Polymer Layer-Impregnated Technique
SISmomètre
Super-Lightweight Ablator
Soil Mechanics Surface Sampler
SAS
SCS
SD2
SEIS
SESAME
SEU
SI
SINDA
SIRCA-SPLIT
SIS
SLA
SMSS
© in this web service Cambridge University Press
www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press
978-0-521-12958-9 - Planetary Landers and Entry Probes
Andrew J. Ball, James R. C. Garry, Ralph D. Lorenz and Viktor V. Kerzhanovich
Frontmatter
More information
xx
List of acronyms and abbreviations
SN
SNFR
SNR
SPICE
SPIU
SSB
SSI
SSP
SSV
STP
TDL
TECP
TEGA
TIRS
TM
TNO
TPS
TsUP
TV
TX
UDMH
UHF
Small Nephelometer
Small Net Flux Radiometer
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
Soil Properties: thermal Inertia and Cohesion Experiment
System Power Interface Unit
Space Studies Board
Surface Stereo Imager
Surface Science Package
Small Science Vehicle OR Small Separable Vehicle
Soil Temperature Probe
Tunable Diode Laser
Thermal and Electrical Conductivity Probe
Thermal and Evolved Gas Analyzer
Transverse Impulse Rocket System
Thermal Mapper
Trans-Neptunian Object
Thermal Protection System
Mission Control Centre
Television
Transmission
Unsymmetrical DiMethyl Hydrazine
Ultra High Frequency
Acceleration Measuring Device
UK
US
USA
USO
UV
VCO
VeGa
VHF
VLBI
VNIITransMash
United Kingdom
United States
United States of America
Ultra-Stable Oscillator
UltraViolet
Voltage-Controlled Oscillator
Venus-Halley
Very High Frequency
Very Long Baseline Interferometry
All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Transport
Machine-Building
WAE
WCL
WEB
Wheel Abrasion Experiment
Wet Chemistry Laboratory
Warm Electronics Box
© in this web service Cambridge University Press
www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press
978-0-521-12958-9 - Planetary Landers and Entry Probes
Andrew J. Ball, James R. C. Garry, Ralph D. Lorenz and Viktor V. Kerzhanovich
Frontmatter
More information
List of acronyms and abbreviations
WW2
XRD
XRF
XRFS
XRS
2MV (2MB)
3-DL
3MV (3MB)
xxi
World War 2
X-Ray Diffraction
X-Ray Fluorescence
X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometer
X-Ray Spectrometer
2nd generation Mars/Venus
3-Dimensional Laminate
3rd generation Mars/Venus
© in this web service Cambridge University Press
www.cambridge.org