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CONCLUSIONS DRAWN FROM A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF
THE FEET OF BAREFOOTED AND SHOE-WEARING PEOPLES
PHIL. HOFFMANN
J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1905;s2-3:105-136.
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Publisher Information
The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery
20 Pickering Street, Needham, MA 02492-3157
www.jbjs.org
OCTOBER,
LII.
r0LUME
1905.
American
The
NUMBER
Journal
Orthopedic
2.
of
Surgery
I.
CONCLUSIONS
OF
THE
ING
DRAWN
FEET
OF
FROM
A COMPARATIVE
BAREFOOTED
AND
PEOPLES.
PHIL.
Ample
HOFFMANN,
opportunity
for
M.D.,
the
never
worn
footwear
was
hibit
and
by the
Central
African
ana
Purchase
hundred
eighty
Exposition.
six pairs
pared
tions,
LOUIS.
of feet
furnished
Such
of feet.
Objects
of the work:
1. General
observations
ST.
study
had
on the
or Pigmy
studies
foot
of individuals
by
the
that
Philippine
ex-
group
at the
Louisi-
were
made
on
in barefooted
races
one
com-
with the same in shoe-wearers,
including
its shape,
funcrange
of voluntary
and
passive
motion,
and
relative
length
as a whole
and
2. Height
and shape
on the usefulness
3. Relationship
of its component
of the longitudinal
of the foot.
or coincidence,
of the
sion;
gait whether
straight
footprints
on smoked
weight-bearing
area of the
the extent
of foot expansion
Presented
at the
6,
8,
7 and
Nineteenth
parts.
arch
if any,
of the arch and the gait.
4. Collection
of specimens.
Measurements
were
made
of the
length
of the foot and its component
June
STUDY
SHOE-WEAR-
and
between
height
degree
of everto record
the
foot and, in many instances
and arch depression
under
Meeting
the
body-height
and
of the
parts;
record
was made
or everted
and the
paper
were
taken
Annual
its bearing
of the
Association
to show
pressure,
at
Boston,.
1905.
Thie
One
I IllhIIII IIIIHUIIII
T4UK-
1QXTC1W
106
FEET
OF
two plaster
repose
and
also
was
BAREFOOTED
AND
SHOE-WEARING
of Paris
casts of the same foot were
the other
bearing
the body-weight.
used
to record
habitual
foot
posture
From
material
observations
on the field and
gathered
there, I feel justified
conclusions:The relative
phalanges
toe action
length
to foot
shape
in climbing
in standing
foot
are
practically
races.
of the
foot
motion
are practically
races up to the time
and
of the
length
as in shoe-wearing
adult.
The
PEOPLES.
This
and
to
is true
its range
and
study
of the
the following
body-height
the
and
same
of both
of voluntary
portion
of the
of its phalangeal,
foot and diminution
in
tarsal
and ankle
joints.
rarely
infant
and
passive
which
modeled
in the
the
the end of the first year,
after
is progressive
narrowing
of the
footwear
spirit
of truth
the
of civilization
that
would
range
Society,
by nature
especially
of
is shaped
make
conform
to the contour
of a normal
foot.
The whim
ciety
and
the manufacturers’
enterprise
alone
regulate
shape.
formed
width,
and
the same in barefooted
and shoe-wearing
of the use of footwear
that compresses
and
anterior
motion
are
of the
in barefooted
the
about
there
over
and
walking.
the foot, usually
in shoe-wearers,
lasts
one in
camera
grasping
subsequent
in reporting
splints
which,
The
made,
The
them
of sotheir
apparently,
agrees
that
the human
foot
as
is coarse,
vulgar
and! unsightly,
and that its
at the toes, is entirely
too great.
It regards
the small, especially
dictum
of fashion
the narrow
has greater
foot, as the beautiful
influence
than
reason.
one.
The
Perhaps
the statement
that society
admires
the small foot is not exactly
true, for society,
as such, never
sees the naked
foot;
but what
it so commonly
does admire
is the dainty
little shoe that hides
its own handiwork-the
distorted,
cramped,
calloused
and repulsive
foot.
lies no deeper
The manufacturer
Here
than
desires
of his patrons
the market
footwear
foot.
beauty
is less than
skin deep, or at most
the calfskin
product
of the cobbler’s
art.
through
ignorance
and self interest
fits the
rather
than
their
feet,
that more or less crowds
and
the
places
front
upon
of the
PHIL.
HOFFMANN.
107
The widest
part of an undistorted
foot corresponds
to a line
drawn
from the end of the little toe to the base of the great one.
(Fig.
1 and Fig. 11 B.)
It is just at this point
that the conventional
shoe
is
phalanges
are
in line
the body-weight
made
with
the toes
narrowest;
their
separate
In
the
metatarsals,
and
nornrnl
and
widen
the
foot
when
base
the
bearing
of support.
4:.
FIG.
1.-PLANTAR
VIEW
OF FEET
OF NEGRITO,
SHOWING
STRAIGHTNESS
AND
SEPARATENESS
OF TOES;
TRANSVERSE
FOLDS
IN SKIN OF SOLE;
WIDEST
PART
OF FOOT
AT TOES;
LONG
AXIS
OF GREAT
TOE PROLONGED
BACKWARD STRIKES
CENTER
OF HEEL.
Especially
is
this
true
of
the
great
toe,
which
is
separated
from
neighbor
by a considerable
interval,
and in this position
assists in keeping
the foot adducted
and!
is a considerable
factor
in the work
of leverage.
This is universal
among
barefooted!
races.
(Figs.
2, 21, 22, 23, 24 and
25.)
As evidenced!
by
its
classic
sculpture,
sandal-wearers,
this
whose
toe separation
footwear
the
was
did
not
rule
compress
also
in ancient
the feet.
los
FEET
OF
3 and
(Figs.
wearers
BAREFOOTED
4.)
A condition
that
2.-I)0RsAL
VIEW
TOE SEPARATION,
SKIN.
especially
neighbor.
shoes worn
correSpOn(ls
of
the
same
among
adults,
shoe-wearing
FIG.
The
as found
AND
great
Cingalese
of
more
or
originals.
which
a
either
pair
of
relative
of modern
Japanese.
5.)
almost
universal
among
crowding
of the toes.
OF A BAGOBO,
AND MINUTE
undlerlies
such feet
size of the
Observe
sandal(Fig.
less
OF WEIGHT-BEARING
FEET
AbDUCTION
OF GREAT
TOE
toe,
PEOPLES.
true
and
l)e considered
one
Fig. 6 shows
on them.
The
to the
is likewise
the
may
is
SHOE-WEARING
the
or
SHOWING
FOLDS
IN
overlaps
compared
two
its
to
the
photographs
compression
of the
PHIL.
and
toes
narrowing
prolonging
long
the
the
inner
in
side
these
the
average,
uncommon,
is
are
of
backward
shoe
that
the
falls
line
well
deformity
to
shown
are
of
but
entirely
small,
even
already
so
for
much
and one can
imagine
the
crowding
to
necessary
the
foot
A single
shoes
toe
degree
and
the
only
too
shoe.
foot
women.
that
feet
adjust
great
The
the
at
shape
distorted,
readily
the
of
heel.
not
not
they
of
espe-
improper
that
front
than
cially
among
It will be seen
shoes
the
while
greater
all
axis
the
of
feet,
slightly
an
of
lOt)
HUFFMANN.
was
not
to
pair
the
the
of
sole
L’
FIG.
3.-FooT
OF HERMES
OF PRAXITELES,
SHOWING STRAIGHTNESS
AND
SEPARATENESS
OF TOES.
cause
brought
of
the
about
FIG.
distortion,
only
by years
4.-ANCIENT
NEUM,
OF
but
GREAT
BRONZE
SHOWING
ADDUCTION
FROM
HERCULAOF
FOOT
ANI)
TOE.
the condition
of such abuse.
could
have
The illustrations
been
are
110
FIG.
FEET
BAREFOOTED
5.-PHOTOGRAPH
SANDAL
MODERN
FIG.
OF
6.-A
THE
ON
BAREFOOTED
WORN
TYPE
OF
SHOE-WEARING
PEOPLES.
OF CAST
OF WEIGHT-BEARING
FOOT
OF CINGALESE
AND
FOOT.
SHAPE
OF FOOT
SIMILAR
TO THAT
FOUND
IN
RACES
AND
IN ANCIENT
SANDAL-WEARERS.
PREDOMINANT
SHAPE
AND
THE
FOOT
OF
FOOTWEAR
CONFORMS
AND
TO
ITS
THAT
INEVITABLE
OF
THE
EFFECT.
SHOE.
PHIL.
of interest
inevitable
as showing
effect.
Examine
the
crippled
is:
line
one
their
straight
line.
The
will,
in the
this
condition
footed!
foot
long
is
(Fig.
races.
7.-PERMANENT
by
proved
1 and
border
of
the
great
toe
the
shape
Fig.
11,
bear
The
more
habitual
of the
calf
assumed
the
quite
muscles
attitude.
percentage
to
than
its
wearing
of
a
right
center
permanent
a
the
feet
in
heel.
un-
an
among
bare-
B.)
HYPEREXTENSION
AND
INTER-
the one placed
well forward,
compels
on the front of the foot, which
must
share
of high-heeled
through
of
shoes
accommodation
is
middle-aged
anglewithout
probably
women
reason
cannot
the
body-weight.
to
to the
the
relaxing
the
leads
shortening
continually
that
dorso-flex
calf
muscles
hyperextension
of
the
a
large
the
foot
by bending
knee.
The
in
foot
back-
of
life
toe
toes
FLEXION.
proportionate
This
each
lesser
prolonged
adult
of
METATARSO-PHALANGEAL
The high heel, especially
wearer
to stand
largely
the
about
its
been
of the
throughout
PHALANGEAL
the
and
inner
continue
have
separate
great
the
strike
foot,
would
and
the
and
they
and
axis
normal
of footwear
before
distinct
neighbor,
metatarsals,
That
hampered
how
its
type
children
Observe
ward
lic.
of young
crowding
with
111
a predominant
feet
by shoes.
no
HOFFMANN.
metatarso-phalangeal
112
FEET
joints,
OF
BAREFOOTED
common
AND
in shoewearers,
SHOE-WEARING
is but
the
PEOPLES.
fixation
of a position
necessarily
assumed
by the heel elevating
the posterior
end of
the foot.
The spring
or turning
upward
of the front of the sole
of the conventional
boot tends to intensify
the hyperextension,
while crowding
of the toes by a too short
or narrow
shoe adds
to this deformity
A foot showing
rare
among
instances
one of interphalangeal
joint flexion.
(Fig. 7.)
no compression
deformity
must be exceedingly
shoewearing
where
shoe,
as in certain
that
did
not
adults.
it had
I have
been
congenital
compress
never
impossible
to
clubfeet
the
toes.
that
As
seen
had
an
it except
wear
an
worn
in
ordinary
coverings
illustration
of
how
accustomed
civilization
has become
to certain
foot deformities,
and how unaware
the average
individual
is of deformity
present
in his own feet, I will mention
a photograph
of the naked
body
of a well-known
played
in show
instructor
windows
of physical
culture,
as an advertisement.
of the
printed:
“One
card
was
the world”;
right foOt,
yet, absolutely
the toes of which
of the
foot
of the high
begun
extreme
caste
Chinese
lady.
at the fifth or sixth year, the
flexion
at the mid-tarsus,
posterior,
so that
the
toes
finest-formed
no attempt
presented
oped
far beyond
the average.
The foot, especially
in the young,
pressure
can give it almost
any shape.
and
heel
which
was disIn one corner
athletes
in
was made to hide the
shoe deformities
devel-
is very plastic;
continued
A familiar
example
is the
By a system
of bandaging,
anterior
half of the foot, by
is made
to approach
the
may
fit into
a dainty
little
shoe
such
no larger than a teacup.
Fig. 8 is a photograph
of a pair of
feet, and Fig. 9, a photograph
of shoes worn
on them.
What
matters
it if the lady can not stand
still, but must con-
stantly
step
that
she
possesses
backward
and
can barely
walk
a pair of “golden
called?
But why smile
How about
some women,
incase
as wide
short?
their
“golden
lilies”
forward
at
at
to
retain
all without
support
lilies,”
as such feet
the absurdity
and men too,
in shoes
that
of the
outside
are little
her
balance,
or
if, only,
she
are fancifully
Chinese
of China,
more
than
lady?
who
half
as nature
indicated
they should
be and often much
too
What
mat.ters
it if they do suffer from deformed,
weak-
PHIL.
ened
and
painful
on
a
insecure
too,
the
a
The
much
toes
if, only,
that
slender,
fancy,
and
at
feet
with
small
too
heel?
can
into
place
in shoes
and
much
perch
them
-
Here,
tender
kind
them
nothingness
beginS
difference
in
they
vanish
high
binding
very
113
HOFFMANN.
iJ
age.
is
not
so
as
in
de-
gree.
Interesting
of
shoe
to
examples
what
a few
compression
young
On
en-
FIG.
Bagobo
impressions
and
people,
among
them
November
16,
I made
members
8.-FEET
OF
LADY
SHOWING
FROM
BANDAGING.
HIGH
CASTE
TYPICAL
CHINESE
DEFORMITY
September
I made
these
On
IL
do
were
the
in
village.
of
will
feet
countered
22,
weeks
of
the
tracings
boy
a
of
impressions
Bagobo
household,
of
the
twelve
feet
and
and
t
4gp
a few
a girl
tracings
including
the
:‘
all
the
above-men-
boy
Comparing
t
of
of eight.
of
tioned!
4
of
ings,
marked
was
the
observed
old and
and
girl.
the
trac-
difference
between
the
new,
the latter
showing
narrowing
of the front.
of
*
p
.:..
-.
the
foot,
tion
of
the
great
and
what
FIG.
9.-SHOES
WORN
IN
weather
becoming
their
native
including
over
ON
too
costumes
these
two
the conventional
THE
FEET
PICTURED
cold
for
any
children,
American
the
degree
began
lasts,
not
in
tropic-horn
were,
(Fig.
cause
of this
hard
to find.
October,
the
to wear
most
of them,
shoes,
of
of
some-
Bagobos
of comfort.,
wearing
toe
The
was
Late
with
direc-
changed.
10.)
8.
FIG.
the
the longaxis
course.
which,
much
made
too
114
FEET
narrow
OF
BAREFOOTED
for their
feet
11 shows
contrasted
worn
form.
PEOPLES.
Another
Bagobo
boy
of
shoes for a number
of months
before leavpresented
well adlvanced
shoe deformity.
a photograph
with
SHOE-WEARING
of pristine
twelve,
who had worn
ing his native
island,
Fig.
AND
that
of a plaster
of an adult
cast
Bagoho
one of his feet
of
male
that
had!
never
shoes.
Though
shoe-wearing
Filipinos
very
evidently
made
uncomfortable,
it was
some
of
the
remarkable
primitive
that
the
ma-
1
‘V
I
,..‘.,
.e,
6
l;:1I
FIG.
10.-FOOT
THE
B
FOOT
jority
IMPRESSIONS
EFFECT
AND
AND
D
CHANGE
to what
feet.
Two
The
little
not,
ones
show
In
outlines
Fig.
OF
it was
possible
both
the
of the
same
shown
normal
feet
the
A
OF
by
GREAT
first
foot
manually
trial
me
to
are
outlines
compressed
of similar
their
and
shown
and!
of
the
dieter-
compress
in a Moro
males,
OF
half
over
led
one
BEFORE,
FRONT
TOE.
their
to I)ainlessly
results
OF
much
This
adult
SHOWING
C
AND
NARROWING
instances,
experiments,
show
CHILDREN,
Axis
LONG
it concealed.
of these
13 are
BAGOBO
NOTE
many
Igorrote,
lines
OF
SHOE-WEARING.
inconvenienced
in
foot.
extent
solid
OF
I)IRECTION
but.
in a Bontoc
12.
IN
was
records
TRACINGS
WEEKS
SHOE-WEARING.
of the
width
AND
FEW
AFFER
which
mine
pain.
A
appeare(l
normal
other
OF
AND
footwear,
i
the
the
in Fig.
(lotted
without
experiments
PHIL.
on adults
of a shoe-wearing
compression,
If
foot
while
it
always
would
not.,
11.-A,
HAD
OF
theless,
in
PHOTOGRAPH
WORN
AN
SHOES
led
to
immediate
be
quite
perhaps,
ADULT
painful
irreparable
Fig.
14
BAGOBO
OF
A
range
of painless
is considerable.
and
so
severe
common.
disNever-
0
PLASTER
FEW
THAT
or painless,
The
as in the barefoot,
ID
FIG.
115
community.
not as great
compression
comfort,
HOFFMANN.
CAST
MONTHS,
HAD
OF
FOOT
CONTRASTED
NEVER
when
WORN
long
OF
BAGOBO
WITH
B,
BOY
THAT
PHOTOGRAPH
SHOES.
continued,
it must
result
damage.
represents
in shoe-wearing
outlines
communities.
of
feet
and
The
solid
theii’
lines
coverings
show
as found
those
of the
116
FEET
feet
OF
and
the
are
not
the
pressure
after
day
BAREFOOTED
dotted
FIG.
ones
exceptional
to which
OF
PAINLESS
BONTOC
FOOT
OUTLINES;
COMPRESSsD
cease
DOTTED
AND
ONES,
PAIN.
OF
COMPARE
WITH
its
many
right
at
small
angle
the
degrees.
joints.
Normally,
and
Their
the
flexed
medio-tarsal
In watching
toes
well
action
can
beyond
articulation
the
naked
be
subjected!
become
FEET
OUTLINES
IN
LINES
SIE
BAREFOOTED
SHOW
NORMAL
MANUALLY
13.
FIG.
deform
but interfere
the movements
of
is more
or less
that
to
one.
The
range
should
be
between
of an
day
so used
FEET
hyperextended
foot
indicate
of it.
OF
SOLID
Shoes as they are usually
worn, not only
with the functions
of the foot by rest.ricting
splint.
are
conscious
MoRo.
These
fairly
in tinie
COMPRESSION
IGORROTE
WITHOUT
feet
feet
to be
shoes.
and
of human
The
PEOPLES.
respective
illustrations,
millions
they
SHOE-WEARING
of their
average
a lifetime.
that.
12.-RANGE
PEOPLES.
those
but
t.hrough
to compression
AND
infant,
of a
nearly
a
of adduction
30 and
it will
40
be seen
PHIL.
that
there
which
is a considerable
permits
older
their
children
by shoes,
footed
and
wearing
that
rare
find
to
even
has
also
their
been
worn,
length
to
footed
peoples
and
time foot.,
grasping.
function
is dependent
in
the
same
bare
due
upon
foot
trained
his
toes
to
use
their
of
17
toe
and
is
retains
giving
additional
SHOE-WEARING
COM-
FEET.
while
as in climbing
and
18.)
difference
development
inhibition
in
function
many
It
that
of functions,
races.
hands,
of
those
This
in
bare-
difference
in
in structure,
of such
the
could
of shoe-wearing
born
without
perform
t.yI)e
functionless,
a congenital
diaily
development,
16,
the
12.
a variety
15,
shoe-
upon
toes.
beyond!
OF
bare-
in
childhood.
the
toes,
in
the
free
community
FIG.
practically
to
and
tained
by indlividuals
a young
man,
who,
WITH
among
so
during
toes
compressed
depends
separating
the
serve
(Figs.
is not
largely
COMPRESSION
are
they
persists
rarely
especially
PARE
of the
This
all adults
in a shoe-wearing
PAINLESS
motion
injuriously
are
range
shoe-wearers
OF
been
in nearly
of laterally
adult.
13.-RANGE
not
movements
adult
power
most
of lateral
separation.
have
found!
and
an
slight
In
feet
These
adults,
of shoe
FIG.
was
tribes.
range
voluntary
whose
117
HOFFMANN.
hut
functions
shoe-wearer.
The
undoubtedly
be
I remember
had!
functions
so
at-
seeing
thoroughly
for
w’hich
118
FEET
fingers
use
OF
are
knife
wash
well
ordinarily
and
and
things
BAREFOOTED
with
cramped
comb
himself,
brush,
perform
ease.
extensive
an(l
abused
foot
may
that
and
on the
to
what
PEOPLES.
indispensable,
and
considlerable
illustrates
SHOE.WEARING
considered!
fork,
dress
AND
This
pen
piano
was
and!
and
very
intricate
he
could
do many
other
unusual,
uses
could
ink;
but
it
time commonly
be put.
p
The
their
ancient
shown
in
in many
the
sandal
independent
right
classic
of its
foot
(lid! not
compress
movements.
sculpture,
the
The
which
represents
athletic
figures.
An
of
famous
Discus
the
toes
result
especially
Thrower,
of
or interfere
this
strong
toe
good
with
freedom
is
action
example
attributed
is
to
PHIL.
HOFFMANN.
119
9
FIG.
15.-NEGRITOS.
USING
TOES
IN
CLIMBING.
120
FEET
Myron
aid
(Fig.
in
when
the
oF
BAREFOOTED
19),
the
steadying
the
SHOE-WEARING
toes
of which
athlete
at
every
he is straining
AND
fairly
the
muscle
PEOPLES.
grasp
moment
to begin
the
of
the
ground
supreme
forward
to
effort
motion
of
arm.
I
1io.
My
skin
sembles
tough,
was
attention
covering
that
though
Boy,
16.-NEGIUT0
the
of
especially
primitive
the
very
hand.
pliable,
USING
TOES
attracted
foot;
to
The
skin
and
free
IX
GRASPINC’..
to the
condition
a remarkable
of
from
the
the
sole
callous
of the
degree
it re-
is thick
and
spot.s
due
PHIL.
friction
continued
to
is marked
by
of joint
of the
of time hoot,
died)
flexion,
transverse
similar
hand!.
1 and
(Fig.
Presents
numerous
may be seen on the
(hstinctness
the
height
and
fulness
but
While
ance,
on
shape
of the
that
it is true
the
2
very
OF
the
of little
and
that
feet
that
low
present
or no
there
is no
high,
time moderately
arch,
when
and!
value
present,
in
one
seems
foot
type
and
tarsal
led
to
the
that
the
estimating
arch
to
skin.
teaching,
medium
high
and
of the
of the
opinion
due
FOOT.
phalangeal
arch
common
dorsum
is probai)ly
PRIMITIVE
the
lines
palm
folds,
such
as
The depth
and
folding
longitudinal
to
foot,
of
the
in the
of the
marked,
Fig. 2.
intermittent
are
normal
well
skin
barefooted
movements
contrary
The
FUNCTION
concomitant
Observations
conclusion,
the
to
present
B.
It
shoe-wearers.
corresponding
11,
in
in
universally
Fig.
folds
constant
the
with
folds
those
17.-PREHENSILE
almost
joints
common
minute,
though
back
of the hand.
these
of
FIG.
to
121
HOFFMANN.
its
use-
as the
normal,
low
arches.
is in preponderto
be no indication
122
FEET
OF
BAREFOOTED
of weakness,
Primitive
w-as strong
not
and
in the
many
simulated
by
pression
recol’dls
of
surgeons,
are,
apparently,
flat
foot,
the
1S.-B.GoBo
where
an
underlying
it was
of
no
arch,
value
symptoms
of
fat.
in the
the
mm-
made
diagnosis
(iepen(.!ent
that
and
The
commonly
in
are
found
with
a foot
arch
was real
1)ad
longitudinal
whose
PEOPLES.
it was associated!
lowness
of the
by
of the
upon
a weak-
I
tj
FIG.
SHOE-WEARING
instances
Filipino
or African,
and flexible.
The
merely
So called
AND
WOMAN,
USING
TOES
AS
A
THIRD
HAND
TO
HOLD
YARN
TAUT.
ened
arch
ness
is a transition
comitant
strain
opinion,
and
not
in
ligaments
rarely
its
from
change
of
upon
occurs.
symptoms
associated!
frequently
found
except
original
in so far
higher
the
relationship
of
and!
muscles.
Such
It
with
them
lowness,
an
is not
arches
associated
the
uncommon
of
with
good!
an
as tiis
low-
con(htion
with
con-
tarsal
hones
transition,
to
height
and!
in
the
find!
and
extraord!inarily
my
same
I have
high
PHIL.
arcim.
It
less
is equally
as
HC)FFMANN.
common
123
find
to
low
arches
in symptom-
feet.
It
is very
with
feet
the
shoe
arch
Fig.
feet,
19.-DISCoBOL!’S
OF’
exerts
careful
over
inquiry
that
was
These
mon
method
which
MYRON,
some
impression
of -eight-bearing
hundlred
find
so
characteristic
a single
six
foot
associated!
by
STRONG
Through
eighty
the
TOE
restraint
ACTION.
interpreters
especially
pairs
common
and!
weakened
SHOWING
to this,
exceptionally
one
not
are
function.
in regard
20 illustrates
feet.
I did
of weakness
shoe-wearing
FIG.
in the
exanmined,
time svnmpto:ns
in adult
that
significant
of prinlitive
I
whenever
made
I found
an
low.
of the
types
records,
of arches
which
on
smoked!
were
found!
made
paper,
by
do
in normal
the
not
comreally
124
FEET
show
OF
t.he height
t.he
sole
This,
the
of the
comes
in
however,
arch,
sense
casts
of
the
This
of
t.he
sole
that
by
was
an
area
and
The
OF
almost
the
inward,
following
cast
caused
arch
method.
lower
tables
by
The
that
was
illustrate
these
area
casts
of
farther
records
in
plaster
flattened
NORMAL
area
FEET.
compression.
could
also
of
body-weight.,
the
IN
between
height
with
the
to
FOUND
is, the
the
the
body-weight
relationship
height;
the
bearing
instance
weight-bearing
constant
to
with
ARCHES
much
in weight-bearing.
imprints
OF
how
show
relationship
while
TYPES
but
ground
of smoked
taken
THE
PEOPLES.
in connection
in each
the
this
the
a
of height
feet,
FEW
showed
determined
tended
bears
a correspondence
20.-A
FIG.
arch,
with
Comparison
same
SHOE-WEARING
longitudinal
contact
I speak
only.
the
showed
AND
usually
and
this
of
BAREFOOTED
be
showed
the
accurately
that
extent
the
there
of this
imprint
ex-
arch.
the
frequency
with
which
the
PHil4.
different
types
occurred
HOFFMANN.
in the 186 barefooted
Of course
there
were many
intermediate
cluded
in the types
they most nearly
Table
1. Frequency
Islands,
feet
of different
OF
ARCH.
types
7
15
9
19H
28
.13
100
types
NUMBER
C
7
6
5
22
184
4
14
E
5
5
I8t
18
27
3.
Islands,
Frequency
feet
of different
100
types
ARCH.
OF
INDIVIDUALS.
PERCENT.
C
1
33!
E
2
66!
3
100
Table
4.
Islands,
Frequency
feet
of different
types
OF
ARCH.
A
B
in 70 Igorrotes,
Philip-
symptomless.
NUMBER
TYPE
Philip-
in 3 Mangyans,
symptomless.
NUMBER
OF
Philip-
PERCENT.
2
D
F
pine
in 27 Bagobos,
OF
INDIVIDUALS.
A
B
TYPE
Philippine
7
ARCH.
Table
in-
8
13
Table
2. Frequency
of different
pine Islands,
feet symptomless.
pine
in 46 Moros,
are
PERCENT.
4
6
46
OF
examined.
which
OF
INDIVIDUALS.
A
B
C
D
E
F
TYPE
subjects
grades,
resemble.
symptomless.
NUMBER
TYPE
125
OF
INDIVIDUALS.
PERCENT.
6
2
8
2
C
8
11
D
E
F
24
18
25!
12
70
100
126
FEET
Table
pine
OF
BAREFOOTED
5. Frequency
Islands,
feet
AND
SHOE-WEARING
of different
types
OF
in 33 Negritos,
ARCH.
OF
INDIVIDUALS.
PERCENT.
B
3
4
9
12
D
5
6
18
F
6
F
9
A
27
33
Table
feet
Philip-
symptomless.
NUMBER
TYPE
PEOPLES.
6. Frequency
of different
100
types
in all Philippine
tribes,
symptoinless.
TYPE
OF
NUMBER
INDIVIDUALS.
ARCH.
OF
PERCENT.
A
B
15
iS
(‘
26
14l
D
41
40
39
22
22!
2
E
F
iO
179
Table
7. Frequency
i. e.,
Negroes,
Pigmy,
100
of different
t.ypes
Baluba,
Chin
Chin
in
7 Central
and
Bakuha,
African
feet
sympto:nless.
TYPE
OF
ARCH.
NUMBER
INDIVIDUALS.
OF
PERCENT.
A
2
B
D
1
14!
2
2
1
14!
1
14
7
100
F
F
Table
Fig. 20
.
S. Frequency
occurredl
in
with which
all barefooted!
28!
the
types
subjects
of arches
shown
in
examined!.
Feet
symptomless.
NUMBER
TYPE
OF
ARCH.
A
OF
INDIVIDUALS.
PERCENT.
17
B
19
C
26
14
D
E
F
43
41
23
22
40
21
186
100
PHIL.
In
addition
basis
to
gone
during
the
last
records
showing
individuals
forming
the
45 South
African
Negroes,
etc., all adult
males
who
statistics,
barefooted
the
lates
127
186 barefooted
I examined
Zambesi,
Hottentot,
of these
i. e., Matabele,
had
HOFFMANN.
five
of
the
up
to early
or
their
six
foot
frequency
manhood
years
and
only.
Table
impressions,
of the
may
different
had
shoes
9, which
he
types
worn
tabu-
of interest
of arches
as
t.his
in
group.
Table
9. Frequency
Negroes,
feet
of different
types
NUMBER
TYPE
OF
in 45
South
ARCH.
OF
INDIVIDUALS.
A
B
C
D
E
F
PERCENT.
6
13t
7
15!
8
17!
7
15
11
6
24!
13!
45
That
as
African
symptomless.
great
variation
in
t.he
100
height
and
shape
of
the
longitudinal
arch
exists
in Caucasian
shoe-wearers
as in barefooted
peoples,
is shown
in Table
10, which
is based
upon
t.he
examination
of 200 pairs
of normal,
or at least
symptomless,
feet.
Table
10. Frequency
wearers,
feet
of (.hfferent
types
NUMBER
TYPE
OF
ARCH.
PERCENT.
A
27
13
B
20
10
C
27
13.
D
53
40
33
26
20
16
200
100
F
the
shoe-
OF
INDIVIDUALS.
E
That
in 200 Caucasian
syn’mptomless.
same
shown
in Table
pairs
of symptomless
is true
11, which
feet.
of the American
is based
upon
shoe-wearing
the
examination
Negro
is
of 100
FEET
128
Table
OF
11.
wearing
BAREFOOTED
Frequency
Negroes,
AND
SHOE-WEARING
of different
feet
types
OF
ARCH.
C
D
E
F
Table
12 shows
Table
12.
the
Frequency
Sandal-wearers;
18
13
19
21
16
13
100
100
variation
in five
sandal-wearing
types
in 5 Ainus,
of different
Northern
Japan,
ARCH.
feet
B
C
D
E
this
depression
contact
Caucasian
OF
PERCENT.
1
1
1
2
20
20
20
40
5
100
true that. weakness
of the structures
composing
the longitudinal
arch is in some instances
acdepression
of the arch,
and that
on account
of
a greater
with
Ainus.
symptomless.
INDIVIDUALS.
It is probably
and maintaining
companied
by
shoe-
PERCENT.
.18
13
19
.21
.16
13
NUMBER
OF
American
OF
INDIVIDUALS.
A
B
TYPE
in 100
symptomless.
NUMBER
TYPE
PEOPLES.
the
area
ground.
of the
sole
However,
it
of the
was
foot
comes
demonstrated
in
by
examination
of imprints
on smoked
paper of 560 feet treated
by
me, all presenting
more or less typical
symptoms
of weakness
of
the longitudinal
arch, and nearly
all deriving
benefit
from arch
supports,
that
as is commonly
the imprints
differ much
tomless
Table
feet.
13.
arch depression
is not
taught;
in fact, that
commonly
made
from the average
The
result
of
as frequent
the average
and marked
character
of
for diagnostic
purposes
character
of those found
this
examination
is
does not
in sympshown
in
PHIL.
HOFFMANN.
129
Table
wearing
13. Frequency
of different
types in 560 Caucasian
feet that presented
symptoms
of weakness
of the
tudinal
arch.
NUMBER
TYPE
OF
OF
FEET.
ARCH.
A
B
C
D
E
F
PERCENT.
11!
12!
64
72
76
92
108
148
13!
16!
26!
560
Table
14 shows
the
100
comparative
different
types
of arches
pine Malays
(Barefooted);
frequency
shown
Central
in Fig.
African
with
which
the
20 occurred
in PhilipNegroes
(Barefooted);
South
African
Negroes
(Barefooted
up to last six years);
can Negroes
(Shoe-wearers);
Caucasians
(Shoe-wearers);
Caucasians,
symptomless
treatment
shoelongi-
AmeriAinus,
Northern
Japan
(Sandal-wearers);
all presenting
feet;
and
in Caucasians
(Shoe-wearers)
under
for symptoms
of weakness
of the longitudinal
arch.
TABLE
14.
L
NE
N
.‘.4Z
NH
‘.‘.
055
N
‘I’
N
Z5
EN
P
B
S
FOR
TYPES
Fio.
20.
SEE
Li
R5
ED
‘.45
N N
0
B
BE
B
N
RI’
_I’z
.
.I’C’1
HE-
Type
81%
10
141”
284%
141”
F:
221”
221”
F
211”
284”
143”
143”
A
B
C
D
100%
Analysis
ferent
races,
of Table
with
.
-
100%
14 shows
symptomless
‘
131%
151”
171”
151”
241”
131”
100%
that
feet,
.
I
18%
13”
19”
21”
16”
13”
100%
in the
the
‘
,
131%
10 “
131”
261”
20 “
161”
100%
00
-
‘.z0
#{231}’.N5
N...
,,5’E’
.,‘.I’ZO
-
113%
12”
134”
20%
20”
20”
40”
100%
536 individuals
American
19;”
-
and
‘100%
of difprimitive
130
FEET
OF
Negroes
presented
centage
of
high
BAREFOOTED
AND
a smaller
arches
SHOE-WEARING
percentage
than
did
the
of low
21 .-PnOTOGRAPH
OF’
NE;LUTO.s,
IN
SHowING
STANDING.
and
Caucasians.
a larger
per-
This
contra-
FOOT
POSTURE
‘1
:‘.
FIG.
PEOPLES.
HABITUAL
PHIL.
(licts
a commonly
a somewhat
Negro
or
11G.
not
present
the
symptomless
a
much
sey’i’
ard’h-tyl)es
larger
than
(li(l those
shown
percentage
of
show
not
low
The
histories
timat
time feet
SHOWING
H.kI’.1’ru.L
occur
(lid
in this
of weakened
(lid
syllIl)tonms
thaim
symptoms
feet.
NEGHITOS,
Malay
Philippine
arcimes
thing
with
records,
ilnpressiolm
OF’
or
The
Another
feet
131
of low
Caucasian
22.-P1IoT;u..I’u
ing
percentage
Caucasian.
560 Caucasian
560
view.
accepted
larger
the
these
HOFFMANX.
table
the
is that
arches,
arcimes
did
than
(lid!
accompanying
with
FOOT
oftener
W’I1OSC symptoms
simowe(l
either
long
PO’FLIIE
IX
the
among
niild
were
stan(l-
\\ALKING.
lower
or of short
duration.
If
timese
is justified
in its
exists.
statistics
timat
depression,
are
weakness
and
a fair
iimdex
for
of time longitud!inal
that
flat
/001
all
feet,
the
conclusion
ard’lm rarely
as a pathological
entity
results
lmar(llV
132
FEET
The
BAREFOOTED
height
gait.
of the
associated
standing
arch,
the
but
foot
to the
and
walk
with
the
that
raises
and
than
This
23.-BoNToc
pointing
propels
commonly
eversion
weakness
of
the
the
body.
to the
called
eversion
is due
not
flat
foot
of the
foot
to
low
the
STANDING.
or stiffness
muscles
forward
PEOPLES.
no relationship
ordinary
IGORROTE
associated
weakness
toes
to bear
affection
more
walking.
FIG.
SHOE-WEARING
appeared
the
with
and
AND
arch
In shoe-wearers,
is often
on
OF
of the
controlling
is to use
This
means
the
joints
them.
foot
muscle
of
To
as a lever
exertion
PHIL.
and
joint
motion.
weakened
foot
leverage
function
pedestal
that
practically
while
To avoid
is everted.
among
arches
finally,
weight.
slightly
the
say
24.-BoNToc
that
inward,
AND
I was
Among
just
or less
SUT0c
somewhat
low
as
less
into
the
arches
toes
were
common
the
is its
a mere
Negritos
i. e., the
walk,
work,
the
it degenerates
very
it was
more
of this
it is everted,
straight
Bagobos
with
associated
FIG.
I must
and,
body
a very
133
performance
more
the
have
or even
the
The
used,
bears
all
forward
HOFFMANN.
who
pointing
common,
to
find
high
eversion.
IGORROTES
disappointed
WALKING.
at
not
the straight
or leverage
gait as common
among
primitive
as I had supposed,
though,
on the whole,
it is far more
finding
peoples
common
than
among
shoe-wearers.
As mentioned!
it was found
practically universal
in the Negritos
(Figs. 21 and 22);
in t.he Bontoc
Igorrotes
it was the rule (Figs. 23 and 24); in the Suyoc
Igorrotes
134
FEET
it was
less
Bagobos
(Fig.
The
11G.
OF
BARI;F’OOTED
common
the
everte(l
SHOE-WEARIN(
AND
and
in the
Moros
gait,
often
very
imiuch
PEOPLES.
less
marked,
so,
while
in the
predominant.
was
25.)
position
the
of
25.-B.GoBo
feet
\\ALKING
on
AND
standing
GilouP
in
OF
most.
BAGOHOS
instances
IN
cor-
BACKGROUND
STANDING.
respolld!ed!
toes
were
wheim
walking
Atmiong
examined:
that
to
turned
of the
more
leisurely
inward
gait;
those
in
on
rapid!
individuals
walking,
tha.t
the
everted
slowly.
time
Central
namely.
African
four
group
Pygmies,
eight
two
individuals
Bakubas,
were
one
Chin
PHIL.
Chin
who
and one Baluba.
had a strong
and
arch.,
from
degrees,
i. e., each
foot ten degrees
sanme diegree of eversion
was noted
in
one of the Pigmies,
who
group
had a very straight
had!
walk,
and one eighteen
the angle between
of course,
The
makes
foot
difference
in gait.
something
have
inquiries
good arch.
everted
three
By the
borders
of each
suggested!
Mode
in these
a very
one
degrees.
the inner
the eversion
structure
may
135
All had fine arches
except
the Baluba,
symptomless
foot though
practically
no
He everted
twenty
the median
line;
the
sixteen
is meant
HOFFMANN.
of life
only
it, but
were
not
degree
of the
as
or local
to do with
directions
foot
nothing
Three
of the
degrees,
one
half
of the record!.
the
to
of eversion
feet.
This,
cause
terrestrial
I must
of
the
conditions
that
my
its component
parts
are
shoe-wearing
races.
very
confess
diligent.
SUMMARY.
The relative
lengths
practically
the same
Its
are
form,
the
functions
same
and
in both
progressive
ensue.
of the foot
in barefooted
up
range
to the
characteristic
Here,
as
and
of voluntary
time
other
passive
and!
of shoe-wearing,
deformation
in
are not transmitted.
same type of foot
and
and
instances,
inhibition
acquired
characteristics
The childiren
of shoe-wearers
as do those of barefooted
races,
arch
flat
is no relationship
arch
and
These
to have
of many
I am
Dr.
of the
foot.
and
inherit
this
the
studies
were
made
hours
them,
stolen
deeply
or coincidence
character
by
no
of the
gait.
means
as
indebted
thorough
to Dr. W J McGee,
aid
these
studies
were
height.
as I would
Chief
of
whose
the
and
of
like
the congenial
work
of practical
existence.
Anthropology,
Louisiana
Purchase
W. P. Wilson,
Presidlent
of t.he Philippine
through
of the
or lowering,
between
though
t.hey represent
from the humdrum
the
type
no bear-
Weakness
if ever, acconmpanied
by breaking
as a pathological
entity
hardly
exists.
There
ment
or usefulness
is rarely,
foot
the
strength
which
of function
is changed
only in so far as footwear
modifies
it.
The height
and shape
of the longitudinal
arch have
ing on the
motion
after
rendered
of the
Exposition,
Exposition
possible.
Departand
Board,
136
FEET
OF
BAREFOOTED
AND
SHOE-WEARING
PEOPLES.
DISCUSSION.
Dr.
and
HENRY
LING
TAYLOR,
appreciation
obtained.
Such
the
public
feet
and
their
walking,
cially
information
might
know
in
to
when
the
would
some
a
was
Dr. T.
ment that
measure
that
it
mixed
with
HALSTED
that
about
by
deep
interest
about
so
the
postures
experts
shape
in
been
had
disseminated
points
that
of the
standing
in various
are
he
in
in
black
of
was
that
actually
used
MYERS,
upon
also what
He said
that
the
New
there
black,
his
not
always
judge
removing
considered
and
fields,
espe-
were
know
to
from
the
shape
otherwise
how
with
that
of
much
regard
the
to be true
shape
shoe
These
unless
investigations
the result
blood.
York,
said
the
than
negro in making
a good many
shades
a
in Cincinnati.
of the arch and general
that he believed
the same
height
can
inunediately
asked
important
symptoms
one
might
Dr.
few
thought
of
many
applied
tracing
of negroes.
ones
the
largely
more
and
and
his
which
results
drill, and in shop
and
factory
work, will result
diminished
suffering.
wished
to know
how long the tracings
were taken
from
the foot.
He thought
that more compression
He
very
only
He
and
the
feet
and
blood
toms
removed
by
of the
the
fied.
and
afterward.
negroes
were
was
shown
time
study
of
shoe
be
are
to express
military
in increased
efficiency
Dr. A. H. FREIBERG
after
There
wished
interesting
shoe-wearing,
known
gymnastics,
should
the
be
of it.
relation
which
York,
and
work
this
of
New
of
of the
in the
foot
Caucasian
to the
foot
latter
speci-
were
statenot
white
what
the
a
races
symp-
be.
of diagnosis
of the condition
being
it was relieved
by a steel support,
was
not necessarily
so.
A steel
support
might
relieve
pain in the foot, or
pain
might
be due not to the flat foot,
but to a lack of normal
dorsal fiexion
which might
be due to a shortening
of the calf muscles
or what Schaffer
has
called non-deforming
club-foot.
Dr. PHIL.
HOFFMANN,
in closing,
said that
all the cases included
in the
analysis
of primitives
were
barefooted
except
the five Ainus,
who were sandalwearers.
Later,
for comparison,
he had taken
200 white
and
100 black
shoewearers.
In examining
the latter
he had endeavored
to secure
those
of as
nearly
pure
African
blood as possible.
Among
the shoe-wearers
nearly
every
case
had presented
a certain
amount
of hallux
valgus,
but no special
attention
had been paid
to
this
relationship.
The group
presenting
symptoms
were
a flat
selected
JOHN
foot,
said
RIDLON
or beginning
from
Caucasians
feet.
He
had good strong
symptom-complex,
feet.
Caucasian
that
flat
for
did
and
the question
foot,
not
because
the
purpose
find
one
The diagnosis
not upon the
of
comparing
primitive
of
fact
weakened
of relief
with
symptomless
foot with symptoms.
arch was based
by an arch support.
All
upon
the