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High Stakes Writing, LLC, Editor and Publisher: Lawrence J. Goodrich
Department of the Air Force Editor: Naomi L. Mitchell
Primary Writers: Ruth Walker, Mary M. Shaffrey
Editor: Katherine Dillin
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Cover Images: Rover: Courtesy of NASA; Nebula: Courtesy of NASA/JPL-Caltech/T. Megeath (University of Toledo) & M. Robberto (STScI);
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Lesson Opener Credits: Page 6, Courtesy of NASA/JPL; Page 20, Courtesy of Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division [reproduction
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338, 358, 374, Courtesy of NASA; Page 394, Courtesy of NASA/JPL; Page 416, Courtesy of NASA; Page 426, Courtesy of JPL/NASA;
Page 442, Courtesy of NASA/Sandra Joseph and Kevin O’Connel; Page 454, Courtesy of NASA/Jack Pfaller; Page 476, Courtesy of NASA;
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Exploring space : the high frontier.
p. cm.
ISBN 978-0-7637-8961-9 (case bound)
1. Outer space—Exploration—History. 2. Astronomy—History. I. Jones & Bartlett Learning.
TL790.E97 2010
520—dc226048
2010021594
6048
Printed in the United States of America
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Contents
UNIT
The Space Environment
1
The
T
he History
History of
of Astronomy
Astronomy
CHAPTER
C
HAPTE R 1
LESSON 1 Prehistoric and Classical Astronomy
The Celestial Sphere 8
The Greek Earth-Centered Model
Ptolemy’s Model 16
LESSON 1 REVIEW
6
19
Copernicus and the Sun-Centered Model
Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion 25
20
21
31
LESSON 3 The Enlightenment and Modern Astronomy
Galileo and the Telescope 33
Newton’s Laws of Motion and Gravity
Einstein and Relativity 41
LESSON 3 REVIEW
4
15
LESSON 2 Astronomy and the Renaissance
LESSON 2 REVIEW
2
32
37
47
The
T
he Earth
Earth and
and Moon
Moon
CHAPTER
C
HAPTE R 2
LESSON 1 Earth, Inside and Out
48
48
50
Earth’s Interior 51
Earth’s Atmosphere 54
Earth’s Magnetic Field 57
LESSON 1 REVIEW
61
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LESSON 2 The Moon: Earth’s Fellow Traveler
62
The Moon’s Size and Distance From the Earth 63
The Relationships Between the Moon and the Earth 66
The Moon’s Origin and Surface 69
LESSON 2 REVIEW
73
The
T
he Sun
Sun and
and the
the Solar
Solar System
System
CHAPTER
C
HAPTE R 3
LESSON 1 The Sun and Its Domain
76
The Sun’s Energy 77
The Sun’s Core, Atmosphere, and Sunspots
The Solar System’s Structure 86
LESSON 1 REVIEW
74
74
79
93
LESSON 2 The Terrestrial Planets
94
Mercury 95
Venus 99
Mars 103
LESSON 2 REVIEW
113
LESSON 3 The Outer Planets
114
Jupiter 116
Saturn 121
Uranus 124
Neptune 126
LESSON 3 REVIEW
131
LESSON 4 Dwarf Planets, Comets, Asteroids,
and Kuiper Belt Objects 132
Pluto 133
Asteroids 136
Comets 138
The Oort Cloud and the Kuiper Belt
LESSON 4 REVIEW
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140
145
Contents
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Deep
D
eep S
Space
pace
CHAPTER
C
HAPTE R 4
LESSON 1 The Milky Way Galaxy
1
146
46
148
The Milky Way Galaxy and the Sun’s Place in It
The Four Components of the Galaxy 152
Other Planetary Systems 153
Black Holes 157
The Center of the Milky Way Galaxy 160
LESSON 1 REVIEW
161
LESSON 2 What Lies Beyond
162
Other Galaxies and Their Classifications
Five Types of Space Objects 166
The Electromagnetic Spectrum 173
The Big Bang Theory 174
LESSON 2 REVIEW
UNIT
149
163
177
Exploring Space
2
178
Exploring,
E
xploring, L
Living,
iving, a
and
nd
Working
180
W
orking in
in Space
Space
180
CHAPTER
C
HAPTE R 5
LESSON 1 Why Explore Space?
182
The Historical Benefits of Exploration 183
The US Strategic Plan to Explore Space 186
The Current Costs of Exploring Space 189
The Practical Benefits of Space Exploration 190
LESSON 1 REVIEW
197
LESSON 2 Assembling a Space Mission
198
How NASA Plans and Implements Space Missions 199
The Essential Components of a Space Mission 204
The Selection and Training of Astronauts 210
LESSON 2 REVIEW
215
Contents
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LESSON 3 The Hazards for Spacecraft
216
The Threat Caused by High Levels of Radiation 217
The Hazard of Impact Damage to Spacecraft 220
The Threats Associated With Surface Landings 223
Fire Hazards in Space 225
LESSON 3 REVIEW
229
LESSON 4 Making Space People-Friendly
230
How the Microgravity of Space Travel Affects the Human Body 232
The Threat of Radiation to Astronauts Traveling in Space 238
The Study of Space Biomedicine 242
LESSON 4 REVIEW
UNIT
3
CHAPTER
C
HAPTE R 6
245
Manned and Unmanned
Spaceflight
246
Space
S
pace P
Programs
rograms
LESSON 1 The US Manned Space Program
2
248
48
250
The History and Accomplishments of Project Mercury 251
The History and Accomplishments of Project Gemini 257
The History and Accomplishments of Project Apollo 260
LESSON 1 REVIEW
267
LESSON 2 The Soviet/Russian Manned Space Program
268
The History and Accomplishments of the Russian Vostok Project 269
The History and Accomplishments of the Russian Voskhod Project 272
The History and Accomplishments of the Russian Soyuz Project 277
LESSON 2 REVIEW
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LESSON 3 Space Programs Around the World
282
The History and Accomplishments of the Chinese Space Program 284
The History and Accomplishments of the Indian Space Program 288
The History and Accomplishments of the European Space Program 291
The History and Accomplishments of the Japanese Space Program 294
LESSON 3 REVIEW
298
The
T
he Space
Space Shuttle
Shuttle
CHAPTER
C
HAPTE R 7
LESSON 1 The Shuttle Program
300
300
302
Why the Space Shuttle Was Developed 304
The Space Shuttle’s Main Features 309
The Shuttle’s Legacy 313
LESSON 1 REVIEW
319
LESSON 2 Lessons Learned: Challenger and Columbia
320
The Challenger Accident 322
The Columbia Accident 329
LESSON 2 REVIEW
CHAPTER
C
HAPTE R 8
335
Space
S
pace S
Stations
tations a
and
nd B
Beyond
eyond
LESSON 1 From Salyut to the International Space Station
3
336
36
338
The Salyut Space Station 339
The Skylab Space Station 341
The Mir Space Station 345
The International Space Station 350
LESSON 1 REVIEW
357
LESSON 2 The Future in Space
358
The Planned Return Trip to the Moon 360
The Plans for a Moon Outpost 364
The Plans for a Manned Mission to Mars 366
LESSON 2 REVIEW
371
Contents
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The
T
he Unmanned
Unmanned Missions
Missions
off S
Space
Probes
372
o
pace P
robes
3
72
CHAPTER
C
HAPTE R 9
LESSON 1 Missions to the Sun, Moon, Venus, and Mars
374
Spacecraft That Have Studied the Sun 375
Unmanned Exploration of the Moon 379
Unmanned Exploration of Venus 383
Unmanned Exploration of Mars 387
LESSON 1 REVIEW
393
LESSON 2 The Hubble Space Telescope and
Missions to Comets and Outer Planets
394
How the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) Aids the Exploration of Space
Scientific Discoveries Among the Outer Planets 399
Scientific Investigations of Comets and Asteroids 406
LESSON 2 REVIEW
UNIT
4
CHAPTER
C
H A P T E R 1100
411
Space Technology
412
Orbits
O
rbits a
and
nd T
Trajectories
rajectories
LESSON 1 Orbits and How They Work
414
414
416
How Orbits Work 417
Different Types of Orbits Used for Different Purposes
LESSON 1 REVIEW
395
421
425
LESSON 2 Maneuvering and Traveling in Space
426
Trajectories in Space Travel 427
Maneuvering in Space 431
Navigation Data 435
LESSON 2 REVIEW
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439
Contents
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CHAPTER
C
H A P T E R 1111
Rockets
R
ockets a
and
nd L
Launch
aunch V
Vehicles
ehicles
LESSON 1 It Is Rocket Science: How Rockets Work
The History and Principles of Rocket Science
Different Types of Rockets 446
The Propulsion and Flight of Rockets 450
LESSON 1 REVIEW
453
The Evolution of Rocket Technology 455
The Types of Launch Vehicles 460
The Factors and Features of a Rocket Launch
CHAPTER
C
H A P T E R 1122
442
443
LESSON 2 Propulsion and Launch Vehicles
LESSON 2 REVIEW
440
4
40
454
468
473
Robotics
R
obotics iin
nS
Space
pace
LESSON 1 Developing Robots for Space
4
474
74
476
The Purpose of Using Robots in Space 478
The History of Robots in Space 483
The Current Robotic Missions in Space 489
LESSON 1 REVIEW
493
LESSON 2 The Mars Rover and Beyond
494
The History of the Mars Rover Expedition 495
The Results of the Mars Rover Expedition 499
The Goals for Future Rover Expeditions 504
LESSON 2 REVIEW
509
Contents
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Commercial
C
ommercial U
Use
se o
off S
Space
pace
CHAPTER
C
H A P T E R 1133
LESSON 1 Private Industry Enters Space
Commercial Satellites and Launches 513
The Possibility of Space Tourism 520
The Potential of Mining Asteroids and Moons
LESSON 1 REVIEW
512
524
527
LESSON 2 Space in Your Daily Life
528
How People Use Satellites Every Day 530
The Uses of a Global Positioning System 533
How NASA Shares Its Inventions With the Private Sector
LESSON 2 REVIEW
References
Glossary
Index
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5
510
10
536
542
543
573
581
Contents
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Preface
Exploring Space: The High Frontier is the third-year science course in the high school
sequence of Aerospace Science courses for Air Force Junior ROTC. This textbook has been
completely revised and includes the latest information available in space science and space
exploration. The course begins with the study of the space environment from the earliest
days of interest in astronomy and early ideas of the heavens, through the Renaissance, and
on into modern astronomy. It provides an in-depth study of the Earth, Sun, stars, Moon,
and Solar System, including the terrestrial and the outer planets. It discusses issues critical
to travel in the upper atmosphere—such as orbits and trajectories—unmanned satellites,
and space probes. It investigates the importance of entering space and discusses manned
and unmanned missions, focusing on concepts surrounding spaceflight, space vehicles,
launch systems, and safety.
This text is intended as a course in space for young high school students and to
complement materials taught in high school math, physics, and other science-related
courses. The basic concepts of spaceflight can be found in this course. Each unit and
chapter also contains full-color diagrams and pictures “worth a thousand words.”
Included in the textbook are famous quotes at the beginning of each unit and chapter
that relate to space or astronomy. Other features in each lesson include: a “Quick Write”
that you can use as writing assignments; a “Learn About” box that tells you what you’ll
learn from the lesson; a list of vocabulary words that you should study; “Star Points”
that highlight specific and interesting facts; and many biographies and profiles. Each
lesson closes with “Checkpoints” which will allow you to review what you have learned.
An “Applying Your Learning” section at the end of each lesson presents discussion
questions that will give you a chance to use what you have learned and is another way
to reinforce your understanding of the lesson’s content.
The text has four units, each divided into chapters that contain a number of lessons.
“Unit 1: The Space Environment” discusses the vastness of the galaxy and the universe.
The section on prehistoric and classical astronomy focuses on constellations as patterns
of stars, the Sun’s motion among the stars and around the Earth, the Greek Earth-centered
model of the Solar System, and Ptolemy’s model. “Astronomy and the Renaissance” covers
Copernicus, the Sun-centered model, and Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion. The following
lesson discusses Galileo and the telescope, Newton’s Laws of Motion and Gravity, and
Einstein and relativity. The unit explains the special characteristics of the Earth and Moon,
examining the Earth’s interior, atmosphere, and magnetic field. It reviews theories of the
Solar System’s formation and discusses the terrestrial planets, the outer planets, dwarf
planets, comets, asteroids, and the Kuiper Belt. Finally, the unit takes a look at the Milky
Way Galaxy and what lies beyond it—at the Sun’s location in the Milky way, other galaxies,
and phenomena such as black holes.
“Unit 2: Exploring Space” looks at why humans should explore space and reviews the
challenges of entering space. It examines the historical benefits of space exploration and
the physical and psychological effects of spaceflight on human beings. The unit covers
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the US vision for space exploration and the current costs of doing so. It addresses in detail
how the International Space Station will advance space exploration and the long-term goal
of a manned flight to Mars. This unit also looks more deeply into how space exploration
encourages the study of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.
“Unit 3: Manned and Unmanned Spaceflight” delves into the space programs of several
nations, the space shuttle program, space stations, and the many unmanned space probes.
The unit begins with discussion of the US manned space program, including the history
and accomplishments of Projects Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo. It also discusses in detail
the achievements of the Soviet and Russian manned space programs, as well as those of the
Chinese, Indian, European, and Japanese programs. It reviews the US shuttle program and
the development of the original six orbiters. It also examines the lessons learned from the
Challenger and Columbia accidents and highlights the changes NASA has made to reduce
the possibility of another accident. In addition, it focuses on space stations and humanity’s
future in space. It reviews the Salyut, Skylab, and Mir stations, and the International Space
Station—showing how nations are working together to construct and maintain it. The unit
also examines humans’ future in space, focusing on the planned return trip to the Moon,
the plans for a Moon outpost, and a manned mission to Mars. The final chapter covers
missions to the Sun, Moon, Venus, and Mars, the Hubble space telescope, and missions
to comets and the outer planets.
“Unit 4: Space Technology” focuses on the science and technology of spaceflight. You’ll
learn about orbits and trajectories, and how they work; about maneuvering and traveling
in space; and about momentum, gravitational force, orbital velocity, and orbit height,
eccentricity, and inclination. The unit also covers the history and principles of rocket
science, including how rockets operate and how force, mass, and acceleration apply to
rockets. The unit examines solid and liquid propellant rocket engines, the evolution of
rocket technology, the early use of rockets and the first rocket scientists. You’ll learn about
different types of launch vehicles, launch sites, launch windows, and how NASA prepares
for a launch. The unit examines the use of robots in space and how NASA uses robots to
explore the Solar System in ways that humans cannot. It discusses how NASA constantly
works to improve its robots and keep up with new advances in technology. You’ll read
about the Mars Rover Expedition, the rovers Spirit and Opportunity, and the challenges
of a flight to Mars. Finally, you’ll read about how society has benefited from NASA
technology and research—both in everyday life and in significant medical advances—
and about how private companies are gearing up for their own space missions.
At the end of the text you will find a glossary defining all the vocabulary words and
telling you which page each term appears on. You’ll also find an index organized by
subject at the end of the text, as well as a list of references.
This book has been prepared especially for you, the cadet—to increase your knowledge
and appreciation of space. If space as a subject interests you, you’ll find you’ve already
embarked on your journey upon completion of this course. Students like you are the
engineers, technicians and scientists of the future. The future of space exploration will
soon be in your hands. Are you ready to take up the challenge? Everyone involved
in the production of this book hopes it helps prepare you to do so.
Lawrence J. Goodrich and Naomi Mitchell
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Acknowledgements
This new edition of Exploring Space: The High Frontier was based in part on suggestions
received from AFJROTC instructors around the world. The Jeanne M. Holm Center
for Officer Accessions and Citizen Development (Holm Center) Curriculum Directorate
team involved in the production effort was under the direction of Charles Nath III, PhD,
Director of Curriculum for the Holm Center at Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, and
Roger Ledbetter, Chief, AFJROTC Curriculum. Special thanks go to Naomi Mitchell,
an instructional systems specialist for Holm Center Curriculum and the primary Air Force
editor and reviewer. We commend Naomi for her persistent efforts, commitment,
and thorough review in producing the best academic materials possible for AFJROTC
units worldwide.
We are deeply indebted to our subject matter experts, academic consultants, and
reviewers: Gregory Vogt, PhD, NASA’s Senior Project Manager at the Center for
Educational Outreach, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, for his meticulous
review and expertise on important topics which helped make the book complete; Mr.
Joseph M. Schuh of Ares Airborne and Orbiter Electrical Engineering at the Kennedy Space
Center, Florida, for also taking the time to provide his expertise in the development of this
textbook; Colonel John Gurtcheff (retired) AFJROTC Unit SC-873, Crestwood HS, Sumter,
South Carolina, for thoroughly reviewing the material; and Kimberly Combs-Hardy, PhD,
Chief of Educational Technology, Holm Center Curriculum, for her advice and suggestions
throughout the development.
We would also like to express our gratitude to the High Stakes Writing, LLC, team
for all its hard work in publishing this new book. That team consisted of contractors
at High Stakes Writing, LLC—Lawrence Goodrich; Katherine Dillin; Ruth Walker, and
Mary M. Shaffrey—subcontractors from Perspectives, Inc.—Philip G. Graham, PhD;
Emily Davis; Aaron Paula Thompson; and Suzanne M. Perry—numerous personnel from
Jones and Bartlett Learning—including Christopher Will; Anne Spencer; Susan Schultz;
and Wendy Swanson—and Mia Saunders of Mia Saunders Design.
The AFJROTC mission is to develop citizens of character dedicated to serving their
nation and communities. Our goal is to create materials that provide a solid foundation
for producing members of society able to productively fulfill their citizenship roles.
We believe this is another course that will continue the precedent set with the previous
curriculum materials. All the people identified above came together on this project and
combined their efforts to form one great team providing “world class” curriculum materials
to all our schools.
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