CHAPTER 13
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
STRATEGIES
Observational Research
Foundations
Potential Problems
1.Presence of the researcher
may influence participants
Solutions
1. Conceal researcher
2. Habituation: involves
repeated exposure until the
observer’s presence no longer
affects behavior
Observational Research
Foundations
Potential Problems
2. There is room for subjective
interpretations of behaviors
Solutions
• Good operational definition
• Trained observers
• Use multiple observers
* Inter-rater reliability
Observational Research
Foundations
Quantifying Observations
• Converting a behavior into a
numerical score
Methods
1. Frequency
• Count the number of
behaviors
2. Duration
• Measure the duration of a
behavior
3. Interval Method
• Interval = timeframe
• Count frequency within
timeframe
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the
different types of observational research?
Survey Research
Types of Questions
Overall:
The types of questions you ask should serve
your research interests
Survey Research
Writing Questions: Important Guidelines
1. Questions must ask about
only ONE behavior
1. What are your thoughts and
feelings about capital punishment?
2. Questions must not be
leading
2. Why do you think Northern
California is better than Southern
California?
3. Questions must not be
ambiguous
3. I tend to use stereotypes in
situations where they are
potentially applicable.
Yes
No
Survey Research
Types of Questions
1. Open-Ended Qs
• Introduces a topic and allows
participants to respond in their
own words
Survey Research
Types of Questions
Examples
What do you think about the current availability of food on this campus?
What is the most important factors in choosing a college or university?
What is your favorite flavor of ice cream?
How many times do you brush your teeth in a day?
Survey Research
Types of Questions
Advantages
• Reveal true thoughts or
opinions
Disadvantages
• Misinterpretations of Q, get
responses that are
incomparable
• Difficult to analyze results
with statistics
Survey Research
Types of Questions
2. Restricted Questions
• Limited number of responses
presented
• Good for nominal data, count
data
Survey Research
Types of Questions
Examples
1. If the election were held today,
which of the following candidates
would receive your vote?
Mrs. Lin Chun
Mrs. Nunez
Mr. Smith
2. During a typical week, how
often do you eat at a fast food
restaurant?
Not at all
Once
Twice
Three times
Four times or more
Survey Research
Types of Questions
3. Please indicate your race
African American
European American
Latino American
Asian American
Other____________
Survey Research
Types of Questions
3. Rating Scale Questions
• Participants select a
numerical value on a
predetermined scale
Survey Research
Types of Questions
1. Likert Scale
• A scale in which responses
are numbered and anchored to
a specific value
• Always include an anchor:
what the number means
• Generally use 5-10 options
• May want to include reverse
scored questions (for
comprehension)
Survey Research
Types of Questions
I think it is important to vote
1 = s. agree
2 = agree
3 = neutral
4 = disagree
5 = s. disagree
My assessment of cheating is that
it is
1 = very wrong
2 = wrong
3 = somewhat wrong
4 = morally neutral
5 = somewhat moral
6 = moral
7 = very moral
Survey Research
Types of Questions
2. Semantic Differential
Scale
• Selects pairs of bipolar
adjectives
• Asks participants to identify
the location between the two
adjectives
• Anchor each response with a
number
Example
How do you feel right now?
Happy_ _ _ _ _ _Sad
1 2 3 4 5 6
Angry_ _ _ _ _ _Calm
1 2 3 4 5 6
Survey Research
Types of Questions
Advantages
• Use many different types of
adjectives in one survey
• More accurately capture
people’s emotions
Survey Research
Guidelines For Constructing A Survey
Guidelines
1. Demographics information
should come at the end
2. Sensitive questions should be
placed in the middle of the
survey
3. Topics should be groups
4. Easy to read, language that
is understandable