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1
Indeed, Paul Gilroy's phenomenal book The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness
contends that we need to think of black trans-nationalism as a system of trans-oceanic, or more
specifically, trans-Atlantic interactions which began with the European colonialisms and the transAtlantic slave trade and continue till this day. Gilroy names this phenomenon the “black Atlantic,”
12
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noting that “A concern with the Atlantic as a cultural and political system has been forced on black
historiography and intellectual history by the economic and historical matrix in which plantation
slavery – “capitalism with its clothes off” – was the one special moment.”
13
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his book Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History, Michel-Rolph Trouillot comments on
the erasure of the Haitian Revolution from the official versions of the histories of the Americas or the
world: "The general silence that Western historiography has produced around the Haitian Revolution
originally stemmed from the in-capacity to express the unthinkable." I would like to emphasize Trouillot's
use of the term "unthinkable" and argue that this is true not just for the Haitian Revolution, but for slave
rebellions in general.
15
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Originally, Martin Delany's novel Blake was serialized at least in two periodicals. The first part,
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Such a process can be read as something akin to Paul Gilroy's comments that the black
enslaved hero's falling back upon a heroic-warrior model of activism "reminds us that in
the revolutionary eschatology which helps to define this primal history of modernity,
whether apocalyptic or redemptive, it is the moment of jubilee that has the upper hand
over the pursuit of utopia by rational means." Gilroy's theorization of the place of the
"irrational" or "fantastical" in the rebellious imaginary or activism of the slave is
ultimately connected to the theorization of that moment of "resistance", what he himself
calls the "slave's counter-violence." Maintaining that the plantation is a "restricted
space", which makes it impossible to initiate and continue a rational conversation
20
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predicated upon "communicative reasoning", Gilroy writes that "There may, after all, be
no reciprocity on the plantation outside the possibilities of rebellion and suicide." It is
his theoretical framework that I am using here for my readings of the enslaved's
rebellious heroism. See Gilroy,Paul. The Black Atlantic:Modernity and Double
Consciousness. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press,1993:68
21
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5
A notable exception has been the literary depictions of the Amistad rebellion. For an astute
analysis of such texts, see Matthew J. Christensen. Rebellious Histories : The Amistad Slave
Revolt and the Cultures of Late Twentieth Century Black Transnationalism. Stony Brrok :
State University of New York Press, 2012
26
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Literary critic Jenny Sharpe's monograph Ghosts of Slavery: An Archaelogy of Black Women's
Lives provides an astute intervention in studies of such complexities of black enslaved
subjectivity. As does Saidiya Hartman's book Scenes of Subjection.
29
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Benedict. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism.
London: Verso, 1983; Chatterjee, Partha. The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and
Postcolonial Histories. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993
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Philosophy of History. Durham: Duke University Press, 2005; Smallwood, Stephanie E. Saltwater
Slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American Diaspora. Cambridge: Harvard University Press,
2008; Rediker, Marcus. The Slave Ship: A Human History. New York: Penguin, 2008
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the Coloured Citizens of the World, But in Particular, and Very Expressly, to Those of the United States
of America. Chapel Hill : University of North Carolina Press, 2011
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has been resignified in a rather open and capacious context – one that can be used simultaneously
to discuss the politics of the personal, to question a spectrum of personal identities, to act against
normalizing ideologies, and to resist the historical terror of social phobia and violence.
I am also influenced by Eve Sedgwick's notion that "queer" can refer to "the open mesh of
possibilities, gaps, overlaps, dissonances and resonances, lapses and excesses of meaning when
the constituent elements of anyone's gender, of anyone's sexuality aren't made (or can't be made)
to signify monolithically." Simultaneously, I am also interested in the way Judith Halberstam's
work on "female masculinity" can be useful here, especially since Halberstam does not consider
the complex ways colonialism and race might determine non-normative gender-identites. See
Eng, David L. “Out Here and Over There: Querrness and Diaspora in Asian American Studies.”
Social Text, Fall/Winter 1997
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Murphy also writes, “In many ways, the search for the slave trade in African literature continues to be
dominated by the African American chronotope of the slave ship and a desire to see something of a
protest literature or a neo-slave narrative emerge out of African against the atrocities committed during
the era of the slave trade”. Murphy, Laura. (Ibid: 44)
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Ali Mazrui. “Black Orientalism? Further Reflections on 'Wonders of the African World' by
Henry Louis Gates Jr.” Nigeria World, November 13, 1999. Accessed December 20, 2012.
http://nigeriaworld.com/feature/publication/mazrui/orientalism.html
13
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In their edited volume, African Theatre: Playwrights & Politics, Martin Banham, James Gibbs and Femi
Osofisan devote an entire section to two Ghanaian playwrights, Joe de Graft and Mohammed BenAbdallah. There is a short biographical sketch on Abdallah, co-written by Anthony A. Aidoo and James
Gibbs, called “Mohammed Ben-Abdallah at Fifty.” There is a full-length interview with Abdallah,
conducted by Awo Asiedu, and a close-reading of Abdallah's play Land of a Million Magicians by James
Gibbs. Nothing has been devoted to the play The Slaves. In his monograph, Fertile Crossings:
Metamorphoses of Genre in Anglophone West African Literature, Pietro Deandrea devotes a chapter to
Abdallah, entitled “Mohammed ben Abdallah's Search for an African Theatre.” Although Deandrea touches
upon The Slaves, it is beyond his project to provide an in-depth study of the play.
14
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Beginning from 24th February, 1966 when the government of Dr. Nkrumah was overthrown by the Ghana
armed forces and the police, Ghana witnessed a number of governmental changes in quick succession.
After the overthrowing of Nkrumah, a National Liberation Council was formed to administer the country,
headed by Lt. General Joseph Arthur Ankrah, who was removed from his office in April 1969. Lt. General
Akwasi Amankwa Afrifa became the Chairman of the NLC, which later gave way to a three-man
Presidential Commission with General Afrifa as chairman. The Commission paved the way for a general
election in 1969 which brought into power the Progress Party government, with Dr. Kofi Abrefa Busia as
Prime Minister and Mr. Edward Akufo Addo as president.The Ghana armed forces again took over the reins
of gov-ernment on 13th January 1972, and Colonel (later General) Ignatius Kutu Acheampong became the
Head of State and Chairman of the National Redemption Council (NRC). It is period of political upheaval
that I am referring to here.
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( 1999); Ngugi wa Thiong'o's Devil on the Cross (1987)
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Anne McClintock uses the term “designated agency” to provide a critique of Franz Fanon's observations
of women's participation in the Algerian Revolution. She writes, “Theirs is a designated agency-- an agency
by invitation only. Before the national uprising, women's agency was null, void, inert as the veil. Here
Fanon colludes not only with the stereotype of women as bereft of historical motivation, but he also resorts,
uncharacteristically, to a reproductive image of a natural birthing: “It is an authentic birth in a pure state.”
(366). Thus, according to McClintock, in Fanon's analysis, women are allowed only a limited political
agency, one that is dependent upon the male activists understanding of the importance of the women's
presence with the national revolution.
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Steinem can be included in this category.
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23
I am aware that this statement can be read as an attempt to construct an essentialist distinction in writing
based on gender. However, I am not interested in constructing or endorsing an essentialist notion of
“men's writing” or “women's writing.” What I am trying to refer to here are the ways in which the
debate has often evolved within the Haitian national literature and Francophone Caribbean literary
tradition. For example, the Haitian writer Yanick Lahens writes,
all the writers of the Third World, Haitian writers included, fell into the trap of always wanting
to affirm that they were writers, and to demonstrate that they were men. They pursued this to such
an extent that both individual speech and the desire to break new ground were strangled from the
start. Nor did historical and political difficulties help in any way. The Third World writer was
compelled to respond immediately to a social and political imperative. It was as if, in a way, the
writer had to go through negritude and social realism as a mode of affirmation. He was thus
trapped in a position that prevented the exploration of other directions. I think that the women
writers said, “It is true that all this exists, but would it not be possible to speak of ourselves, of
who we are, of our families, or our relationships with our children, of the life in our
neighborhoods.”
Why is it that a Third World writer cannot, before saying “I am black or I am a Marxist,”
say simply “I am” and write? In saying so, they would not necessarily be neglecting social
concerns, politics, or history. Marie Chauvet understood this, and she traced a new path with
Amour, colere et folie.
Lahens, Yanick. “Exile: Between Writing and Place”, trans. Mohamed B. Taleb-Khyar, Callaloo 15, no.
2 (1992): 442
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I am using this concept from Gayatri Chakraborty Spivak's essay “Can the Subaltern Speak?” where she
claims, “One never encounters the testimony of the women's voice-consciousness”, thus, coining the
term to write about the process of “subaltern” subject-constitution or lack thereof. Contrary to the
liberal belief that modernity makes possible the existence of a public sphere, where each and every
individual can express in her or her own voice her own opinions, rights and beliefs, Spivak's essay
makes us aware of the fact that there are multiple subject-positions, like that of the colonized Bengali
women she writes about, or the enslaved, who do not have recourse to the legal-symbolic space from
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where to articulate their opinions in terms of a language that will be accessible to the mainstream. In
short, Spivak uses the term to provide a critique of the liberal rights-discourse.
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Historian Carolyn Fick comments that it is almost impossible to construct a systematic social historical
account of Makandal's activities, because his case presents the same methodological dilemma that faces
most historians of slavery: the lack of relatively unmediated first person accounts of those enslaved.
Whatever has been written about Makandal, therefore, have been mostly constructed from the records and
writings of colonial administrators and are extremely fragmentary in nature. For more details,see Fick,
Carolyn. Making Haiti: Saint-Domingue Society From Below. Knoxville, University of Tennessee Press,
1990
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by Haitian Women. New Jersey, Rutgers University Press, 1998
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Scott, David. Conscripts of Modernity:The Tragedy of Colonial Enlightenment. Durham, Duke University
Press, 2004: 92-94
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Victor Sejour, a free-born black man from New Orleans wrote his short story “Le Mulatre” with explicit
abolitionist themes as early as 1837. But Sejour's later works possessed a distinctly pro-Napoleonic
tone. This, combined with the fact that as a French-speaking African-American he did not easily fit into
any familiar racial, linguistic or national categories, has led to his erasure both from the canons of
Francophone and African-American literatures.
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Maryse Condé argues that the Caribbean writer rarely uses the “I' and even when she does, the “I”
operates as a synechdoche of the “we.” According to Condé, the use of the personal “I” gives the female
protagonist a space within a predominantly male discourse. For more details, see Conde, Maryse. “Order,
Disorder, Freedom And the West Indian Writer.” Yale French Studies : A Commemorative Anthology. Part 2
: 1980-1998, 2000
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example, in his book The Poverty of Philosophy, Marx makes a clear-cut assertion that slavery has been an
inseparable aspect of the development of modern capitalism, as had been the modern machinery. He writes, “7
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his book Conscripts of Modernity: The Tragedy of Colonial Enlightenment David Scott provides a
definition of the term problem-space: “Problem-spaces alter historically because problems are not timeless
and do not have everlasting shapes. In new historical conditions old questions may lose their salience, their
bite, and so lead the range of old answers that once attached to them to appear lifeless, quaint, not so much
wrong as irrelevant.” (4) I am using the word “problem-space” in the way Scott uses it here.
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their attempt to theorize the representations of the black experience within the Southern plantation
sites, they have used and extended the term "symbolic annhilation" which was developed in the 1970s in
the works of George Gerbner, Gaye Tuchman, Arlene Kaplan Daniels, and James Benet. They used the
term primarily to conceptualize the representation of women in the media. Eichstedt and Small write,
Symbolic annihilation constitutes a powerful rhetorical and representational strategy for obscuring
the institution of slavery [...] We use the concept of symbolic annihilation to reference to both the
erasure and marginalization of slavery, the enslaved, or legally free African Americans within the
plantation museum industry, as evidenced by what information is included and excluded from
guided or self-guided plantation tours ( Eichstedt and Small 107).
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For the significance of mother-daughter relationships in post-colonial and African Diasporic fiction, see,
Caroline Rody, The Daughter's Return:African-American and Caribbean Women's Fiction of History;
Moira Ferguson, Jamaica Kincaid: Where Land Meets the Body; J. Brooks Bouson, Jamaica
Kincaid:Writing Memory, Writing Back to the Mother; Simone A. James Alexander, Mother Imagery in the
Novels of Afro-Caribbean Women; Victoria Burrows, Whiteness and Trauma: the mother-daughter knot in
the fiction of Jean Rhys, Jamaica Kincaid and Toni Morrison
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At The Annual Dinner Of The NAEAP in Commemoration Of Emancipation Day on July 31st 2009 at the
Centre Of Excellence, Macoya.” Government of Trinidad and Tobago. Web:
http://www.news.gov.tt/index.php?news=1548
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Camp, a historian of US-American slavery, therefore, suggests a methodology which will
emphasize the “everyday forms of resistance”. Following James C. Scott, who defines “everyday
resistance” as “informal, often covert, and concerned largely with immediate, de facto gains”, Camp
describes the everyday forms of slave resistance as “theft, foot dragging, short-term flight, and feigning
illness” which could be looked upon as “hidden or indirect expressions of dissent, quiet ways of reclaiming
a measure of control over goods, time, or parts of one's own life.” Barbara Bush, in her study of the
patterns of resistance among slave women in the Caribbean notes a similar pattern. She writes,
Slaves, both male and female, exasperated their masters in countless ways—shirking work,
damaging crops, dissembling, feigning illness. Unlike outright revolt, these unspectacular routine
acts of non-cooperation did not generally involve violence or the threat of violence against whites
and have thus been termed ' passive' as opposed to ' active' forms of resistance.
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devoted to the history of death in the plantations in Cuba, Perez describes the slave suicides as “a protest, as
an act of resistance and rebellion” and as having challenged the power of the slaveholder. For more details,
see Perez, Louis A. To Die In Cuba : Suicide And Society. Chapel Hill; University of North Carolina Press,
2005 ; 25-65
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Shoumojit Banerjee. “‘Granddaughter of the Caribbean’ touches base .” The Hindu. January 12, 2012.
Web: http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2793894.ece
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I am using the term “global plantation complex” along the lines of Philip Curtins in the book The Rise
and Fall of the Plantation Complex: Essays in Atlantic History, to signify a specific form of modern,
commodified agricultural practice that came into being along with global European domination.
Plantations were markedly different from pre-modern agricultural practices. While often originally
based on slave labor, the global plantation complex was by no means restricted to such, but deployed
many different forms of coercive labor practices during its existence. Although dependent to a large
extent on the forced slave labor of the people of African descent, the plantation complex was not
racially exclusive, and included indentured laborers from India, China, Southeast Asia, and even
Europe. Finally, the plantation complex operated as a relatively autonomous economic unit with
interests of its own within larger coalitions of colonial ruling interests. Societies subjected to the
domination of the global plantation complex experienced wide-scale transformations in economics,
demographics, ecologies and cultures. See Curtins, Philip. Plantation Complex: Essays on Atlantic
History. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1990.
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In order to make it clear to the readers that he is indeed quoting slave-narratives in his novel, Freddy
Douglas, a.k.a. Frederick Douglas, the ex-slave writer and black radical intellectual makes a brief
appearance in the novel via Zachary's ruminations. Zachary, the novel tells us, was proud of knowing his
precise age and the date of birth -- as he would point out to anyone interested, “he was twenty, not a day
less and not many more.” (Sea of Poppies &3$""#7
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In his knowledge of the exact day of his birth, Zachary is thus not Douglass. If Douglass's world
had been formed by the social relations of slavery, which did not confer upon him the basic amenities of a
modern, Western citizenship, then Zachary's world has indeed moved away from that lack of symbolic
citizenship. Yet, Zachary's world is also one formed in reaction to, or in reference to, the world of
Douglass. This becomes especially evident in his pride in being able to tell his own date of birth. The pride,
therefore, reveals a mind conscious of the symbolic and material importance of its own freedom.
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For a more detailed discussion of choice and the Indian indentured laborers, see Lal, Brij. “
Nonresistance” on Fiji Plantations : The Fiji Indian Experience, 1879-1920. In Ed. By Lal, Brij, Munro,
Doug and Beechert, Edward D.Plantation Workers : Resistance and Accommodation. Manoa: Hawaii
University Press, 1993; Samaroo, Brinsley. “Politics and Afro-Indian Relations In Trinidad” in From
Calcutta to Caroni : The East Indians of Trinidad. Ed. John La Guerre. St. Augustine, University of West
Indies Press, 1985
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