David Jekel
Jim Clauss
Latin 422
December 11, 2012
The Rhythm of Livy’s First Book
Livy was an artist. The stories he tells, the arrangement he puts them in, the lessons he
draws from them, even the words he uses, are chosen with a stylistic care that approaches
that of the poet. So it would hardly be surprising if Livy paid attention to rhythm–especially
in a society where nearly all reading was done aloud and where oratory occupied such a
central place and orators took pride in carefully composed clausulae. Indeed, while reading
through his first book, I noticed many rhythmic devices, especially in important or exciting
passages. While these observations were rewarding, they begged bigger questions. What are
Livy’s favorite cadences? How does his usage compare with Cicero’s? Are specific claululae
appropriate for the content used in specific sections? Exactly how thorough and intentional
is Livy’s use of rhythm? To answer these questions, I needed more than observation; I needed
data.
I wrote a computer program to analyze Livy’s text, which calculated syllable quantity,
elision, and accent.1 From there it would be easy to test whether a sequence of syllables
matched a certain rhythmic pattern.2 Metrical feet are defined as certain sequences of long
and short syllables, which are listed in Table 1. But since accent contributes significantly to
prose rhythm (Broadhead 38), accent also had to be used in defining the metrical feet, and
even secondary stress had to be determined to get optimal accuracy. A valid foot was required
to either (1) have its first syllable accented or (2) have a secondary stress on its first syllable
and have the other syllables completely unstressed.
1
I assume that elision always occurs except across punctuation. According to Cicero, good orators always
perform elision (Haley 346).
2
By rhythm, I mean the combination of meter/quantity with accent/stress.
1
Table 1: Common Feet in Latin Prose
Foot
Scansion
trochee
long short
spondee
long long
iamb
short long
cretic
long short long
molossus
long long long
dactyl
long short short
anapest
short short long
antibacchius long long short
first paeon
long short short
fourth paeon short short short long
The progam analyzed rhythm at the ends of sentences, which were determined by periods,
question marks, or exclamation marks, and at the ends of phrases, which were determined by
other punctuation. This technique is admittedly imperfect, especially as regards the phrase
endings: what humans consider phrases may or may not end with punctuation, and some
units with punctuation may be too short for phrases. Ideally, more time would be devoted to
accurate phrase division, but that would require either marking phrases by hand or using a
program which understands Latin sentence structure, which was not feasible given my time
constraints.
The program compared endings of so-called phrases and sentences with certain sequences
of feet and calculated the percentages of the ending cadences out of the total number of
phrases or sentences. To reduce the number of combinations of feet in the data, two looser
foot definitions were added: cretic-like and trochee-like. “Cretic-like” allows either of the
long syllables of the cretic to be replaced by two short syllables, or the middle syllable to be
replaced by a long syllable; thus, in addition to the cretic, it allows the molossus, first paeon,
and fourth paeon, as well as some other groupings. “Trochee-like” allows the first syllable of
the trochee to be replaced with two short syllables or the second syllable to be replaced by a
long syllable.3 These “feet” have the same requirements in terms of accent as the others. The
3
Given the broad definition of these “feet,” we should not pay undue attention to their frequency.
2
results of the analysis are listed in Table 2. The last syllable is always considered ambiguous;
I make no distinction, for example, between a spondee and trochee in the final position. The
rhythm categories are taken to be mutually exclusive (e.g. clausulae listed under “trochee
trochee” do not include those listed under “cretic trochee trochee”). However, the phrases
counted include the endings of sentences.4
The most striking feature of the data is the variety of Livy’s ending cadences; he does not
favor any particular rhythm. Even the generalized “feet” have relatively small percentages.
The data thus support Aili’s conclusion that Livy does not prefer any particular cadences in
his first decade (Winterbottom). However, Aili’s statement that Livy favored the cretic cretic
(also a favorite of Cicero) does not match my data, perhaps because I relied heavily on accent
in defining feet (however, the cretic cretic becomes more common near the end of the book,
during the reigns of Servius and Tarquinius Superbus). The dactyl spondee, which Cicero
strove to avoid because of its similarity to epic (Baley 349), occurs with some frequency.5 The
cretic trochee and the first-paeon trochee (which falls under cretic-like trochee) were clausulae
of Cicero; he also recommened the double trochee, which was often preceded by cretic or
molossus (Baley 347-348). Livy uses these rhythms as well, but nowhere near as much as
Cicero. The percentage for the cretic trochee in Cicero was 23.3% according to Zielinski or
16.2% according to de Groot (Shewring 165), although these writers may not have taken
the same account of accent I did. Even the most common rhythms in Livy and even the
generalized feet have much smaller percentages; thus, in general, Livy’s composition seems
unrhythmic.
The cretic iamb is notable because it is so much more common at the end of sentences than
the end of phrases (7.2% versus 4.8%), unlike most of the other rhythms. This is especially
significant because “phrases” as here defined are not necessarily natural divisions, while the
4
The endings of sentences were analyzed ignoring internal punctuation such as commas, so there are slight
differences between the set of sentence endings and the set of phrase endings occurring at the ends of sentences.
5
However, it does not turn out to be concentrated in the sections about Aeneas as I expected, but is fairly
evenly distributed. According to Aili, Livy uses this clausula regularly in later books.
3
Table 2: Ending Rhythms in Livy Book One
Rhythm
# Phrases % Phrases # Sentences % Sentences
dactyl spondee
73
2.9
31
3.9
cretic iamb
120
4.8
56
7.2
11
0.4
3
0.3
cretic-like iamb
spondee iamb
82
3.3
25
3.2
27
1.1
10
1.3
dactyl iamb
cretic cretic
82
3.2
27
3.4
cretic-like cretic
43
1.7
4
0.5
71
2.8
22
2.8
antibacchius trochee
cretic trochee
136
5.4
39
5.0
279
11.1
106
13.6
cretic-like trochee
70
2.7
18
2.3
cretic trochee-like
cretic-like trochee-like
70
2.7
27
3.4
cretic 2-trochee
37
1.4
16
2.1
54
2.1
21
2.7
cretic-like 2-trochee
cretic-like 2-trochee-like
138
5.5
57
7.3
5
0.1
0
0.0
cretic 3-trochee
cretic-like 3-trochee-like
112
4.5
47
6.1
trochee trochee
154
6.1
38
4.9
134
5.3
34
4.3
trochee-like trochee-like
3-trochee-like
193
7.6
65
8.3
iamb trochee
57
2.3
12
1.5
bacchius trochee
34
1.4
22
2.8
trochee-like cretic
72
2.9
17
2.1
trochee-like cretic-like
63
2.5
20
2.6
second-paeon trochee
10
0.4
8
1.0
other
388
15.4
51
6.6
Total
2515
100
776
100
4
sentences are; we should expect intentionally used rhythms to be more common in the sentence
endings. Thus, Livy seems to like the cretic iamb; this cadence also ends his Preface.6 The
fact that only 7.2% of sentences end with the cretic iamb does not discount this statement.
Livy did not try to end every sentence with specific cadences, as the variety of ending cadences
shows; however (as we will see shortly) Livy did devote particular care to rhythm in certain
sentences. Thus, Livy’s favorite cadences should be determined from significant sentences,
not the general totals.
The bacchius trochee and second-paeon trochee, although they are much rarer, also occur
more often at the endings of sentences than phrases. They are similar rhythms: the secondpaeon can be obtained by replacing the last long syllable of the bacchius with two short
syllables.
The data for specific sections are more interesting, and they demonstrate that Livy’s
rhythmic devices are concentrated in certain places rather than evenly distributed throughout
the book. Most sections have percentages similar to the totals, but a few stand out. Section
26 has a significant increase in the oratorical clausulae. Data are shown in Table 3. The cretic
trochee, cretic trochee trochee, and cretic cretic nearly double their average frequency–and
that without a commensurate decrease in the corresponding “cretic-like” or “trochee-like”
rhythms. These percentages are all the more significant given the sample size (the section has
81 phrases as opposed to the average 41.9). Livy has intentionally chosen oratorical rhythms
for this paragraph, but why?
In this section, Horatius, returning victorious from the battle with the Curiatiı̄, in which
his two triplet brothers were killed, slays his sister for mourning the enemy to whom she was
betrothed. Horatius is put on trial by duumvirı̄, but his father, in a long direct speech, pleads
for mercy on the basis of Horatius’ past merits and the previous deaths of his own children.
6
The unmistakable dactyl dactyl spondee in the preceding phrase (“libentius inciperēmus”), which imitates
poetry, leaves no doubt that rhythm is significant here, and it makes the final cretic iamb (“prosperōs darent”)
stand out in contrast.
5
Table 3: Oratorical Rhythms in Sections 26 and 59
% Overall % Section 26 % Section 59
Rhythm
cretic cretic
3.2
4.9
10.0
1.7
4.9
0.0
cretic-like cretic
cretic trochee
5.4
8.6
11.7
cretic-like trochee
9.2
9.8
8.3
2.7
4.9
1.6
cretic trochee-like
cretic 2-trochee
1.5
3.7
5.0
2.1
1.2
3.3
cretic-like 2-trochee
cretic-like 2-trochee-like
6.9
4.9
0.0
cretic 3-trochee
0.1
1.2
1.7
cretic-like 3-trochee-like
4.5
3.7
0.0
The whole scene is reminiscent of law practices in Livy’s time; it was customary for the family
of the defendant to make elaborate and theatrical appeals to pity. Livy, then, chose rhythms
appropriate for the subject.
The same thing happens in Section 59 (see Table 3), in which Brutus urges the Romans
to banish the Tarquins after Sextus Tarquin’s rape of Lucretia; here the increase in cretic
trochee, cretic trochee trochee, and cretic cretic is even more marked; and again, the sample
size is larger than average (60 phrases). Brutus’ one-sentence direct speech alone includes
several spectacular cadences:
1. Brūtus illı̄s luctū occupātı̄s (trochee trochee)
2. cultrum ex volnere Lūcrētiae extractum, (cretic trochee)
3. mānantem cruōre prae sē tenēns, (cretic cretic)
4. “per hunc” inquit “castissimum ante rēgiam injūriam sanguinem jūrō, (cretic cretic
cretic trochee!)
5. vōsque, dı̄, testēs faciō mē Lūcium Tarquinium Superbum cum scelerātā conjuge et omnı̄
lı̄berōrum stirpe (spondee trochee spondee trochee!)
6. ferrō ignı̄ quācumque dēhinc vı̄ possum exsecūtūrum, (cretic trochee)
7. nec illōs nec alium quemquam regnāre Rōmae passūrum.” (molossus trochee molossus
6
trochee!)
Livy not only uses the oratorical rhythms but he even doubles them. The triple repetition of
the cretic before the trochee in the end of Brutus’ first line (4) could not have gone unnoticed,
nor could the repeated spondee trochee (5)–a variation on the ever-popular double trochee.
In the final cadence, he resolves the cretic trochee into the more solemn-sounding molossus
trochee, then doubles it. Livy can write with quite as much flourish as Cicero when he wants
to! Oratorical rhythm is especially appropriate here because Brutus’ speech is both judicial–
aimed at punishing the Tarquins for their crimes–and political–a rousing call for action and a
prelude to the election of the first consuls.7
The cretic trochee shows up prominently in Section 29 (four occurrences, 18.2%8 ), even
though this passage is less related to oratory. Rather, he has chosen it as one of several
thematic rhythms for his highly artistic sentences describing the destruction of Alba Longa:
1. Inter haec jam praemissı̄ Albam erant equitēs (cretic anapest)
2. quı̄ multitūdinem trādūcerent Rōmam. (cretic trochee)
3. Legiōnēs deinde ductae ad dı̄ruendam urbem. (cretic trochee?9 )
4. Quae ubi intrāvēre portās, (trochee trochee)
5. nōn quidem fuit tumultus ille (trochee trochee)
6. nec pavor quālis captārum esse urbium solet, (cretic iamb)
7. cum effractı̄s portı̄s, (spondee spondee)
8. stratı̄sve ariēte mūrı̄s, (trochee trochee)
9. aut arce vı̄ captā (cretic trochee)
10. clāmor hostı̄lis (cretic trochee)
11. et cursus per urbem armātōrum (molossus trochee)
7
The cretic trochee is also prominent in Section 58, the rape of Lucretia (8.6%). Her last words (“nec ulla
deinde impudı̄ca Lūcrētiae exemplō vı̄vet”) end on a double cretic double spondee, and she kills herself on a
cretic trochee (“corde dēfı̄git”).
8
The rhythm also occurs at places not detected by the algorithm because there was no punctuation.
9
The accent does not line up perfectly.
7
12. omnia ferrō flammāque miscet; (molossus trochee trochee)
13. sed silentium triste (cretic trochee)
14. ac tacita maestitia (fourth-paeon anapest10 )
15. ita dēfı̄xit omnium animōs, (trochee anapest11 )
16. ut prae metū oblı̄tı̄ quid relinquerent, (trochee cretic12 )
17. quid sēcum ferrent (spondee spondee)
18. dēficiente cōnsiliō (cretic anapest)
19. rogitantēsque aliı̄ aliōs, (dactyl anapest)
20. nunc in lı̄minibus stārent, (anapest trochee)
21. nunc errābundı̄ domōs suās (iamb iamb)
22. ultimum illud vı̄sūrı̄ (molossus spondee)
23. pervagārentur. (cretic trochee)
The first two short sentences (1-3) introduce the cretic trochee rhythm. The first section of
the sentence (4-6) introduces the contrast between the usual case of captured cities and the
case of Alba. We get two double trochees then a cretic iamb for the main clause. The cum
clause modifying this section includes a tricolon of ablative absolutes (7-9); 7 and 8 end with
double spondee and double trochee, reminding us of 4 and 5; 9 and 10 return to the cretic
trochee introduced at the beginning of the paragraph. The cum clause ends (11-12) with a
molossus trochee and molossus double trochee, which are similar to the cretic trochee except
with the cretic made heavier by the lengthening of the middle syllable. The slower rhythm is
appropriate for the sad event. In the second half of the sentence (12-22), the thematic cretic
trochee is varied by the substitution of two short syllables for one long (14, 15, 18, 20),13
which both breaks up the familiar cadence and makes the rhythm faster, communicating the
10
Seems to be a variation on the cretic trochee, with the first long syllable of each foot replaced with two
short syllables. It provides a nice complement to the preceding cretic trochee
11
A variation on the double trochee.
12
I do not know if this rhythm has any significance, but it sounds good and provides nice variation
13
19 also contains pairs of short syllables, although it is not a variation of the cretic trochee
8
desperation and confusion of the Albans against the backdrop of sadness already established.
In the end (22-23), the molossus spondee and cretic trochee recapitulate the cretic trochee
theme.
In the next sentence, the pattern of theme and variation on the cretic trochee is even
clearer:
1. Ut vērō jam equitum clāmor exı̄re jubentium ı̄nstābat, (cretic trochee)
2. jam fragor tēctōrum quae dı̄ruēbantur, (cretic trochee)
3. ultimı̄s urbis partibus audiēbātur (cretic trochee)
4. pulvisque ex distantibus locı̄s ortus (cretic iamb trochee14 )
5. velut nūbe inductā omnia implēverat, (cretic cretic)
6. raptim quibus quisque poterat ēlātı̄s, (first-paeon trochee)
7. cum larem ac penātēs tēctaque in quibus nātus quisque ēducātusque esset (cretic molossus?)
8. relinquentēs exı̄rent, (molossus trochee)
9. jam continēns agmen migrantium implēverat viās, (cretic cretic iamb)
10. et cōnspectus aliōrum mutuā miserātiōne integrābat lacrimās (trochee trochee anapest)
11. vōcēsque etiam miserābilēs exaudiēbantur (cretic trochee)
12. mulierum praecipuē, (minor-ionic15 anapest)
13. cum obsessa ab armātı̄s (cretic trochee)
14. templa augusta praeterı̄rent (trochee trochee trochee)
15. ac velut captōs relinquerent deōs. (cretic iamb)
The sentence begins with a threefold repetition of the cretic trochee (1-3). Two variations
with replacements by short syllables for the first long syllable in the feet occur in 6 and 12;
10 is a similar variation of the triple trochee. In 8, we have another variation on the cretic
14
Significance of this rhythm unknown.
Short-short-long-long. Here it is a variation on the cretic, with the first long replaced with two short and
the middle short with a long.
15
9
trochee, this time to make it slower; like the molossus trochees in the previous sentence, it
captures the sadness of the Albans leaving their homes; it occurs significantly right before
the main clause16 ; the cadence in 7, while it does not match a known clausula, also uses long
syllables. Livy deploys the cretic cretic and cretic iamb in strategic locations: at the end of
the first tricolon (5), at the end of the first main clause (9), and the end of the sentence (15).17
The sentence as a whole demonstrates skilled use of rhythmic theme and variation.
Livy uses rhythmic repetition in the first sentence of Section 10, when the relatives of the
kidnapped Sabine women beg King Tatius of the Sabines to attack the Romans. Although
the sentence and section do not feature showy clausulae, the middle of the sentence repeats a
trochee spondee five times:
Jam admodum mı̄tigātı̄ animı̄ raptı̄s erant; at raptārum parentēs tum maximē
sordidā veste lacrimı̄sque et querellı̄s (trochee spondee)
cı̄vitātēs (trochee spondee)
concitābant. (trochee spondee)
nec domı̄ tantum indignātiōnēs (trochee spondee)
continēbant (trochee spondee)
sed congregābantur undique ad Titum Tatium rēgem Sabı̄nōrum, et lēgātiōnēs eō
quod maximum Tatı̄ nōmen in iı̄s regiōnibus erat conveniēbant.
The repetition of trochee spondee, strengthened by homeoteleuton, stresses the repeated nature of the “querellae” of the “parentēs raptārum.” It also emphasizes the similarity between
the first two elements of the tricolon (the first element is “at raptārum . . . concitābant,” the
second “nec domı̄. . . continēbant,” and the third the rest of the sentence).
16
Or what seems to be the main clause–it is difficult to tell because every single verb is imperfect or
pluperfect. What logically must be the main clause appears at first to be merely a continuation of the various
circumstantial constructions which begin the sentence, especially since the main clause begins with “jam”
similarly to the first two circumstantial clauses. Perhaps the difficulty of spotting the main verbs is part of
what makes this sentence so haunting.
17
The cretic iamb ended the main clause of the previous sentence (6) as well. Here we see confirmation that
Livy likes using this cadence for significant sentences.
10
In Section 51, Livy composes a particularly dramatic ending rhythm for the execution of
Turnus of Aricia by Tarquinius Superbus on false charges. The sentence is
1. Ibi tam atrōx invidia orta est,
2. gladiı̄s in mediō positı̄s,
3. ut indictā causā,
4. novō genere lētı̄,
5. dējectus ad caput aquae Ferentı̄nae
6. crāte supernē injectā
7. saxı̄sque congestı̄s
8. mergerētur.
From the second syllable of “injectā” onward, we have a molossus cretic spondee trochee
trochee (“-jectā sax|ı̄sque con|gestı̄s|merge|rētur”). While it resembles a combination of the
oratorical rhythms of the double cretic and double trochee, the impressiveness of the clausula
comes more from its rhythmic nature than from its oratorical associations. The three words
“injectā saxı̄sque congestı̄s” all have the same rhythm–a long unstressed syllable, followed
by a long stressed syllable (which in my scheme begins the foot), and finally an unstressed
“denouement” syllable–either short or long. Thus, these words naturally form three groups of
three syllables–which is interesting in itself since groupings of two are naturally much easier
to come up with. The repetition of similar threefold rhythms, together with the buildup
of paricipial/adverbial phrases in 3-7,18 creates a sense of tension which the double trochee
“mergerētur” resolves. The double trochee emphasizes a twofold rhythm in stark contrast to
the threefold rhythms earlier; its quicker ictus stands out. The whole construction emphasizes
the drama of the event.19
18
These phrases form a nice ascending tricolon. The first element is 3, the second 4, and the third 5-7. 5-7
itself forms another tricolon, where the phrases descrease in length, but build in intensity by “stacking up” on
each other just like the wicker and rocks “stack up” on Turnus.
19
It may be necessary to read the sentence aloud to appreciate the full effect.
11
Livy’s ability to use rhythm to complement his content is clear: rhythm creates associations
with politics and jurisprudence; rhythm sets the mood for and underscores the drama of
important events; rhythmic theme and variation ties artistically marked sentences together
into sonorous periods. It is less clear why he only used rhythm at strategic points and not
throughout the book, since he seems to compose with such great care. Perhaps he considered
the natural rhythm of the Latin language more appropriate for the founding folk tales of the
Roman people. Or perhaps he refrained from lavishing his art equally on every event so that
the passages where he did employ it would be all the more striking.
12
Works Cited:
Shewring, W. H. “Prose-Rhythm and the Comparative Method.” The Classical Quarterly,
Vol. 24, No. 3/4 (Jul. - Oct., 1930): 164-173. Web. 8 Dec. 2012.
Michael Winterbottom. “The Prose Rhythm of Sallust and Livy.” Rev. of The Prose Rhythm
of Sallust and Livy, by Hans Aili. The Classical Review, New Series, Vol. 30, No. 1
(1980): 27-28. Web. 8 Dec. 2012.
Broadhead, H. D. “Prose-Rhythm and Prose-Metre.” The Classical Quarterly, Vol. 26, No.
1 (Jan., 1932): 35-44. Web. 8 Dec. 2012.
Baley, Maynet Thomas. “Ciceronian Metrics and Clausulae.” The Classical Journal, Vol. 33,
No. 6 (Mar., 1938): 336-350. Web. 8 Dec. 2012.
13