Rethinking the Potential of the Brain in Major Psychiatric Disorders !"#$%&'&(#)*+,-(#./%&'&(0'&+1*(%+&2*'&+"32*14#
I. Questionable Theories #
56&#671-(#8+-9(#9/#:9;&:"#%6&#1*/%#2*1<:&=#/%+72%7+&#9(#%6&#>(9'&+/&3##?'&(#%6*7,6#9%#
<+*@72&/#*7+#7(@&+/%-(@9(,#*A#%6&#B*+:@C#B&#-+&#/%9::#9(#*7+#9(A-(2"#*A#7(@&+/%-(@9(,#9%3##?'&(#
/*C# %&26(*:*,92-:# -@'-(2&/# 9(# %6&# <-/%# A&B# @&2-@&/# 6-'&# <+*@72&@# 91-,&/# %6-%# -::*B#
+&/&-+26&+/#%*#*8/&+'&#@9AA&+&(%#<-+%/#*A#%6&#8+-9(#+&-2%9(,#%*#/%917:9#9(#+&-:#%91&C#-(@#-:/*#%*#
1&-/7+&#'-+9-%9*(/#9(#8+-9(#/%+72%7+&/#%*#2*1<-+&#<*<7:-%9*(/3##D:*(,/9@&#%6&/&#@&'&:*<1&(%/C#
%6&# A9&:@# *A# </"269-%+"# 6-/# 9(2+&-/9(,:"# /*7,6%# -A%&+# -(@# <7%# A*+%6# 89*:*,92-:# &=<:-(-%9*(/# A*+#
</"269-%+92#@9/*+@&+/3##E9%6#%6&#9(A:7&(2&#*A#89::9*(/#*A#-@'&+%9/9(,#@*::-+/#A+*1#<6-+1-2&7%92-:#
2*1<-(9&/CF#these theories have been simplified and sold to laypeople in the form of “mental 9::(&//#9/#2-7/&@#8"#-#chemical imbalance in the brain.”G###
H*+# /*1&*(&# B6*# 9/# (&B:"# @9-,(*/&@# B9%6# -# 1-I*+# </"269-%+92# @9/*+@&+C# /726# -(#
&=<:-(-%9*(# 2-(# <+*'9@&# +&:9&A3# # J%# *AA&+/# -# +&-/*(# A*+# &=%+&1&# 8&6-'9*+# %6-%# /K6&# 1-"# A9(@#
/6-1&A7:#*+#8&B9:@&+9(,C#-(@#9%#-//7+&/#A-19:"#1&18&+/#%6-%#%6&"#-+&#(*%#-%#A-7:%3##!:-19(,#%6&#
8+-9(#-:/*#@9/2+&@9%/#%6&#/&:AL@&(9,+-%9(,#(*%9*(#%6-%# one’s 9(-89:9%"#%*#2*<&#B9%6# </"26*:*,92-:#
<+*8:&1/#9/#2*((&2%&@#%*#B&-;(&//#*A#26-+-2%&+3###
M&%# %6&+&# -+&# /&+9*7/# +&<&+27//9*(/# A*+# &(@*+/9(,# %6&/&# %6&*+9&/3# # N&*<:&# B6*# 8&:9&'&#
%6-%# 26&192-:# 918-:-(2&/# 7(@&+:9&# </"269-%+92# @9/*+@&+/# -+&# :9;&:"# %*# 8&:9&'&# %6-%# 1&@92-%9*(#
must# 8&# 7/&@# -/# -# 2*++&2%9'&# 1&-/7+&C# *A%&(# A*+# :9A&3# # 56&"# -+&# -:/*# :9;&:"# %*# *'&+:**;# %6&#
2-7/-%9'&# 9(A:7&(2&# *A# /*29*L27:%7+-:# A-2%*+/# -(@# 69/%*+9&/# *A# %+-71-# -(@# -87/&3# # ?'&(# B6&(#
%6&*+9/%/# @*# -2;(*B:&@,&# %6-%# &('9+*(1&(%-:# /%+&//*+/# <:-"# -# +*:&# 9(# %6&# @&'&:*<1&(%# *A#
psychiatric disorders, they often refer to them as “triggers” of the underlying biological <+*8:&13##J(#*%6&+#B*+@/C#%6&#<+*8:&1#/%9::#*+9,9(-%&/#A+*1#-(@#+&1-9(/#within#%6&#@9-,(*/&@#
<&+/*(3##H9(-::"C#-22*+@9(,#%*#-#+&2&(%#/%7@"CO#-//*29-%9(,#</"269-%+92#@9/*+@&+/#B9%6#A-7:%"#8+-9(#
26&19/%+"#-2%7-::"#increases#public stigma: “!9*,&(&%92#2-7/-:#8&:9&A/#-(@#@9-,(*/%92#:-8&:9(,#8"#
%6&#<78:92#-+&#<*/9%9'&:"#+&:-%&@#%*#<+&I7@92&C#A&-+#-(@#@&/9+&#A*+#@9/%-(2&3”#
>(@&+:"9(,# %6&# @&8-%&# *A# B6&%6&+# 8+-9(L8-/&@# %6&*+9&/# -+&# 6&:<A7:# *+# 6-+1A7:# -+&# A-+#
1*+&# 91<*+%-(%# P7&/%9*(/# %*# -/;Q# # D+&# %6&/&# %6&*+9&/# &'&(# %+7&R# # D+&# </"269-%+92# @9/*+@&+/#
2-7/&@#8"#8+-9(#@9/&-/&/#-(@#26&192-:#918-:-(2&/R##D(@#9A#%6&"#-+&C#2-(#%6&#8+-9(#26-(,&C#6&-:C#
-(@#,+*B#*7%#*A#%6&1R###
D(/B&+/#%*#%6&/&#P7&/%9*(/#@&&<:"#9(A:7&(2&#B6&%6&+#B*+;&+/#–#&/<&29-::"#</"269-%+9/%/#
-(@#1&@92-::"L*+9&(%&@#<+*A&//9*(-:/#–#8&:9&'&#%6-%#<&*<:&#B9%6#@9-,(*/&/#2-(#1-;&#2*1<:&%&#
+&2*'&+9&/C#-(@#%6&"#&P7-::"#9(A:7&(2&#%6&#6*<&/#-(@#-/<9+-%9*(/#*A#<&*<:&#B6*#-+&#@9-,(*/&@3##
S*B&'&+C#-/#-#:-"<&+/*(C#9%#2-(#8&#&=%+&1&:"#@9AA927:%#%*#9('&/%9,-%&#/726#1-%&+9-:3##)*/%#<&*<:&#
-+&# (*%#&@72-%&@# 9(# %6&# (&7+*/29&(2&/C#(*+# @*# %6&"# 6-'&# %6&# B9::# *+# +&/*7+2&/#%*# &=<:*+&#%6&#
'-/%#+&/&-+26#:9%&+-%7+&#%6-%#9(A*+1/#</"269-%+92#<+-2%92&3##H7+%6&+1*+&C#/9(2&#/29&(2&#9/#&P7-%&@#
B9%6# %+7%6# 9(# E&/%&+(# /*29&%"C# -(@# /9(2&# @*2%*+/# -+&# &P7-%&@# B9%6# /29&(2&C# 1-("# <&*<:&# -+&#
2*(@9%9*(&@# %*# &(%+7/%# </"269-%+9/%/# B9%6# <+*'9@9(,# -227+-%&# -(@# %&/%&@# 9(A*+1-%9*(3# # 567/C#
P7&/%9*(9(,# 1&@92-:# B9/@*1# 9/# /*1&B6-%# @&'9-(%C# -(@# -%%&1<%/# -%# 26-::&(,9(,# </"269-%+92#
%6&*+9&/# 1-"# 8&# P79&%&@# 8"# /&:AL8&:9%%:&1&(%# –# “What do I# know?” –# *+# +&I&2%9*(# A+*1# /*29-:#
,+*7</#B6*#&(@*+/&#%6&#@*19(-(%#<-+-@9,1#–#“Doctor knows best3”#
M&%# -/# %6&# 2*(/71&+K/7+'9'*+K&=L<-%9&(%# 1*'&1&(%# 9(2+&-/9(,:"# @&1-(@/# %6-%# 1&(%-:#
6&-:%6#B*+;&+/# <&+2&9'&#2:9&(%/#-/#6-+8*+9(,#7(%-<<&@#<*%&(%9-:C#/*#17/%#B*+;&+/#-(@#2:9&(%/#
1-;&#&AA*+%/#%*#+&L&=-19(&#%6&9+#-//71<%9*(/#-8*7%#%6&#8+-9(3############
#
II. A New Science, A New Brain 5+-@9%9*(-::"C#%6&#-@7:%#8+-9(#B-/#2*(/9@&+&@#+&:-%9'&:"#6-+@LB9+&@#-(@#A9=&@C#-#<+*,(*/9/#
%6-%# :*B&+&@# &=<&2%-%9*(/# -8*7%# %6&# <*//989:9%"# *A# 27+9(,# %6&# -::&,&@# 8+-9(# <+*8:&1/# %6-%#
7(@&+:9&#</"269-%+92#@9/*+@&+/3##567/C#9(#%6&#1&@92-:#B*+:@C#/269T*<6+&(9-#-(@#89<*:-+#@9/*+@&+#
6-'&# 8&&(# 2*(2&<%7-:9T&@# -/# :9A&L:*(,C# 9(27+-8:&# 8+-9(# <-%6*:*,9&/# %6-%# -# <&+/*(# 2-(# :&-+(# %*#
1-(-,&C# 87%# (&'&+# 2*1<:&%&:"# +&/*:'&3# # S*B&'&+C# %6&/&# 6"<*%6&/&/# 6-'&# -:B-"/# 8&&(#
<+*8:&1-%92C# A*+# :*(,9%7@9(-:# /%7@9&/# 6-'&# @&1*(/%+-%&@# -,-9(# -(@# -,-9(# %6-%# -# /9,(9A92-(%#
-1*7(%#*A#<&*<:&#@9-,(*/&@#B9%6#/269T*<6+&(9-#2*1<:&%&:"#&1&+,&#A+*1#</"269-%+92#/"1<%*1/#
-(@#(*#:*(,&+#7/&#1&@92-%9*(/3U##56&/&#9(@9'9@7-:/#<*/&#%69/#26-::&(,&#%*#(&7+*89*:*,"Q##9A#%6&9+#
<+&'9*7/#/"1<%*1/#B&+&#9(#A-2%#@7&#%*#-#8+*;&(#8+-9(C#-+&#%6&9+#8+-9(/#(*B#A9=&@R#
56&# /91<:&# -(/B&+# 9/# "&/C# -(@# -# (&B# -+&-# *A# /29&(2&# 9/# &=<:-9(9(,# 6*B# -(@# B6"3# # .J%#
/6*7:@#8&#(*%&@#%6-%#/29&(%9/%/#2*7:@#*8%-9(#-#B&-:%6#*A#9(A*+1-%9*(#A+*1#2*1<-+9(,#N?5# -(@#
A)VJ# /2-(/# *A# <&*<:&# B6*# 6-'&# 2*1<:&%&:"# +&2*'&+&@# B9%6# <&*<:&# B6*# -+&# /%9::# &=<&+9&(29(,#
/919:-+#</"269-%+92#/"1<%*1/C#87%#%6-%#1*+&#+&/&-+26#9/#(&&@&@43##569/#-+&-#*A#/29&(2&#9/#2-::&@#
(&7+*<:-/%929%"C# -(@# 9%/# A9(@9(,/# -+&# +-<9@:"# +&'&+/9(,# *:@# 1"%6/# -8*7%# %6&# <*%&(%9-:9%"# *A# %6&#
8+-9(3#
Neuroplasticity basically refers to the brain’s (-%7+-:#-89:9%"#-2+*//#%6&#:9A&/<-(#%*#A*+1#
(&B#2*((&2%9*(/#-(@#26-(,&#9%/#/%+72%7+&#9(#+&/<*(/&#%*#&=<&+9&(2&3##569/#1&-(/#%6&#8+-9(#2-(#
26-(,&#9%/&:A#<6"/92-::"#-(@#A7(2%9*(-::"#-%#-("#-,&#%*#2*1<&(/-%&#A*+#9(I7+"#-(@#@9/&-/&#-(@#%*#
-@-<%# %*# (&B# /9%7-%9*(/# *+# 26-(,&/# 9(# %6&# &('9+*(1&(%3# # E6&+&-/# %6&# 8+-9(# B-/# *(2&#
2*(2&<%7-:9T&@#-/#-#1-269(&C#9%#2*7:@#(*B#8&#%6*7,6%#*A#-/#1*+&#:9;&#2:-"C#8*%6#1-::&-8:&#-(@#
'7:(&+-8:&#%*B-+@/#<*/9%9'&#-(@#(&,-%9'&#9(A:7&(2&/3##WA#2*7+/&C#%6&+&#-+&#:919%/#%*#6*B#1726#
%6&# 8+-9(# 2-(# 26-(,&C# +&*+,-(9T&C# -(@# 6&-:C# 87%# %6&/&# :919%/# -+&# (*%# -/# 91<*/9(,# -/# 19,6%# 8&#
-//71&@3# # J(@&&@C# 6-+(&//9(,# %6&# <*B&+# *A# (&7+*<:-/%929%"C# <&*<:&# -+&# A7::"# +&2*'&+9(,# A+*1#
1-//9'&# /%+*;&/# -(@# *%6&+# 6&-@# %+-71-/C# *'&+2*19(,# :&-+(9(,# @9/-89:9%9&/# %*# :&-<# -6&-@# 9(#
+&-@9(,# :&'&:/# 9(# -# 1-%%&+# *A# 1*(%6/C# +&B9+9(,# *8/&//9'&L2*1<7:/9'&# 8&6-'9*+# *7%# *A# %6&9+#
8+-9(/C# &+-/9(,# %6&# <-9(# *A# <6-(%*1# :918/C# +&/%*+9(,# 1&1*+"# -279%"# -(@# 2*,(9%9'&# <+*2&//9(,#
@7+9(,#*:@#-,&C#:&-+(9(,#%*#/&&#B9%6*7%#&"&/9,6%C#/%+&(,%6&(9(,#17/2:&/#I7/%#8"#%69(;9(,#-8*7%#
%6&1C# 1&@9%-%9(,# %*# 2+&-%&# :-/%9(,# (&7+*:*,92-:# /%-%&/# %6-%# -+&# 2*(@729'&# %*# 2*1<-//9*(# -(@#
6-<<9(&//C#-(@#*(#-(@#*(3X#Y#
#
56&# 1&//-,&# 6&+&# 9/# %6-%# %6&# 8+-9(# 26-(,&/3# # 569/# 1&-(/# %6-%# 9%# 9/# 69,6:"# :9;&:"# %6-%#
B6-%&'&+# 89*:*,92-:# 2*++&:-%&/# 7(@&+:9&# 1-I*+# </"269-%+92# /"1<%*1/# 2-(# 26-(,&C# %**3# # H*+#
9(/%-(2&C#%+-71-#-(@#26+*(92#/%+&//#26-(,&#"*7+#8+-9(͵#87%#%6&#-+&-/#%6-%#-+&#-AA&2%&@#2-(#8&#
26-(,&@# 8-2;# *+# 2*1<&(/-%&@# A*+3# # )*+&# /<&29A92-::"C# %6&# -1",@-:-͵# 9('*:'&@# 9(# <+*2&//9(,#
&1*%9*(#-(@#-(=9&%"#-(@#/6*B(#%*#8&#-AA&2%&@#8"#%+-71-͵#2-(#A*+1#(&B#2*((&2%9*(/͵#9(2:7@9(,#
%*# %6&# <+&A+*(%-:# :*8&/# B6926# 6&:</# 9(# 2*(%+*::9(,# 91<7:/&/# -(@# &=&+29/9(,# +&/%+-9(%3Z# # [+-"#
1-%%&+͵#B6926#6-/#8&&(#/6*B(#%*#8&#:&//#'*:719(*7/#9(#<&*<:&#@9-,(*/&@#B9%6#/269T*<6+&(9-͵#
2-(# %692;&(3\# # $&+71# !]^H# .!+-9(L@&+9'&@# (&7+*%+*<69(# A-2%*+4͵# B6926# 6-/# 8&&(# /6*B(# %*# 8&#
:*B&+#9(#<&*<:&#@9-,(*/&@#B9%6#/269T*<6+&(9-͵#89<*:-+#@9/*+@&+͵#-(@#@&<+&//9*(͵#2-(#8&#+-9/&@3_##
56&# 69<<*2-1<7/͵# B6926# 9/# /6*B(# %*# 6-'&# /6+7(;# A*+# <&*<:&# @9-,(*/&@# B9%6# @&<+&//9*(# -(@#
N5$]͵#2-(#,+*B#8-2;F`#-(@#&'&(#<+*@72&#(&B#2&::/#A*+#%6&#+&/%#*A#%6&#8+-9(#%*#1-;&#7/&#*A3FF##
a&+%-9(:"͵# (&7+*%+-(/19//9*(# –# %6&# +&:&-/&# *A# /&+*%*(9(͵# @*<-19(&͵# # (*+&<9(&<6+9(&͵# &%23# %*#
-::*B# 2*117(92-%9*(# 8&%B&&(# 8+-9(# 2&::/# –# 9/# '-+9-8:&# -(@# 2-(# 8&# -:%&+&@# 8"# (-%7+-:# 1&-(/͵#
+-(,9(,#A+*1# /7(:9,6%# %*# %69(;9(,# <*/9%9'&:"3# # ?'&(# </"26*%6&+-<"# 2-(# /9,(9A92-(%:"# 26-(,&# %6&#
8+-9(3FG#
#
W(&# *A# %6&# %&(&%/# *A# (&7+*<:-/%929%"# 9/# %6-%# 9(# *+@&+# A*+# %6&# 8+-9(# %*# A*+1# (&B#
2*((&2%9*(/# -(@# 26-(,&C# 9%# 17/%# 8&# /%917:-%&@# %6+*7,6# -2%9'9%"3# # E6&%6&+# %69/# -2%9'9%"# 9/#
&=%&+(-:#–#/726#-/#<:-"9(,#-#<9-(*C#*+#9(%&+(-:#–#/726#-/#91-,9(9(,#"*7+#A9(,&+/#<:-"9(,#-#<9-(*#
/&P7&(2&C#-(#91<*+%-(%#A-2%*+#9(#@+9'9(,#:-/%9(,#8+-9(#26-(,&/#9/#%6-%#"*7#<-"#2:*/&#-%%&(%9*(#%*#
B6-%#"*7#-+&#@*9(,3##J(#A-2%C#<:-"9(,#-#<9-(*#-(@#I7/%#%69(;9(,#-8*7%#<:-"9(,#-#<9-(*#-AA&2%#%6&#
8+-9(# 9(# '9+%7-::"# %6&# /-1&# B-"C# -/# :*(,# -/# "*7# -+&# &(,-,&@3# # 56&# 91<*+%-(2&# *A# %69/# <*9(%#
2-((*%# 8&# 7(@&+/%-%&@Q# # 9A# %6*7,6%/# -(@# 91-,9(-%9*(# <6"/92-::"# 26-(,&# "*7+# 8+-9(C# "*7# 2-(#
%6&+&A*+&#7/&#"*7+#19(@#–#&/<&29-::"#%6+*7,6#A*27/&@#-%%&(%9*(#–#%*#<*/9%9'&:"#+&B9+&#9%3FO#
#
^*%#/7<+9/9(,:"C#%69/#%6&1&#*A#19(@#*'&+#1-%%&+#+7(/#9(#+&2*'&+"#/%*+9&/3##J(@&&@C#B69:&#
<&*<:&# B6*# +&2*'&+# *A%&(# 1&(%9*(# <+-2%92-:# -2%9'9%9&/#%6-%# 6&:<&@#%6&1# –# /726# -/#&-%9(,# B&::#
.B6926#2-(#&'&(#%7+(#,&(&/# *(#-(@#*AAFU4#-(@#&=&+29/9(,#.B6926#<+*@72&/#(&B#8+-9(#2&::/#-(@#
6-/# -(# -(%9L@&<+&//-(%# &AA&2%FX4# –# %6&"# -:/*# +&A&+# %*# %6&# 6&-:9(,# <*B&+# *A# 9(%-(,98:&#
&=<&+9&(2&/Q# # /<9+9%7-:9%"C# 6*<&C# 671-(# 2*((&2%9*(C# 6-'9(,# 1&-(9(,# -(@# <7+<*/&# 9(# :9A&C#
*<%919/1C# -(# 7(@"9(,# B9::C# -(@# -B-+&(&//3# # D(@# 9%# 9/# :9;&:"# %6-%# %6+*7,6# %6&# <*B&+# *A#
(&7+*<:-/%929%"C# 8*%6# %6&# <+-2%92-:# -2%9'9%9&/# -(@# %6&# 9(%-(,98:&# &=<&+9&(2&/# 26-(,&@# %6&9+#
8+-9(/3#
#
5*#A7+%6&+#9::7/%+-%&#%69/#<*9(%C#2*(/9@&+#%6&#&=<&+9&(2&#*A#/&:AL-B-+&(&//C#B6926#/&&1/#
%*#8&#<-+%927:-+:"#91<*+%-(%#A*+#<&*<:&#B6*#+&2*'&+3##$&:AL-B-+&(&//#+&A&+/#%*#%6&#-B-+&(&//#*A#
one’s# %6*7,6%/C# 8&6-'9*+/C# -(@# -2%9*(/C# -(@# 6*B# -::# *A# %6&/&# -+&# 9(%+92-%&:"# 2*((&2%&@# B9%6#
one’s# &('9+*(1&(%3# # 56*7,6# 9%# 9/# -(# 9(2+&@98:"# &1<*B&+9(,# -//&%# %6-%# 1*/%# 671-(# 8&9(,/# –#
@9-,(*/&@# *+# (*%# –# /%+7,,:&# %*# -269&'&C# <&*<:&# B6*# &=<&+9&(2&# &1*%9*(-:# -(@# </"26*:*,92-:#
%7+1*9:# 1-"# 8&# -%# -# 7(9P7&# -@'-(%-,&# %*# 1-/%&+# 9%C# A*+# %6&9+# /7+'9'-:# 1-"# @&<&(@# *(# %6&9+#
-89:9%"# %*# /&<-+-%&# A+*1# -(@# -(-:"T&# %6&# 2*(%&(%# *A# %6&9+# 19(@/3# # J(# -("# 2-/&C# /&:AL-B-+&(&//#
+&P79+&/#@&&<#-%%&(%9*(3##D(@#@&&<#-%%&(%9*(#%*#%6&#<+&/&(%#1*1&(%#2-+'&/#(&B#<-%6B-"/#9(#
%6&#8+-9(3FY##56&+&A*+&C#-#<&+/*(#B6*#&(,-,&/#9(#/&:AL-B-+&(&//#%&26(9P7&/#–#8&#9%#1&@9%-%9*(#
*+# -(*%6&+# A*+1# *A# (*(L2+9%92-:# *8/&+'-%9*(C# 9/# 2+&-%9(,# (&B# 8+-9(# /%-%&/# %6-%# *'&+%91&# 2-(#
+&<:-2&#*+#2*1<&(/-%&#A*+#%+*78:9(,#8+-9(#/%-%&/#&(%9+&:"3#
#
III. Changing Attitudes #
5-;&(# %*,&%6&+C# %6&# 91<:92-%9*(/# -(@# @9/2*'&+9&/# *A# (&7+*<:-/%929%"# 26-::&(,&# %6&#
%+-@9%9*(-:#A+-1&B*+;#A*+#7(@&+/%-(@9(,#%6&#+*:&#*A#%6&#8+-9(#9(#</"269-%+92#@9/*+@&+/3##E&#2-(#
(*#:*(,&+#<&+2&9'&#%6&#8+-9(#-/#-2%9(,#*(#9%/#*B(#<+&@&%&+19(&@#-22*+@#9(#-#'-2771#%*#2+&-%&#
&=<&+9&(2&/3# # J(/%&-@C# B&# /6*7:@# 2*(2&9'&# *A# %6&# 8+-9(# -/# A7(@-1&(%-::"# 9(/&<-+-8:&# A+*1#
&=<&+9&(2&C# /*# %6-%# B6-%&'&+# 6-<<&(/# %*# /*1&*(&# 8*%6# &=%&+(-::"# -(@# 9(%&+(-::"# 6-/# %6&#
<*%&(%9-:#%*#/9,(9A92-(%:"#-:%&+#%6&9+#8+-9(3##569/#1&-(/#%6-%#<&*<:&#B6*#+&2*'&+#2-(#8&#%6*7,6%#
*A# -/# 6-'9(,# :9;&:"# 26-(,&@# %6&9+# 8+-9(# 26&19/%+"# -(@# A7(2%9*(9(,C# %67/# -::*B9(,# A*+# %6&#
<*//989:9%"#%6-%#%6&#A-7:%"#89*:*,"#-::&,&@:"#8&69(@#1-I*+#</"269-%+92#@9/*+@&+/#9/#+&'&+/98:&3## J(#
%69/# +&,-+@C# 1&(%-:# 6&-:%6# B*+;&+/# /6*7:@# /&+9*7/:"# 2*(/9@&+# &:919(-%9(,# %-:;# -8*7%#
/269T*<6+&(9-#-(@#89<*:-+#@9/*+@&+#-/#9(27+-8:&#-(@#:9A&L:*(,3##
#
J(#A-2%C#%here are so many problems with making the simple statement, “Mental illness is caused by a chemical imbalance in the brain,” that it should perhaps be discontinued -:%*,&%6&+3# # ?'9@&(2&# %6-%# @9AA&+&(%# /%+72%7+&/# -(@# A7(2%9*(/# *A# %6&# 8+-9(# -+&# <-%6*:*,92-:# 9(#
</"269-%+92# @9/*+@&+/# 9/# /%9::# 69,6:"# 2*(%&(%9*7/b# 9%# 9/# -:/*# B&::# 8&"*(@# %6&# /2*<&# *A# %69/# <-<&+3##
S*B&'&+C# ,9'&(# %6&# A-+L+&-269(,# 9(A:7&(2&# *A# <6-+1-2&7%92-:# 2*1<-(9&/# B6*# 6-'&# -# A9(-(29-:#
9(%&+&/%#9(#<+*1*%9(,#89*:*,92-:#%6&*+9&/#–#-A%&+#-::C#%6&9+#1&@92-%9*(/#-+&#<+91-+9:"#I7/%9A9&@#8"#
the claim that they “fix” biological problems –# 9%# 9/# :9;&:"# %6-%# +&@72%9*(9/%# /%-%&1&(%/# *A# %6&#
8+-9(# B9::# 2*(%9(7&# %*# <+&'-9:3# # 56&+&A*+&C# B&# /6*7:@# -1&(@# %6&/&# /%-%&1&(%/3# # S&+&# 9/# -(#
&=-1<:&# *A# B6-%# -# B*+;&+# 2*7:@# %&::# -# 2:9&(%: “M*7+# 8+-9(# 26-(,&/# 9(# +&/<*(/&# %*# %6&#
&=<&+9&(2&/# "*7# 6-'&3# # ?'&(# %6*7,6# </"269-%+92# @9/*+@&+/# /6*B# 7<# *(# %6&# 89*:*,92-:# :&'&:# -/#
@9AA&+&(2&/#9(#%6&#8+-9(’s functioningC#"*7+#8+-9(#9/#(*%#/&%#9(#/%*(&3##J(#A-2%C#you#2-(#26-(,&#9%C#
%6*7,6#9%#B9::#%-;&#%91&#-(@#&AA*+%3##56&+&#9/#1726#+&-/*(#%*#8&#6*<&A7:3”###
#
V&2*'&+"#-(@#6*<&#,*#6-(@L9(L6-(@C#"&%#%6&+&#9/#(*%69(,#1*+&#6*<&:&//#%6-(#8&:9&'9(,#
"*7+# 8+-9(# B9::# A*+&'&+# 1-:A7(2%9*(# B9%6*7%# 1&@92-%9*(3# # 56&+&# 9/# -:/*# 6-+@:"# -# 1*+&#
19/9(A*+1&@# @&2:-+-%9*(# -8*7%# %6&# 8+-9(# 9(# :9,6%# *A# +&2&(%# /29&(2&C# -(@# &/<&29-::"# B6&(#
2*(/9@&+9(,#%6&#17:%9%7@&/#*A#<&*<:&#B6*#6-'&#2*1<:&%&:"#+&2*'&+&@3###
#
JA# 1&(%-:# 6&-:%6# B*+;&+/# 2-(# @&+9'&# A+*1# (&7+*<:-/%929%"# %6-%# 2*1<:&%&# +&2*'&+"# 9/# -#
<*//989:9%"#,9'&(#%6&#+9,6%#&:&1&(%/C#%6&(#%6&"#B9::#<&+6-</#6*:@#%6&1/&:'&/#1*+&#-22*7(%-8:&#
A*+# %6&# *7%2*1&/# *A# %6&9+# /&+'92&/C# -/# *<<*/&@# %*# I7/%9A"9(,# <**+# *7%2*1&/# 8"# @9/19//9(,# *+#
/78%:"#9,(*+9(,#/*1&#<&*<:&#-/#26+*(92#-(@#6*<&:&//3## J(#%69/#B-"C#+&%69(;9(,#%6&#<*%&(%9-:#*A#
%6&#8+-9(#9(#1-I*+#</"269-%+92#@9/*+@&+/#91<+*'&/#%6&#&AA92-2"#*A#1&(%-:#6&-:%6#/&+'92&/C#+&'9'&/#
%6&#&(&+,"#-(@#*<%919/1#*A#B*+;&+/C#-(@#7:%91-%&:"#+&/%*+&/#6*<&#%*#%6&#19::9*(/#*A#@9-,(*/&@#
9(@9'9@7-:/#B6*#27++&(%:"#/&&#(*#B-"#*7%3#
References ###########################################################
F
#[-,(*(#)DC#c&=269(#d3#56&#a*/%#*A#N7/69(,#N9::/Q#D#^&B#?/%91-%&#*A#N6-+1-2&7%92-:#N+*1*%9*(#?=<&(@9%7+&/#9(#
%6&#>(9%&@#$%-%&/3#Nc*$#)&@#X.F4Q#&F#@*9QF`3FOZFKI*7+(-:3<1&@3``X```FC#G``\#
#
G
#c&*#dC#c-2-//&#dV3#56&#)&@9-#-(@#%6&#a6&192-:#J18-:-(2&#56&*+"#*A#]&<+&//9*(3#$*29&%"#UX.F4QOXLUXC#H&8#G``\3###
#
O
#V&-@#dC#S-/:-1#^C#$-"2&#cC#]-'9&/#?3#N+&I7@92&#and schizophrenia: a review of the ‘mental illness is#-(#9::(&//#:9;&#
any other’ approach. Acta Psychiatr Scand 114(5):303LF\C#^*'#G``Y3###
#
U
#]-'9@/*(#c͵#S-+@9(,#a͵#$<-(9*:#c͵#.?@/343#Recovery from severe mental illness: Research evidence and implications for practice. !*/%*(C#)DQ#a&(%&+#A*+#N/"269-%+92 V&6-89:9%-%9*(͵#!*/%*(#>(9'&+/9%"C#G``X3#
#
X
#]*9@,&C#^*+1-(3#The Brain that Changes Itself: Stories of Personal Triumph from the Frontiers of Brain Science.#
e9;9(,#D@7:%C#G``Z3#
##
Y
#!&,:&"C#$6-+*(3#Train Your Mind, Change Your Brain: How a New Science Reveals Our Extraordinary Potential to Transform Ourselves3#!-::-(%9(&#!**;/C#G``Z3#
##
Z
#!&+(9&+#NdC#!&@-+@#DC#e9(&%# dC#c&'&/P7&#)C#N-+&(%# D3##^&B:"#,&(&+-%&@#(&7+*(/#9(#%6&#-1",@-:-#-(@#-@I*9(9(,#
2*+%&=#*A#-@7:%#<+91-%&/3#N+*2#^-%:#D2-@#$29#>$D#__.FZ4QFFUYUL_C#?<78#G``G#D7,#FG3#
#
\
#]+-,-(/;9#!C#[-/&+#aC#!7/26#eC#$2679&+&+#[C#!*,@-6(#>C#)-"#D3#^&7+*<:-/%929%"Q#26-(,&/# 9(#,+&"#1-%%&+#9(@72&@#
8"#%+-9(9(,3#^-%7+&#UGZ.Y_ZG4QOFFLOFGC#d-(#G``U3##
#
_
# )&+T&(926C# )3# !+-9(# <:-/%929%"Lbased “cognitive training” elevates BDNF. Message posted to 6%%<QKK1&+T&(9263<*/9%/29&(2&32*1KG``ZK`UK`XK8+-9(L<:-/%929%"L8-/&@L2*,(9%9'&L%+-9(9(,L&:&'-%&/L8@(AKC#D<+#G``Z3#
#
F`
# !+&1(&+# d]C# ?:T9(,-# !C# $261-6:# aC# e&+1&%%&(# ?3# $%+72%7+-:# -(@# A7(2%9*(-:# <:-/%929%"# *A# %6&# 671-(# 8+-9(# 9(#
<*/%%+-71-%92#/%+&//#@9/*+@&+3#N+*,#!+-9(#V&/#FYZQFZFL\YC#G``\3#
#
FF
#[*7:@#?C#[+-T9-(*#)$DC#[+*//#aC#V&&'&/#Dd3#^&7+*,&(&/9/#9(#%6&#^&*2*+%&=#*A#D@7:%#N+91-%&/3#$29&(2&#G\YQXU\–
XXGC#F___3#
#
###########################################################################################################################################################################################
FG
#!9&:9(,#NC#[*:@-<<:&#fC#[-+/*(#aC#f&((&@"#$C#c-7#)C#)-"8&+,#SC#$&,-:#g3#)*@7:-%9*(#*A#a*+%92-:Lc91892#N-%6B-"/#
9(#)-I*+#]&<+&//9*(Q#5+&-%1&(%L$<&29A92#?AA&2%/#*A#a*,(9%9'&#!&6-'9*+#56&+-<"3#D+26#[&(#N/"269-%+" YFQOULUFC#d-(#
G``U3#
#
FO
# $26B-+%TC# d&AA+&"# )C# !&,:&"C# $6-+*(3# The Mind and the Brain: Neuroplasticity and the Power of Mental Force3#
^&B#M*+;C#^MQ#S-+<&+#N&+&((9-:C#G``O3#
#
FU
#a6-::&1#d3#Feed Your Genes Right3#S*8*;&(C#^dQ#d*6(#E9:&"C#G``X3#
#
FX
# !Ih+(&8&;;# DC# )-%6i# DDC# -(@# !+&(i# $3# 56&# -(%9@&<+&//-(%# &AA&2%# *A# +7((9(,# 9/# -//*29-%&@# B9%6# 9(2+&-/&@#
69<<*2-1<-:#2&::#<+*:9A&+-%9*(3#J(%&+(-%9*(-:#d*7+(-:#*A#^&7+*</"26*<6-+1-2*:*,"#\QOXZ–OY\C#G``X3#
#
FY
#$9&,&:C#]d3#)9(@A7:(&//#%+-9(9(,#-(@#(&7+-:#9(%&,+-%9*(Q#@9AA&+&(%9-%9*(#*A#@9/%9(2%#/%+&-1/#*A#-B-+&(&//#-(@#%6&#
27:%9'-%9*(#*A#B&::L8&9(,3#$*29-:#a*,(9%9'&#-(@#DAA&2%9'&#^&7+*/29&(2&#G.U4QGX_LGYOC#G``Z3#