Targeting the NP – Week 12 – Relative clauses
Relative clauses identify or give information about someone or something in the main clause.
They are introduced by relative pronouns, such as that, which or who:
Garibaldi was the statesman who united Italy in the nineteenth century.
The relative pronoun is the subject or object of the relative clause, so we don't repeat the noun
from the main clause or introduce a personal pronoun to replace it:
* Garibaldi was the statesman who he united Italy in the nineteenth century.
Relative pronouns link a postmodifying clause to a preceding NP. The choice of the right
pronoun depends on a combination of three factors.
- whether the pronoun stands for a personal or non-personal noun
- whether the relative pronoun is the subject or object of its clause:
Last week I saw that film which won all the Oscars. (subject)
Last week I saw the film which you made at college. (object)
- whether the relative clause is defining or non-defining.
To make the meaning clear, we usually put the relative clause as close as possible to the noun
phrase it refers to: You can buy this dish, which is made from organic wheat, from your local
supermarket.
Defining (restrictive) relative clauses
A defining relative clause identifies or classifies a noun or pronoun in the main clause.
- identifying: Is this the book that you were looking for?
- classifying: Would all those who have booked dinner please go into the restaurant?
The defining relative clause gives information which is necessary to define the preceding NP.
We often use these clauses to describe an important quality of someone or something: Van
Gogh was an artist who used a lot of bold, vibrant colours.
In defining relative clauses we can omit the relative pronoun when it is the object of the
relative clause, but NOT when it is the subject: I saw the film you made at college.
In American English that is more common than which or who in defining relative clauses.
Non-defining (nonrestrictive) relative clauses
A non-defining relative clause gives extra information about an NP in the main clause (or
about the whole clause), but it doesn't define or classify; the main clause still makes sense
without it:
- Napoleon Bonaparte was France's greatest military leader.
+ EXTRA INFORMATION Napoleon Bonaparte was born in Corsica.
 Napoleon Bonaparte, who was born in Corsica, was France's greatest military leader.
- Napoleon lost the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.
+ EXTRA INFORMATION The fact that he lost the battle led to his exile.
 Napoleon lost the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, which led to his exile.
We can also use non-defining relative clauses to show consecutive actions:
Heskey passed the ball to Owen, who scored a magnificent goal.
We always use a relative pronoun, e.g. which, who, to introduce non-defining relative clauses:
Last year's winner presented the cup, which each holder keeps for the year.
However, we don't use that in the same way: *This offer, that will not be repeated, must end
next week.
Defining or non-defining relative clause?
Compare: - DEFINING: The natives who traded with the settlers retained their land.
This answers the question 'Which natives retained their land?' The answer is `the ones who
traded with the settlers'. It identifies or defines particular natives and this means that some of
the natives probably didn't trade with the settlers and therefore lost their land.
- NON-DEFINING: The natives, who traded with the settlers, retained their land.
This sentence means 'The natives retained their land.' It doesn't identify particular natives, so
it means that all the natives retained their land.
In written English the use of commas shows these differences.
- In non-defining clauses we use a comma to separate the relative clause from the rest of the
sentence.
- In defining relative clauses we don't use commas at all.
Pronunciation
In defining relative clauses, there is no pause between the main clause and the relative clause:
We asked for the lovely double room which had a sea view.
Although we don't often use non-defining relative clauses in speech, when we do there is
usually a falling intonation at the end of the main clause:
We asked for the lovely double room (
), which had a sea view.
To sum it up:
- defining clauses follow words of imprecise or general meaning which need further
definition
- are essential parts of a sentence, which makes incomplete sense without them
- can be used with that
- are not used with commas
- are spoken without a pause or tone change
- are as common in informal as in formal English
- non-defining clauses follow words of precise meaning which need no further definition
- are additions to a sentence
- cannot be used with that
- are between commas or a comma and a full stop
- are spoken after a pause and with a tone change
- are less common in informal than in formal English
Comment clauses
We can add a non-defining relative clause to the end of a sentence to make a comment about
the information (not the noun) in the main clause. Unlike most non-defining relative clauses,
comment clauses are common in spoken English.
FACT Winston Churchill lost the 1945 election. COMMENT People didn't expect this.
 Winston Churchill lost the 1945 election, which was rather unexpected.
We use which, NOT who, whose, that or it to introduce a comment clause within a sentence:
Harold never phones before visiting, which is annoying.
In writing we always put a comma before which, and in speech there is usually a falling
intonation at the end of the main clause.
Relative pronouns
Pronouns Used for
who
people, animals
whom
people
which
objects, animals
that
people, objects, animals
whose
relationships, possessions
zero
people, objects, animals
Subject
✔
X
✔
✔
✔
X
Object
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
Defining
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
Non-defining
✔
✔
✔
X
✔
X
NB: - We can use who to refer to animals when they are known individuals, e.g. domestic
pets: Is Sheba the cat who was run over and nearly killed last year?
- whom is formal and we rarely use it in speech. We now mainly use whom after prepositions
- We always use which (not who) to refer to inanimate objects.
- In spoken English we can use that or who to refer to people.
- that is used after all and other indefinite pronouns, and superlatives: All that glitters is not
gold. I’ll do anything (that) I can. That was the nicest thing that ever happened to me.
ACADEMIC ENGLISH
In formal and academic English we use which rather than that in defining relative clauses:
This report is based on the survey which was conducted by Shering and Beecham.
We can also use whose to refer to inanimate objects:
It would only be possible to colonise planets whose atmosphere contained enough oxygen to
sustain human life. (= the atmosphere of which)
Relative clauses with prepositions
We can use prepositions with relative pronouns. Their position depends on formality:
INFORMAL/NEUTRAL
FORMAL
My grandparents lived in My grandparents didn't own the Our clients, Mr and Mrs
the house but they didn't house (which/that) they lived in. Thompson, did not own the
own it.
house in which they lived.
I'd like some information Do you have any information The insurance claim to
about an insurance claim. I about the insurance claim which you referred does not
referred to it in an email. (that/which) I referred to in my appear to be in our records.
email?
NB: -We do not put a preposition before the relative pronoun that:
*They didn't own the house in that they lived.
- If we put a preposition before who, the pronoun always becomes whom:
The patients, among whom there were several immigrants, had to undergo a series of tests.
Compare:
The people who this report is addressed to will have to consider its proposals carefully.
The people to whom this report is addressed will have to consider its proposals carefully.
Relative clauses with where, when, and why
We can use these adverbs to introduce or replace relative clauses about places, times, etc.
ADVERB USE IN RELATIVE EXAMPLES
CLAUSES
where
Instead of which/that + The house that Dickens The
house
where
a preposition to describe wrote his later novels in is Dickens wrote his later
places
now a school.
novels is now a school.
This is the line on which This is the line where
you sign your name
you sign your name
when
instead of that or on I remember - it was the I remember - it was the
which to describe times, day that/on which the day when the heatwave
days, years, etc.
heatwave started.
started.
why
instead of for + which
High taxation is often the High taxation is often
main reason for which (the main reason) why
governments fall.
governments fall.
In informal English we also use where with the meaning ‘in which’ to describe a situation:
Have you seen the episode where the Hoppers' farm is destroyed in a fire?
I once saw an accident on the motorway where three people ended up going to hospital.
It is possible to use where, when and why without the noun to which they refer:
It's (the place) where that music festival is held every year.
I can't remember (the time) when I got home last night.
She's hyperactive. That's (the reason) why she can't concentrate.
We don't include a preposition in when or where clauses:
*That's the house where I grew up in.
whichever, whenever, etc.
In defining relative clauses we can modify the pronoun or adverb with -ever to give the
meaning of anything, anyone, anywhere, etc.
Use whichever phone you want — they all have outside lines. (= any phone that)
Invite whoever you like to the party. (= any person who)
You can put the photo wherever you think it looks best. I don't mind. (= in any place where)