Techniques of Persuasion & Fallacies
The ability to analyze and evaluate arguments is probably the most valuable life skill students can learn in school. When
making your own arguments, the first thing to do is to decide who the intended audience is and the purpose of the writer or
speaker. The BEST arguments rely on all three of the following classical strategies:
1. Logos – Logical appeal – appeals to the intellect; reasoning ability of audience. Logos appeals usually lack emotion.
Logical reasoning relies on:
A.
Facts as evidence
B.
Research
C.
Tradition (precedent)
D.
Authorities
E.
F.
G.
Cause/effect
Analogies
Effective metaphors
Examples:
o The American Dental Association says that 45% of Americans don’t floss.
o Plants absorb carbon dioxide and emit oxygen.
Logical Fallacies:
 Hasty generalization: coming to a conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence.
Example: I met some children from Garton yesterday, who were very polite. I think all children from
that area must be well-behaved.
 Non Sequitur: the claims, reasons, etc, fail to connect logically
Ex.: 1. The solution to this dilemma (problem) is obvious (easy).
2. Only experts have sufficient knowledge to assess the solution to this dilemma.
 Faulty analogy: inaccurate or inconsequential comparisons between two objects or concepts
Ex.: “Employees are like nails. Just as nails must be hit in the head in order to make them work, so
must employees.”
 Faulty causality: the false assumption that because one event or action follows another, the first necessarily
causes the second
Ex.: Bill bleached his hair blonde last week, and this week three other guys at the same school did the
same; therefore the latter all changed their hair color because Bill did.
 Begging the question: assuming as true the claim that is disputed; circular reasoning
Ex.: You can’t give me a C; I’m an A student.
 Equivocation: using deceptive language (semantics) to give the appearance of truth
Ex.: I gave you everything I had to give you (right then and there when you asked me, but not of
course everything I could have given you if I took into account what I maintain elsewhere).
2. Pathos – Emotional Appeal – passion stirs most people. A wise writer will use a relaxed tone and appeals to the basic
needs of all people; physical, psychological, and social
Strategies used by writers:
A. Connotative diction, imagery, and metaphors
B.
Appeal to pity, compassion
C. Carefully crafted syntax (sentence structure) such as parallelism, repetition, etc.
Examples:
 The evils of slaughter houses cause some Americans to become vegetarians.
 For the price of a cup of coffee, you can make sure a child is vaccinated.
Emotional Fallacies:
 Scare tactics: Using exaggerated threats or dangers to influence
Ex.: Because of the possibility of poisoning of Halloween candy by some people who give it out to
trick-or-treaters, communities should ban trick-or-treating.
 Either-Or Choice: Simplifying arguments by reducing the options to two choices, one of which is made to
seem vastly superior to another
Ex.: Either you support the President in everything he says and does or you are not a patriotic
American.



Slippery Slope: today’s small problem is presented as a possible catastrophe tomorrow; often these are also
scare tactics.
Ex.: If you restrict my right to say whatever I want, anywhere I want, however I want, this is the
beginning of totalitarianism (tyranny) in America.
Sentimental appeals: arguments that use emotions excessively to distract readers from facts
Ex.: That boy scout troop made an old lady’s day by visiting and entertaining her in her nursing home;
we should give generously to the boy scouts as a result.
Bandwagon appeals: arguments that urge people to follow the same path everyone else is taking
Ex.: Everyone else is displaying a flag, or a support our troops sticker on their car; therefore, you
should too.
3. Ethos – Ethical Appeal – the writer or speaker establishes credibility with the audience. They try to present
themselves as people very much like the audience (or how the audience would like to be perceived) and/or a reliable,
reasonable person.
Strategies used by writer:
A.
Make qualified claims (perhaps, some, many; notes exceptions)
B.
Relates opposing view(s) accurately and fairly
C.
Associates self with relevant authorities; makes relevant allusions
D.
Uses first person plural pronouns – “we”, “us” to establish a relationship between the writer and audience
Examples:
 “Together we stand, or divided we fall.”
 “We as Americans need to do what’s necessary to make a bright future for our kids,” said George Bush, Sr.
Ethical Fallacies:
A. Appeals to false authorities: a claim is made based on the expertise of someone (sometimes themselves) who lacks
proper credentials
Ex.: Britney Spears says that President Obama has got a great plan for the economy, and so therefore I am
supporting him because I trust what she has to say.
B. Dogmatism: asserting or assuming that a particular position is the only one conceivable acceptable
Ex.: There’s no way that anyone can argue that abortion is anything other than murder.
C. Moral Equivalence: suggesting that serious wrongdoing does not differ in kind from minor offenses
Ex.: If governments are going to impose restrictions on smoking for health reasons then they must impose the
same restrictions on drinking and eating of fatty foods.
D. Ad Hominem arguments: are attacks directed at the person rather than the claims he or she make
Ex.: Here’s what I think about what you have written: anyone who opposes the death penalty for murder is a
criminal at heart.
Rhetorical Devices used in persuasion:
A. Repetition
B. Allusion
C. Rhetorical questions
D. Parallelism