Ghent University
Faculty of Arts and Philosophy
It’s a man’s world:
An analysis of gender and sexuality in J.R.R. Tolkien’s The
Lord of the Rings
Supervisor:
Paper
submitted
in
partial
Prof. Dr. Demoor
fulfilment of the requirements for
the degree of “master in de Taalen Letterkunde: Engels-Duits” by
Stephanie Bogaert
2014-2015
Acknowledgements
I would like to use this opportunity to thank the people who have always stood by me during
the process of writing this thesis, and also to comment briefly on what drove me to write
about The Lord of the Rings.
I was about nine years old when I first came into the possession of one of Tolkien’s
works. I had begged Father Christmas (now better known as my grandmother) to give me the
first instalment of The Lord of the Rings trilogy. So it happened that my grandmother bought
The Fellowship of the Ring, put it under her Christmas tree, and gave me a Christmas present
that would forever change my life. I never would have thought back then that I would be
writing both my bachelorpaper and my thesis on these wonderful books. However, I have to
admit that I never managed to read through the whole book at such a young age. It was only
later, during high school, that I picked the book up again and was immediately lost in
Tolkien’s wondrous world. For that life-changing gift I will always be thankful.
My journey towards this thesis subject has not been an easy one. I already wrote my
bachelorpaper about the representation of women in The Lord of the Rings. However, when I
had to decide on a thesis subject I wanted something different. For this reason, I decided on
the representation of masculinity in the works of Robert Louis Stevenson, but while writing
about Stevenson I quickly noticed that I had difficulties letting go of Tolkien and the fantastic
world that he has created. This feeling only strengthened after visiting Oxford during the
holidays. The city held an important place in the writer’s life considering that he studied,
worked, lived, and even died in Oxford. During my stay, I visited one of his favourite pubs,
passed his house and visited his grave at Wolvercote Cemetery. It was truly a unique
experience that I certainly want to repeat. After my trip to Oxford I was more convinced than
ever that I wanted to write about Tolkien, and thus asked my supervisor if I was allowed to
change my thesis subject. Consequently, I am very thankful to my supervisor, Prof. Dr.
Marysa Demoor, for allowing me to write about what I was really passionate about, for
having patience with me, and for always advising me when I was having difficulties.
Furthermore, I would also like to thank the other professors for the invigorating lectures
which inspired me in so many ways.
Lastly, I would also like to thank my family and friends who were always willing to
listen to my ramblings about Tolkien and The Lord of the Rings. Special thanks goes to my
parents who have given me the opportunity to receive a university education and have always
supported me. To my aunt who always listened to me when things got emotional. To my
partner and her family, who are always there for me and are as passionate about the English
culture and language as I am.
Table of Contents
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 1
2. Theoretical framework ........................................................................................................... 4
2.1 Gender Studies .................................................................................................................. 4
2.2 Keenan’s “fertility-sterility conflict” (1968: 64) .............................................................. 9
3. Tolkien and gender ............................................................................................................... 12
4. The race of Men .................................................................................................................... 17
4.1 Éowyn : Women in war .................................................................................................. 17
4.1.1 Éowyn : more than meets the eye............................................................................. 18
4.1.2 Heroic Éowyn vs. healer Éowyn .............................................................................. 20
4.1.3 Éowyn and the “fertility-sterility conflict” (Keenan, 1968: 64)............................... 23
4.2 Aragorn ........................................................................................................................... 27
4.2.1 Aragorn: The Romantic Hero ................................................................................... 27
4.2.2 Aragorn: Herald of a New Masculinity .................................................................... 30
4.2.3 Aragorn: The Fertile King ........................................................................................ 32
5. Hobbits ................................................................................................................................. 35
5.1 Hobbit women................................................................................................................. 35
5.2 Frodo ............................................................................................................................... 38
6. Relationships and sexuality .................................................................................................. 43
6.1 Homosexuality ................................................................................................................ 45
6.2 Heterosexuality ............................................................................................................... 51
7. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 54
Works cited ........................................................................................................................... 60
Word count: 26 141
List of abbreviations
HOB: The Hobbit
LOR: The Lord of the Rings
MR: Morgoth’s Ring
Qtd.: Quoted
1
1. Introduction
With the release of the last instalment of The Hobbit film trilogy in 2014, it is shown once
again that J.R.R. Tolkien’s works are more popular than ever. Since the start of the new
millennium, Peter Jackson has reintroduced contemporary audiences to the wondrous world
of Middle-earth through film adaptations of both The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings.
However, Tolkien first introduced the reader to his fictional world in 1937. Tolkien not only
drew inspiration from existing literature when choosing suitable inhabitants for Middle-earth,
he also invented several new species such as Ents, Orcs and Hobbits. Seventeen years later
Tolkien wrote the sequel to his fictional debut, which became one of the most well-known
trilogies of the twentieth and twenty-first century: The Lord of the Rings. The trilogy not only
expands on the tale of the Ring, but it also gives a more detailed account of Middle-earth’s
vast lands and its different races (Bogaert, 2013: 1). Therefore, the main focus of this paper
will be on The Lord of the Rings. “Additionally, because of the work’s continuing popularity,
it has been the subject of much academic research and criticism for several decades.
Particularly the scarcity of women in The Lord of the Rings and their seemingly traditional
and stereotypical portrayal has been criticized by many critics (Battis, 2004: 914, Neville,
2005: 101)” (Bogaert, 2013: 1). However, few critics discuss “the reason why women are so
scarce in The Lord of the Rings” (Bogaert, 2013: 1). Instead, they simply ascribe the lack of
women in Tolkien’s works to misogyny (Neville, 2005: 101), and do not consider a more
thematically inspired purpose for their absence (Bogaert, 2013: 1). One of the few exceptions,
however, is Hugh T. Keenan, “who interprets the absence of women in terms of the novel’s
“fertility theme, an important part of the continuing struggle of life against death” (1968: 71)”
(Bogaert, 2013: 1). In “Who is afraid of women in The Lord of the Rings: an analysis of their
absence” Bogaert expanded on Keenan’s idea and argued that “the absence of women in The
Lord of the Rings is not a result of misogyny, as many critics have claimed (Neville, 2005:
101), but that it has a function in Tolkien’s story-telling, especially in light of Tolkien’s “antiindustrialism” (Jones, 2003: 128) and the trilogy’s theme of war” (2013: 1). “The purpose of
[Bogaert’s] essay [was] to try and cast a new light on the absence of women in The Lord of
the Rings by linking it to Keenan’s “fertility-sterility conflict” (1968: 64) and Tolkien’s
themes of industrialism and war, rather than merely criticizing it and ascribing it to
misogynistic and old-fashioned tendencies of the author (Neville, 2005: 101)” (Bogaert, 2013:
1). Eventually it was concluded that women who are portrayed positively in the books
2
“encourage fertility in nature and assure the survival of [their] race” (Bogaert, 2013: 29). The
absence or negative depiction of women, on the other hand, was linked to industrialisation
and destruction (Bogaert, 2013: 27-28). The fact that Tolkien seems reluctant to negatively
portray women was explained by ““the centrality of the Virgin Mary” in Roman Catholicism
[which led Tolkien] “to place his women characters on a pedestal” ([Reid], 2009: LVI 301)”
(qtd. in Bogaert, 2013: 7; Bogaert, 2013: 7). This, however, posed the problem of Shelob’s
character considering that she is described as a murderous and glutinous creature (Tolkien,
2007: LOR 946). The “problem was solved by interpreting Shelob’s corruption as a critique
on, on the one hand, women having to adopt male values in order to hold their own in maledominated society (Ruane and James, 2012: 172-173), and, on the other hand, industrialism’s
corruptive influence on nature” (Ruane and James qtd. in Bogaert, 2013: 28; Bogaert, 2013:
28). In her conclusion Bogaert also indicated that not all races were discussed and that, as a
result, further research is needed (2013: 30). Consequently, this paper will expand on the
ideas formulated in Bogaert’s bachelorpaper. Primarily the “fertility-sterility conflict”
(Keenan, 1968: 64) will be used to discuss other women appearing – or not appearing – in
Tolkien’s works. Hobbit women and Human women will be the focal point of this paper.1
However, this paper will not solely focus on women, it will also propose to integrate men in
the aforementioned “fertility-sterility conflict” (Keenan, 1968: 64). Important in this regard is
Keenan’s interpretation of the “fertility-sterility conflict” (1968:64). While Bogaert primarily
interpreted the conflict as an opposition between nature and industrialisation (Bogaert, 2013),
Keenan originally explained it as a struggle between life and death (Keenan, 1968: 71). Both
of these interpretations will be important in this paper: the first interpretation will be used to
discuss the trilogy’s women, while the second one will be applied to the discussion of the
male characters. The reason why men will be linked to Keenan’s interpretation of the conflict
is due to their involvement in the war theme that is omnipresent in Tolkien’s works. There is
no other theme were the struggle between life and death is so prominent as in a war theme.
Further, besides linking gender to Keenan’s conflict, we will also discuss Tolkien’s general
representation of gender roles. Especially his perception of women and masculinity will be
analysed. Lastly, the relationships between men and women will also be discussed. Special
attention will be given to Arwen and Aragon’s relationship, and the alleged homoerotic
1
We decided to limit our analysis to Men and Hobbits because we prefer an in-depth analysis of two races to a
superficial discussion of all species. Furthermore, a discussion of all races may be a more suitable subject for a
dissertation instead of a master’s thesis.
3
tension between Sam and Frodo (Rohy, 2004; Saxey, 2005)2. The aim of this paper is to get a
better insight in Tolkien’s perception of gender and sexuality, especially in light of his war
experience and his “anti-industrialism” (Jones, 2003: 128). Additionally, Keenan’s “fertilitysterility conflict” (1968: 64) will be used in order to give a unique interpretation of gender and
sexuality in The Lord of the Rings.
The methodology of this paper will be similar to the one used in Bogaert’s
bachelorpaper. It will consist of “a close reading of Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings and
extensive research of secondary sources analysing” gender, sexuality, industrialism, nature,
and war (Bogaert, 2013: 2). Additionally, Tolkien’s other works such as Morgoth’s Ring , The
Hobbit, and his letters may also be used to support arguments proposed in this paper.
Furthermore, Keenan’s “fertility-sterility conflict” (1968: 64) will be used as a guideline to
explain Tolkien’s representation of sexuality and gender. Whereas, the scarcity of women will
be explained through Tolkien’s “anti-industrialism” (Jones, 2003: 128), his representation of
men will primarily be linked to the war theme and how it relates to Keenan’s claim that the
main conflict in the trilogy is one of life and death (Keenan, 1968: 64).
2
The omission of pagination is not an oversight, but indicates that we refer to the complete source. This will be
the case throughout our thesis.
4
2. Theoretical framework
2.1 Gender Studies
Considering the emphasis on gender in this paper, an introduction to gender studies and the
specific aspects of this interdisciplinary field is not redundant. Firstly, this chapter will give a
short introduction to the origins of gender studies, followed by an exploration of the exact
topics this study applies itself to. Next, seeing as part of this paper will focus on the
representation of masculinity, this chapter will also go into one particular field of gender
studies, namely men’s studies.
To start with, gender studies has only quite recently become a field of academic study
considering that it only originated during the late 1960s as a result of “second wave
feminism” (Pilcher and Whelehan, 2004: IX; Davis, Evans and Lorber, 2006: 1). “Second
wave feminism” drew attention to the fact that many “academic disciplines and sets of
knowledge acted to exclude the experiences, interests and identities of women” (Pilcher and
Whelehan, 2004: IX). Moreover, “[w]omen were almost invisible in pre-1970s’ gender-blind
sociology, [and only featured] in their traditional roles as wives and mothers within families”
(Pilcher and Whelehan, 2004: IX). As a result, “second wave feminism” demanded that more
attention were to be paid to issues of gender inequality in “the social sciences, the arts, and
humanities” (Pilcher and Whelehan, 2004: IX). For English literature this entailed the
inclusion of female writers in a previously predominantly male canon (Pilcher and Whelehan,
2004: X). However, while gender studies originated from the idea that the social sciences
should take into account the “inequalities and differences […] between genders”, it also
argued to recognise differences created within genders by class, race, religion, sexuality, etc.
(Pilcher and Whelehan, 2004: XII). Gender interacts with “socially constructed differences [such as] racial categorization, ethnic grouping, economic class, age, religion, and sexual
orientation – […] to produce a complex hierarchical system of dominance and subordination”
(Davis, Evans and Lorber, 2006: 2). In other words, gender studies includes these categories
because they are contributing factors to the unequal power relationships between men and
women, as well as to the distribution of power within the respective gendered spheres (Davis,
Evans and Lorber, 2006: 2; Pilcher and Whelehan, 2004: XII). In her book The Men and the
Boys R.W. Connell differentiates between two recently disproven, but nevertheless influential
theories within the field of gender studies. The first one is the “theory of ‘sex roles’”
(Connell, 2000: 18), which explains gender as a set of “social expectations that define proper
behaviour for women and for men” (Connell, 2000: 18). In other words, this theory defines
5
gender as a set of social and cultural norms appropriate and typical for men or women
(Connell, 2000: 18; Pilcher and Whelehan, 2004: 8). However, this theory has proven to be
insufficient, considering that it neglects issues of “power, violence, or material inequality”
(Connell, 2000: 18). The second theory Connell mentions is what she calls the “‘categorical
theory’, which treats women and men as pre-formed [biological] categories” (2000: 18). This
means that gender is primarily, but not exclusively, reduced to the biological category of ‘sex’
(Connell, 2000:18). While this theory focuses on power relationships between both categories,
it disregards issues of violence, power and racial inequality within a single category (Connell,
2000: 19). Thirdly, Connell also proposes two alternatives that include issues disregarded by
the previous theories: “post-structuralist and materialist” theories (2000: 19). The former
argues that men and women cannot be regarded as two distinct categories (Connell, 2000: 19;
Pilcher and Whelehan, 2004: XI-XII). Instead, their “individual status and position” varies
over time and is dependent on geographical and cultural factors (Pilcher and Whelehan, 2004:
XI-XII). Moreover, it is argued that “‘women’ and ‘men’ are regarded as constructions or
representations, achieved through discourse, performance and repetition rather than being
‘real’ entities” (Pilcher and Whelehan, 2004: XI-XII). In other words, this supports the claim
of gender theorists that gender is not a biological category, but a social construction achieved
through the above mentioned practices (Davis, Evans and Lorber, 2006: 2; Pilcher and
Whelehan, 2004: XI-XII). The second alternative that Connell proposes is the “materialist”
theory (2000: 19). This theory primarily focuses on economic inequalities between both
genders (Connell, 2000: 21). It analyses how “institutions [such as] the family [,] the
workplace under industrial capitalism [and imperialism] are keys to the problems of gender”
(Holter qtd. in Connell, 2000: 22). Finally, Connell states that even the “post-structuralist and
materialist” approach have encountered some problems and that this has led many gender
“theorists towards a relational account of gender” (Connell, 2000: 19, 23). This final theory
allows for a complete understanding of “the different dimension […] of gender” (Connell,
2000: 23). It includes factors such as “the division of labour, power relations, and relations of
emotional attachment”, many of which were neglected by the previously discussed theories
(Connell, 2000: 24). Furthermore, it also recognises that there is still a physical component to
gender, although it is considered subservient to social aspect (Connell, 2000: 27). That is to
say, it is part of gender in that “[g]ender as a social practice […] constantly refers to bodies
and what bodies do, it is not social practice reduced to the body” (Connell, 2000: 27). Lastly,
the relational theory also includes what Connell calls “gender configurations” (2000: 27). It
regards gender as something which evolves over time and which interacts with historical
6
situations, a person’s individual life, and social structures such as class and race (Connell,
2000: 27-29). Moreover, the relational theory also implies that men and women should be
studied and understood in relation to each other (Scott, 1986: 1054). Joan Scott argues that
“the term “gender” [is often used] to introduce a relational notion” and that “[a]ccording to
this view, woman and man [are] defined in terms of one another and no understanding of
either could be achieved by entirely separate study” (1986: 1054). Consequently, despite that
gender studies originated from the fact that women were discontent with their exclusion from
certain fields of study (Pilcher and Whelehan, 2004: IX), the inclusion of women does not
entail the exclusion of men. Conversely, the emergence of gender studies, which originally
focused on women, inspired the development of what is now called “men’s studies” (Pilcher
and Whelehan, 2004: XI). That is to say, gender studies, and particularly women’s studies,
was criticised for “‘adding women in’ rather than recognising that men too are gendered
beings” (Pilcher and Whelehan, 2004: XI).
As a result, a field of study developed in the 1980s which theorised around “men as
‘men’” (Pilcher and Whelehan, 2004: XI). The following decade knew a proliferation of
academic and popular books dealing with men and masculinity, which eventually led to
“‘men’s studies’ [being] recognised as a specialised area of academic focus” (Pilcher and
Whelehan, 2004: XI). Other terms such as “masculinity studies, or male dominance studies, or
critical studies on men” have also been used to describe this field of study (Hearn and
Kimmel, 2006: 54). Despite the fact that the terms ‘men’ and ‘masculinity’ are often used
interchangeably, Hearn and Kimmel argue for the distinction “between studies of men as
corporeal beings and masculinities – the ideologies and attitudes that are associated with these
corporeal beings” (2006: 55). In essence, masculinity and men are not inextricably bound up
with each other. Therefore “masculine conduct or masculine identity” can, respectively, be
expressed or assumed by women (Connell, 2000: 16). Alternatively, it is not uncommon for a
man to behave or identify as more feminine (Connell, 2000: 16-17). This aspect will be one of
the focal points in this thesis considering that Tolkien’s characters not always behave
exclusively feminine or masculine (e.g. Éowyn’s role in the Battle of the Pelennor Fields).
Furthermore, according to Connell the concept of ‘masculinity’ only “exists […] in contrast
with ‘femininity’” (2005: 68). Therefore, a culture that does not have this polarisation “does
not have a concept of masculinity in the sense of modern European [or] American culture”
(Connell, 2005: 68). However, a clear distinction between both categories did not exist until
the nineteenth century, when “the ideology of ‘separate spheres’” dominated society (Connell,
2005: 68). In pre-eighteenth-century Europe, for example, women were regarded as
7
“incomplete or inferior” men (Connell, 2005: 68). That is to say, the qualities possessed by
women were the same as those possessed by men, but they were considered less valuable
(Connell, 2005: 68). Consequently, it is interesting to examine how the changing conceptions
of gender before and during the twentieth century are represented in Tolkien’s trilogy.
Moreover, how the representation of female characters differs from the representation of
Tolkien’s male characters.
Further, Connell also argues that “there is no one pattern of masculinity” (Connell,
2000: 10). Instead there are “multiple masculinities” which are the result of different cultural
and historical constructions of gender (Connell, 2000: 10). Connell uses the example of how
homosexuality is received in relation to more “dominant forms of masculinity” (2000: 10) to
support her claim. Namely, while some societies perceive “homosexual practices” as an
initiation into masculinity, other societies consider it “as incompatible with true masculinity”
(Connell, 2000: 10). Additionally, Connell also states that these diverse masculinities can also
exist within a certain society and manifest themselves in a sense of hierarchy between
dominant and “subordinated or marginalized” men (2000: 10). By pointing out this strong
sense of hierarchy, Connell disproves the assertion of some critics that power is neglected in
men’s studies (2000: 19). Instead, she considers it to be “a central theme in the field”
(Connell, 2000: 19). In short, as mentioned before, power relations are an important aspect of
gender studies – both between and within the gendered spheres (Davis, Evans and Lorber,
2006: 2; Pilcher and Whelehan, 2004: XII). Kimmel and Hearn address these two types of
power relationships as, respectively, heterosexual and homosocial power relations (2006: 56).
However, men’s studies does not solely consider power relations, it also includes questions
such as “how interactions with women, children, and other men express, challenge, and
reproduce gender inequalities”, and how men express their “gendered identities” (Hearn and
Kimmel, 2006: 56). Further, similarly to gender studies as a broader field of academics, men’s
studies also takes into account other factors which shape men and masculinities such as “age,
class, disability, ethnicity” and sexuality (Hearn and Kimmel, 2006: 58). Kimmel and Hearn
underline the importance of an intersectional approach as it demonstrates how “different
classes exhibit different forms of masculinities” (2006: 58; Crenshaw, 1989). Therefore, this
paper will also take into account how factors such as age, class, disability, sexuality, etc.
influence the representation of certain types of masculinity and the interaction between men,
and between men and women.
Lastly, the importance of historical context has already been mentioned. That is to say,
considering that conceptions of gender are susceptible to societal, cultural, and historical
8
changes, gender cannot be considered a fixed category (Connell, 2000: 27-29). Therefore,
when analysing masculinity in The Lord of the Rings it is important to take the historical
context into account. Consequently, despite that gender studies only recently became a field
of academic study, it can still be a useful framework for the study of older literary texts
considering that it emphasises the fact that certain factors such as age, class, and sexuality
should also be taken into account when analysing gender (Davis, Evans and Lorber, 2006: 2;
Hearn and Kimmel, 2006: 58; Pilcher and Whelehan, 2004: XII). These categories – class in
particular – are vital parts of English society, and should therefore not be ignored when
studying gender in English literature. Further, certain gender theorists emphasise the
importance of not only studying present-day conceptions of gender, but also studying gender
in the “historical past” (Davis, 1976: 90; Connell, 2000: 27-29). Davis argues that “we should
be interested in the history of both women and men […]” and that the understanding of “the
significance of the sexes, [and] of gender groups in the historical past” is an important goal of
gender studies (1976: 90). Further, she states that it is important “to discover the range in sex
roles and in sexual symbolism in different societies and periods, to find out what meaning
they had and how they functioned to maintain the social order or to promote its change”
(Davis, 1976: 90). In other words, gender studies should explain how society determines
gender roles, and how society, in its turn, is influenced by these gender roles. Finally, Davis
also writes that gender theorists should try to “explain why sex roles [are] sometimes tightly
prescribed and sometimes fluid, sometimes markedly asymmetrical and sometimes more
even” (Davis, 1976: 90). The next chapter will propose to answer these questions for
Tolkien’s time. It will determine how tightly prescribed gender roles were and how these
gender roles functioned within twentieth-century society.
In conclusion, this chapter served as an introduction to what is meant by gender
studies, what the most pertinent questions in gender studies are, and how important it is to
take gender into account in several areas of academic research. Furthermore, it also proposed
to argue that despite being only a recent field of academic study, gender studies could still be
a useful framework to study older literary texts. For example, gender studies provides a new
perspective on the analysis of historic and literary contexts. It emphasises the importance of
not only gender and the power relations between and within genders, but also the importance
of class, age, sexuality, and race in relation to gender. Therefore, this paper will not only
focus on gender, but it will also take other social constructions into account when examining
the representations of men and women in Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings. In order to do so, it
9
is important to know how Tolkien himself thought about the gender ideals of his time, which
will be discussed in the next chapter.
2.2 Keenan’s “fertility-sterility conflict” (1968: 64)3
Considering Keenan’s “fertility-sterility conflict” (1968: 64) was the main theoretical
framework in Bogaert’s paper “Who is afraid of women in The Lord of the Rings: an analysis
of their absence” (2013)4, and because it gave such a unique insight in the absence of women
in The Lord of the Rings, it will also be used as a complementary theoretical framework in
this paper. Keenan’s conflict is unique in the sense that it lends itself to different aspects of
the novel. It can be applied to the various themes that permeate the novel – moreover, the
conflict can even be considered to be a theme in itself - as well as to the different characters
that inhabit Middle-earth. Secondly, the conflict enables us to link these aspects to one
another. For example, in “Who is afraid of women in LOTR” Bogaert was able to link the
industrialised wasteland of Mordor to the absence of women in that particular part of Middleearth (2013: 29). As a result, Tolkien’s “anti-industrialism” (Jones, 2003: 128) could be
linked to the absence of women in the Black Land, as well as, to Shelob’s unique position as
the only woman in Mordor (Bogaert, 2013: 27-30). Consequently, because of the conflict’s
unique interpretation possibilities, and because the main theoretical framework remains
gender studies, it could be interesting to discuss the absence of (Hobbit and human) women,
and the representation of men in regard to Keenan’s conflict.
To start with, in the introduction it was already mentioned that the conflict’s
interpretation is twofold. First, there is Keenan’s interpretation which primarily explains the
conflict as a “continuing struggle of life against death” (1968: 71). That is to say, Keenan
argues that “something is more important than good vs. evil [and this] something is life vs.
death. […] man is bent on destroying himself through sociological, technological, and
psychological means. Man’s technology is the enemy of his humanity” (1968: 64-65). Thus,
while Tolkien’s “anti-industrialism” (Jones, 2003: 128) is somewhat present in Keenan’s
explanation of the conflict, it is not a predominant part of his theory. According to Keenan,
the struggle for life manifests itself in many aspects of the trilogy such as its scenery, the war,
the lack of sexuality, and even the characters themselves (Keenan, 1968). Bogaert’s
interpretation of the conflict, however, only focuses on one particular aspect of Keenan’s
3
For more on Keenan’s “fertility-sterility conflict” (1968: 64) see also: Bogaert, Stephanie. „Who is afraid of
women in The Lord of the Rings: An analysis of their absence“. Bachelor paper. Ghent: Ghent University, 2013.
Print.
4
From now on the paper will be referred to as “Who is afraid of women in LOTR”
10
interpretation, namely on his assertion that the destructive power of technology is also a part
of the omnipresent struggle for life (Keenan, 1968: 65). The second interpretation of the
conflict thus interprets the struggle of life versus death as a struggle between nature and the
disruptive power of industrialisation (Bogaert, 2013). That is to say, the struggle for life does
not only apply to the trilogy’s characters, but also to nature itself. A prime example of this is
“nature’s struggle to hold one’s own” in the barren and industrialised lands of Mordor and
Isengard (Bogaert, 2013: 4). Both Mordor and Isengard have been corrupted by their masters’
lust for power and consequently the lands have been transformed into “a graveyard of unquiet
dead” and filled with “treasuries, store-houses, armouries, smithies, and great furnaces”
(Tolkien, 2007: LOR 723-724). Compared to descriptions of fertile lands such as Rivendell
and The Shire, it is clear that Keenan’s “fertility-sterility conflict” (1968: 64) is undoubtedly
applicable to Tolkien’s industrialisation versus nature theme. Most importantly, Bogaert also
linked Keenan’s conflict to the absence of women (2013: 4). She argued that the infertile
lands of Mordor could also explain the absence of women in these lands (Bogaert, 2013: 4):
“Seeing that nature is often considered to be a female entity, and both nature and
women are considered to be a symbol of fertility, women and nature seem to be
closely related to each other. Indian Ecofeminist theorist Vandana Shiva agrees that
women and nature are very “intimately related”, and even suggests that their
“domination and liberation are similarly linked” (Shiva, 1988: 47). Consequently, the
domination of nature by Sauron and his war-industry could also be linked to the
domination, or rather exclusion, of women in Mordor. Like nature’s struggle for life in
a “dying land” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1205), the presence of women, especially as a
symbol of fertility, could also be irreconcilable with the infertile land of Mordor. That
is to say, the creation of new life, whether it be natural or sentient 5 , seems to be
impossible in this barren and polluted land.” (Bogaert, 2013: 4)
Therefore, it is clear that Keenan’s conflict lends itself to various interpretations and that it
could be beneficial to include it in this paper. Considering the conflict has already proven its
worth in explaining the absence of some women in the trilogy, it will once again be used to
explain the absence of women that were not discussed previously. Moreover, the conflict will
also be used to interpret Tolkien’s representation of men and masculinity. However,
considering men are not usually linked to nature, it is unlikely that the conflict can be applied
to men, in the same way that it was applied to women. Instead, Keenan’s interpretation of the
5
Because of the wide variety of races in The Lord of the Rings, it is difficult to speak of human life alone
11
conflict as a struggle for life (Keenan, 1968: 64) is likely to give a more suitable interpretation
considering the overarching war theme, in which many of the male characters play a
predominant role.
12
3. Tolkien and gender
Now that we have discussed the theoretical framework of this paper, we will continue with an
overview of Tolkien’s own perception of gender and gender roles in order to get a better
insight in their depiction.
In J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia: Scholarship and Critical Assessment Anna Smol
gives a brief but thorough account of the depiction of gender in Tolkien’s works. Based on
some of his letters, Smol argues that Tolkien’s view on gender is “essentialist”; meaning that
he believes gender is “an inborn characteristic essential to one’s sex and not as a set of
expected roles determined by one’s society” (2007: 233)6. Smol supports her claim by quoting
Tolkien’s letter to his second son, Michael Tolkien, where he states “that part of women’s
“servient, helpmeet instinct” is “ to be receptive, stimulated, fertilized (in many other matters
than the physical) by the male (Letters, 49)”” (2007: 233; Tolkien, 1941: 43 To Michael
Tolkien, 59). Furthermore, in his letter Tolkien also conveys his view on love, marriage and
sex, which is profoundly influenced by Christian beliefs (1941: 43 To Michael Tolkien, 59).
He also gives a detailed account of how he views both genders separately. With regard to sex
and the relation between genders, Tolkien writes that
“'friendship' […] is virtually impossible between man and woman. The devil is
endlessly ingenious, and sex is his favourite subject. He is as good every bit at
catching you through generous romantic or tender motives, as through baser or more
animal ones. This 'friendship' has often been tried: one side or the other nearly always
fails. Later in life when sex cools down, it may be possible.” (Tolkien, 1941: 43 To
Michael Tolkien, 59)7
In short, Tolkien does not seem to believe in a mere platonic relationship between both
genders, at least not until a later age. While the relationship between men and women in the
trilogy will be discussed later on, it should be mentioned that most relationships between men
and women in Tolkien’s works are romantic in nature. Aragorn and Éowyn’s friendship, for
example, was originally born out of an unrequited romantic interest. While Éowyn does not
explicitly profess her love to him, it is clearly implied in the following statement: “They go
only because they would not be parted from thee - because they love thee” (Tolkien, 2007:
LOR 1027). Her statement is quite significant if you consider the fact that Éowyn has just
offered to join Aragorn on what she considers to be a “deadly road” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR
6
This explanation is quite similar to the aforementioned categorical theory, which “treats women and men as
pre-formed [biological] categories” (Connell, 2000: 18)
7
Same letter as mentioned in Smol, but different collection and numeration of the letters
13
1026). Therefore it could be argued that Éowyn’s statement is actually an implied profession
of love because of two reasons. Firstly, because she is prepared to accompany him on a very
perilous adventure. The fact that she is prepared to risk her own life to be close to him is a
testimony of great loyalty and love. Secondly, it is clear that Éowyn considers herself to be a
part of the men who do not wish to be parted from Aragorn because they love him (Tolkien,
2007: LOR 1027). Consequently, it could be argued that there is an ellipsis in her statement,
and that it should be as follows: “because they love thee [as I love you]” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR
1027). However, later on it is revealed by Faramir that her feelings towards Aragorn are not
romantic in nature, but similar to the admiration of a soldier towards his superior (Tolkien,
2007: LOR 1263; Bradley, 1968: 116).
Furthermore, Tolkien also describes sex as being the devil’s “favourite subject” (1941:
43 To Michael Tolkien, 59), which may explain why his works are seemingly devoid of any
sexual relationships between the characters. However, this last assertion has been refuted by
some critics who claim that sexuality is implicitly present in the trilogy, or that it is
symbolically conveyed (Partridge, 1983). In “No Sex Please – We’re Hobbits: The
Construction of Female Sexuality in The Lord of the Rings” Brenda Patridge describes the
scene between Shelob and Sam (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 949-955) as being “shrouded in
religious symbolism” (1983: 191). For example, she argues that Sam stabbing Shelob with his
sword symbolises the male organ penetrating “the vast, evil smelling mass of the female”
(Patridge, 1983: 190).
Further, Tolkien’s view on the differences between both genders also becomes clear in
his letter to his son (Tolkien, 1941: 43 To Michael Tolkien, 59). Smol argues that Tolkien
sees women as “passive and subordinate by “instinct””, whereas men are “naturally active and
superior” (2007: 233). While Smol’s interpretation of Tolkien’s letter may support claims of
misogyny (Neville, 2005: 101), it should be taken into account that Tolkien included many
active and powerful women in his works (Bogaert, 2013; Enright, 2007). Furthermore, it
seems that Tolkien’s opinion on gender is quite ambiguous at times. On the one hand, the
letter written to Michael Tolkien seems to support a traditional view on gender roles: the
woman as passive and nurturing, and the man as active and dominant (Smol, 2007: 233).
According to Fredrick and McBride this traditional view is also reflected in the depiction of
the Valar, who “replicate traditional gender roles, with feminine activities including nurturing,
gardening, healing, weaving, and mourning, and the masculine qualities being more active
and vigorous” (qtd. in Smol, 2007: 233). In “Laws & Customs among the Eldar” (in:
Morgoth’s Ring, 1993), on the other hand, Tolkien writes that
14
“In all such things, not concerned with the bringing forth of children, the neri and
nissi (that is, the men and women) of the Eldar are equal – unless it be in this […] that
for the nissi the making of things new is for the most part shown in the forming of
their children, so that invention and change is otherwise mostly brought about by the
neri.” (Tolkien, 1993: MR 213)
In this excerpt Tolkien describes a race where both men and women are considered equal to
one another. The only difference between the sexes are biological differences such as the
ability to bear children. In other matters, such as the division of labour, there is no distinction.
As a result, it is not uncommon for Eldar women to fight in battle as valiant warriors, while
their male counterpart heal the wounded (Tolkien, 1993: MR 213). By doing so, they
transgress traditional gender roles which often depict men as warriors and women as healers.
For example, the Eldar believe that “the dealing of death […] diminished the power of
healing, and that the virtue of the nissi in this matter was due rather to their abstaining from
hunting or war than to any special power that went with their womanhood” (Tolkien, 1993:
MR 213). In other words, both men and women could be skilled healers as long as they avoid
death and violence. Furthermore, Tolkien also mentions that the Eldar are quite similar to the
race of Men, stating that “there was less difference between the two Kindreds, Elves and Men,
in early youth; and a man who watched elf-children at play might well have believed that they
were the children of Men” (Tolkien, 1993: MR 209-210). Consequently, because of this
likeness between Elves and Men it may be interesting to similarly analyse gender roles within
those two cultures, and, thus, propose that their view on gender roles is equally progressive.
Especially Éowyn’s character may be a prime example of Men’s progressive interpretation of
gender roles considering that she is portrayed as both a warrior and a healer. Nevertheless, it
should be taken into account that the quote only speaks of similarities between both races in
their early youth, thus implying that the likeness between Men and Elves diverges in
adulthood. Tolkien also mentions that Men and Elves develop differently: while the Eldar’s
physical growth is slower than that of men, their mental development is more advanced
(Tolkien, 1993: MR 209). Therefore, it is possible that the race of Men has not yet reached the
stage of gender equality, but that Éowyn’s dual role is a prelude to a more progressive view of
gender.
Secondly, in “Bilbo’s adventures in Wilderland” William H. Green (2008) also gives
an interesting interpretation of Tolkien’s perception of gender. Green describes a biographical
event that inspired Tolkien to write The Hobbit, and which shows us that Tolkien replaced
many of his female companions with male characters in the fictional work (Green, 2008: 29).
15
The event that inspired Bilbo’s trek through the mountains in The Hobbit was based on a
tumultuous hike that Tolkien undertook when he was about eighteen years old (Green, 2008:
29). However, while Bilbo’s company only consists of male characters, Tolkien’s own
adventure was led by his “botanist aunt” (Tolkien, 1961: 232 To J. Reeves, 328; Green, 2008:
29). Because Tolkien recast the women of certain biographical events as men in his fictional
world, Green asserts that “Tolkien’s fiction may be said to dramatize the “common gender”
value of the pronoun he, which until the 1970s was accepted as referring indifferently to
either male or female persons” (2008: 29). Green argues that Tolkien uses the male pronoun
in order to “avoid sexual themes while dealing with close relationships” (2008: 29-30). So by
shifting “sexual identities” Tolkien is able “to invent a sexless world” where friendships are
not spoiled by sexual desire (Green, 2008: 30). However, this does not mean that the sexual
cannot be implicitly present in the novel. In “No Sex Please- We're Hobbits: The Construction
of Female Sexuality in The Lord of the Rings” Brenda Partridge analyses several sexual
innuendo’s in the novel such as the sexual symbolism that is present in the scene between
Sam and Shelob (1983: 190). Nevertheless, Partridge points out that Tolkien’s vision of
sexuality and relationships is heavily loaded with “religious overtones” (1983: 186).
Furthermore, Green argues that despite of indifferently using male pronouns for originally
female persons the feminine is still very much present in many of the male characters (2008:
30). Green calls this the “submerged feminine” which according to him is most obvious in the
character of Gandalf (2008: 30). Green describes Gandalf as something similar to a fairy
godmother. Green’s theory of the fairy godmother is, firstly, based on the fact that Gandalf
functions as a “surrogate mother and father” figure to Bilbo (and later on, to Frodo) (2008:
30). Secondly, his assertion is also based on Jung’s “anima-animus theory” (Green, 2008: 30;
Kast, 2006: 120). While an extensive explanation of this theory will lead us too far, the
theory, in short, states that “anima is referred to as the female aspects of a man, [and] animus
[are] the male aspects of a woman” (Kast, 2006: 120). Both are subliminal and can only be
realised through projections onto the opposite sex (Kast, 2006: 118). Consequently, the
relations with mother and father – and later on the partner – are of great importance for the
development of the anima or animus (Kast, 2006: 118). Green applies this theory to The
Hobbit, and argues that Gandalf’s mothering and “transforming function” can be ascribed to
his “anima” (2008: 30). Lastly, the “submerged feminine” in the character of Gandalf is also a
result of “the gender ambiguity of wizard figures” (Green, 2008: 30; Neumann qtd. in Green,
2008: 30). Neumann states that wizards do not only have feminine characteristics, but that
16
they are also highly dependent on their anima aspect, which is also why wizards “often
[appear] in woman’s dress” (qtd. in Green, 2008: 130).
To summarise, the opinions on Tolkien’s view on gender are divided. On the one hand
we have Smol arguing that Tolkien interpreted gender as a mere biological category, and that
gender roles were not dictated by society, but were an “inborn characteristic” of one’s
biological sex (2007: 233). Smol used Tolkien’s letters to his son, Michael Tolkien, to support
her claim (2007: 233). However, we have seen that there may be a difference between
Tolkien’s view on gender in the real world, and how he depicts gender in his fiction. An
example of this are the Eldar, who believe in gender equality and a division of labour based
on skill rather than stereotypical gender roles (Tolkien, 1993: MR 213). Secondly, we also
discussed Green’s interpretation of how Tolkien perceived gender. Green believes that
Tolkien based many of his stories on biographical events, and - while writing down these
biographical adventures -Tolkien considered female and male characters as interchangeable
(2008: 29). Green asserted that the reason why Tolkien did this was to avoid “sexual themes”
in his novels (2008: 29-30). Nevertheless, it cannot be said that The Lord of the Rings is void
of any romantic relationships between the characters. Brenda Partridge agrees, and adds that
sexual relations are undoubtedly present in the trilogy, although they are mainly implicit and
heavily influenced by “religious symbolism” (1983: 190-191). Therefore, while it may be true
that Tolkien tried to avoid explicit sexual themes by replacing women with male characters
(Green, 2008: 29), it could be argued that he did not manage to keep them out of subtext – as
mentioned before, this will be thoroughly discussed in the following chapters. Lastly, Green
also argues that despite the fact that Tolkien replaced originally female persons with male
characters, he was unable to completely ban the feminine out of his tales (2008: 30). As a
result, the feminine is still present in those male characters and manifests itself in mothering
or nurturing roles that those characters assume. Furthermore, the fact that Tolkien
interchanged female characters with male characters - and their subsequent ‘feminine roles’ may have led to romantic tensions between some of the male characters. This may explain,
certain critics’ assertions that a homoerotic relationship may exist between Sam and Frodo
(Rohy, 2004; Saxey, 2005). Therefore, when discussing masculinity in this paper it is
important to keep Green’s assertion about the “submerged feminine” (2008: 30) in mind, as
well as the fact that Tolkien did not always view gender to be black and white in his fictional
work.
17
4. The race of Men8
4.1 Éowyn : Women in war
Considering the scarcity of women in Tolkien’s works, the chapter about the women of
Mankind will primarily focus on Éowyn . She is not only the most notable human woman, she
is also one of the most prominent female characters in the book considering that she holds a
rather unique position as both a female soldier and a healer. The only other women that are
explicitly mentioned as belonging to Mankind are the nurses in the Houses of Healing
(Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1123-1140). However, because they are only minor characters in The
Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King it is impossible to dedicate an entire chapter to
them. Nevertheless, this does not mean that they will be ignored completely. Instead, they will
be discussed together with Éowyn’s character, more specifically, when her role as a healer
will be analysed.
The analysis of Éowyn’s character is interesting in that respect that she incorporates
both male and female characteristics. Similarly to the Eldar, Mankind does not seem to
strictly adhere to stereotypical expectations of gender roles (Tolkien, 1993: MR 213). This is
consistent with the more progressive view on gender that Tolkien seems to take on in his
fiction. However, it could be argued that Éowyn’s transition from a soldier (a typically male
profession) to a healer (a typically female profession), actually confirms traditional gender
roles and annihilates any progress made towards a progressive representation of gender roles.
Therefore, this chapter will discuss Éowyn’s transition and propose to argue that her change
from a warrior to a healer can be interpreted as something positive. What is more, this chapter
will propose to link her change to Keenan’s “fertility-sterility conflict” (1968: 64) by arguing
that her role as a healer brings her closer to nature (Hatcher, 2007) 9 . Furthermore, the
character of Éowyn also shows us the struggle of women to hold their own in a maledominated world. Therefore, this chapter will also discuss the difficulties that women may
encounter when they propose to transcend expectations that are put on them by a patriarchal
society.
8
To facilitate comparisons between men and women and in order to present a well-structured and orderly paper,
the chapters will be divided based on the different races that are present in Middle-earth. The races will then be
divided into men and women. The chapter “Men” does, therefore, not refer to the male gender, but to the race of
Men.
9
The article could only be found online and did not provide any pagination. The article can be found through the
following URL: http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Finding+woman%27s+role+in+The+Lord+of+the+Rings.a0163972502. The article was originally published in Mythlore, a scholarly journal focusing on Tolkien and his
works. Therefore, the article could be considered as an academic and reliable source.
18
4.1.1 Éowyn : more than meets the eye
In The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers Éowyn is described as a fair maiden with
hair “like a river of gold […] slender and tall […] in her white robe girt with silver, but strong
she seemed and stern as steel, a daughter of kings” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 672). Aragorn
describes her as “fair and cold, like a morning of pale spring that is not yet come to
womanhood” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 672). In other words, we are immediately informed that
Éowyn is a rather complex character. On the one hand, she is described as an innocent and
virtuous adolescent girl. Her white robe combined with Aragorn’s remark that she “is net yet
come to womanhood” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 672) can be interpreted as an expression of her
purity and virginity. On the other hand, she is described as possessing a deeper, maybe even
more masculine strength. However, she is unable to act upon this strength considering she is
“caged” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1027) by a patriarchal society, which does not accept a
woman’s ambition to fight in battle. This ambiguity in Éowyn’s character is both explicitly
and symbolically stated. We will first explain the latter considering that it is closely related to
the abovementioned description of her character.
Firstly, it is mentioned that Éowyn wears a silver girt, a material which is often
associated with purity and chastity (Ferguson, 1959: 44). The symbolism of this material thus
refers back to the innocent and virginal image that she seems to project to the outside world.
Moreover, silver is sometimes “associated with intuition, self-reflection and inner wisdom
[…]. It is also a metal of protection, emotion, purity, and love” (Frankel, 2015: 36). These
attributes, especially the latter ones, are often seen as feminine and consistent with a women’s
nurturing nature. Furthermore, the colours white, which is commonly known to be associated
with innocence and purity, and gold also seem to emphasise Éowyn’s pure nature. According
to Ferguson, gold is often used in Christian art as a symbol of “pure light, the heavenly
element in which God lives. It is also used as a symbol of wealth and idolatry” (1959: 42)10.
Consequently, Éowyn’s golden hair is more than an expression of her beauty alone. Instead, it
also seems to symbolise both her social standing as a wealthy noblewoman, and some kind of
moral superiority. This could be supported by Robin Anne Reid’s assertion “that Tolkien’s
experience with women and “the centrality of the Virgin Mary” in Roman Catholicism led
him “to place his women characters on a pedestal” (2009: LVI 301)” (qtd. in Bogaert, 2013:
7; Bogaert, 2013: 7). From this we could conclude that Tolkien often portrayed women as the
10
The choice to use Ferguson’s Signs and Symbols in Christian Art was to explain the symbolism used in
Tolkien’s works is based on him being a devout Christian (Birzer, 2007: 101). Consequently, it is likely that the
symbolism used in his works is founded on Christian belief.
19
Virgin Mary, which is consistent with the symbolism reflected in Éowyn’s clothing (Reid,
2009: LVI 301). In short, Éowyn’s clothing symbolises her feminine, innocent, and nurturing
side. However, this side is largely overshadowed by her inner feelings of oppression, and her
subsequent need to rebel against patriarchal standards. Éowyn longs for honour and glory
obtained from battle, but is forbidden by King Théoden and Aragorn to join them in the Battle
of Gondor (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1027). Nevertheless, she is not easily acquiesced and decides
to ride of to battle disguised as a male soldier named Dernhelm (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 10861112). Therefore, it is clear that Éowyn also has some characteristics that are typically
ascribed to men, such as a fighting spirit, stoicism, and ambition. This is also reflected in her
portrayal as being “cold” and “stern as steel” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 672). Once again her
description can be interpreted symbolically considering that steel is often associated with
industrialism and weaponry (Tolkien 2007: LOR 723-724). The swords in The Lord of the
Rings, for example, are often made of steel (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 863, 1235). As a result,
“stern as steel” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 672) does not only refer to Éowyn being a strong woman,
but also denotes her will to fight in battle. Consequently, it could be argued that the
symbolism of steel, in contrast to silver, is more rough and masculine, and thus refers to her
rougher and more masculine side. In short, the symbolism in the description of Éowyn’s
physique represents a duality in her perception of gender roles and her gender expression.
While human society initially has rather strict gender roles – namely, men ride of to battle,
while women tend to the house (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 683) – Éowyn seems to take the first
step towards a more liberal interpretation of gender roles. Admittedly, the fact that King
Théoden names Éowyn as his replacement, shows that the Men of Rohan accept women in a
leadership position (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 683), which may indicate that an evolution towards
gender equality was already underway.
Secondly, we also mentioned that the duality is also explicitly stated. When Aragorn
dissuades Éowyn of joining him in battle, Éowyn is resistant and states that
“[all] your words are but to say: you are a woman, and your part is in the house. But
when the men have died in battle and honours, you have leave to be burned in the
house, for the men will need it no more. But I am of the House of Eorl and not a
serving-woman. I can ride and wield a blade, and do not fear either pain or death”
(Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1027)
Here we see that Éowyn explicitly rejects the patriarchal notion of ‘the woman at the hearth’.
She refuses to be seen as a helpless serving-woman taking care of the house while the men
ride of to battle. Instead, she expresses her capability of defending herself without fear.
20
Furthermore, the quote also holds an important feminist critique. Éowyn clearly contests the
centrality of men in society. Further, she points out the injustice of men being able to gain
fame in battle, while women are forced to take care of the house, and to pick up the pieces
when their husband has died. Furthermore, the second sentence seems to imply that with the
death of their husband, the woman has no reason to take care of the household anymore. As if
the life of a woman is centred around the household and the husband. Consequently, we see
how Éowyn criticises this dependency of women on their husbands. She obviously disagrees
with this patriarchal mindset and advocates women’s right to independence and her right to
fight for her country.
To summarise, Éowyn’s initial description already contains a lot of information about
her ambiguous nature and her feminist opinions. Her clothing, for example, symbolises her
more feminine and virtuous qualities, whereas the description of her disposition as “cold” and
“stern as steel” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 672) seems to reflect her more masculine characteristics.
Furthermore, from her conversation with Aragorn we can deduce that Éowyn has quite
progressive views with regard to women’s position in society. However, as we will see in the
following chapters, some critics contest that Éowyn is an advocate of women’s rights because
she herself eventually falls into a traditionally female role.
4.1.2 Heroic Éowyn vs. healer Éowyn
We have already discussed that Éowyn possesses both male and female characteristics that are
both symbolically and explicitly expressed. In the following chapter, both her heroic
achievements as a male soldier, and her transformation to a healer and protector of nature will
be discussed. During the discussion of the former, special attention will be given to the
problematic portrayal of Éowyn as a man during the Battle of the Pelennor Fields. Finally,
this chapter will also briefly discuss her role as a healer. However, the problematic nature of
her portrayal as a healer will be more extensively discussed in the next chapter considering
that it is also quite closely related to the “fertility-sterility conflict” (Keenan, 1968: 64).
To start with, the character of Éowyn is most widely known for killing the Ringwraith
during the Battle of the Pelennor Fields, a feat which was considered impossible to achieve
(Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1101-1102). Even the Ringwraith himself was thoroughly convinced of
his own invincibility, and claimed that “[no] living man may hinder [him]!” (Tolkien, 2007:
LOR 1101). Consequently, Éowyn’s claim that she is “no living man”, but a woman quickly
undermines the Nazgûl’s claim to invincibility, and even makes the Nazgûl doubt his own
immortality (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1101). Tolkien’s emphasis on Éowyn’s gender is quite
21
important here. The fact that he allows a woman to defeat such a powerful foe shows us that
he was certainly not afraid to put women in a powerful position (Enright, 2007: 104). This
contradicts the claim of some critics that the marked absence of women in The Lord of the
Rings is evidence of Tolkien’s misogynistic tendencies (Neville, 2005: 101). Nevertheless,
critics such as Marion Zimmer Bradley have pointed out that Éowyn’s victory is still
somewhat problematic considering that “she does indeed achieve great deeds [but only] in
male disguise” (1968: 116). While Bradley’s assertion holds some truth, it is not completely
true considering that Éowyn has already revealed her true identity before achieving one of her
greatest deeds, namely killing the Ringwraith. Nevertheless, it is indeed quite remarkable that
Éowyn’s heroic nature only shines through after she has assumed a male identity. In the
previous chapter we already pointed out that Éowyn wants to pursue glory in battle, but that
she is unable to act upon this desire because she is restricted by patriarchal standards.
Consequently, the only way for her to realise these ambitions is by assuming a male identity.
Conversely, as a woman she is expected to listen to King Théoden’s bid and take care of
Rohan and its people in his stead (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 683). While it may be argued that
leadership is a typically masculine role, it is still quite passive and far removed from the men
who defend their country’s honour in battle.
Further, it should be noted that Éowyn’s assumption of a male identity is also quite
similar to Shelob’s appropriation of certain male values in order to hold her own in a maledominated world (Bogaert, 2013: 14; Ruane and James, 2012: 172-173)11. The same holds
true for Éowyn, who also gains her independence by assuming a male identity and
conforming to the masculine value of violence – i.e. by killing the Ringwraith. As Sjoberg
and Gentry point out
“women who act counter to social standards of femininity – especially those who
commit violence – are seen as having made a “double transgression”: the norm against
violence in general, and the norm against women being capable of violence in
particular (Sjoberg and Gentry 2008: 15).” (qtd. in Ruane and James, 2012: 173)
However, unlike Shelob, Éowyn ‘corrects’ her transgression by assuming a more passive, and
thus more feminine, role after the Battle of the Pelennor fields. She states that she “will be a
shield-maiden no longer, nor vie with the great riders. […] I will […] love all things that grow
and are not barren. […] No longer do I desire to be a queen” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1264). In
11
For a full analysis of Shelob’s character, see “Who is afraid of Women in The Lord of the Rings: An Analysis
of their Absence” (Bogaert, 2013).
22
other words, she relents her masculine identity and decides embrace the traditionally female
role of wife, mother, and healer.
Secondly, the fact that women are a rare occurrence on the battlefield is also
emphasised by the Prince of Dol Amroth who asks the men of Rohan if “even the women of
the Rohirrim have come to war in our need?” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1106). His surprise and
the men’s reaction that they “knew naught of her riding until this hour, and [that they] greatly
rue it” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1106) make it obvious that they do not think the battlefield to be
a suitable place for a woman. The fact that they “rue” her decision could either signify that
they regret that she was severely injured, or it could be interpreted as an expression of shame
about involving a woman in battle. However, this does not mean that they are completely
opposed to the involvement of women in war. For example, it was not uncommon for women
to function as healers during wartime, which was undoubtedly the case during Tolkien’s own
service in World War I (Garth, 2007: 712-713; Zeinert, 2001: 47-56). As nurses the women
are not actively involved in the battle, and are once again forced into a traditionally female
role. As a result, some scholars have criticised Éowyn’s decision to become a healer as a
“triumph of patriarchy” because she reverts back to a passive and typically feminine
occupation (Fredrick and McBride qtd. in Enright, 2007: 105). Enright (2007) and Porter
(2005), on the other hand, are convinced that Éowyn’s role as a healer is equally important
and heroic as that of a soldier. That is to say, as a healer and a woman she holds a power of
her own: “the Christ-like power of love, healing, and gentleness” (Enright, 2007: 106). This in
contrast to the violent and physical power held by soldiers. Consequently, Éowyn’s
transformation does not indicate a devaluation of her character, but a maturation. Whereas she
initially tried to hold her own in a patriarchal society by adopting a male identity, she now
seems to realise that there is also power in her female identity (Enright, 2005: 106).
Lastly, we will briefly discuss Ioreth, one of the nurses working in the Houses of
Healing. Contrary to Éowyn, Ioreth is less outspoken and more subservient to the male
characters as she dutifully follows the orders of Aragorn and the Herb-master (Tolkien, 2007:
LOR 1130). Nevertheless, despite the fact that her role is rather small she serves as an
important catalyst considering that it is Ioreth’s tale about “The hands of the king [being] the
hands of a healer” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1126), which eventually leads to the revelation of
Aragon’s true identity as the rightful king of Gondor. To clarify, Aragorn is the only one
capable of healing both Meriadoc and Éowyn after they were diagnosed with Black Shadow,
an illness which was considered to be incurable (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1126).
23
This chapter proposed to discuss Eowyn’s heroic achievements as a female soldier,
and her controversial transformation to a healer. Both portrayals were considered problematic
by several authors (Bradley, 1968: 116; Fredrick and McBride qtd. in Enright, 2007: 105),
because they seem to support Neville’s claim that the absence of women in Tolkien’s works is
a result of his misogynistic tendencies (2005: 101). While we do not agree that Tolkien was a
misogynist (cf. Bogaert, 2013), we do have to admit that Éowyn’s assumption of a male
identity is, to say at least, questionable. Still, we proposed to explain why it may have been
necessary for Éowyn to assume a male identity. We argued that Éowyn’s situation was
reminiscent of Shelob’s, who had to appropriate a male identity in order to hold her own in a
male-dominated world. In the case of Shelob, this appropriation was seen as a critique on
women having to “adopt certain masculine traits […] in order to attain a powerful [position]
(Ruane and James, 2012: 173)” (paraphrased by Bogaert, 2013: 14). Similarly, Éowyn’s
portrayal as Dernhelm could be interpreted as critique on women’s inability to gain power
because of the restrictions that are put on them by the patriarchy. Secondly, we also
mentioned that, unlike Shelob, Éowyn was able to rectify her “double transgression” (as
described by Sjoberg and Gentry, qtd. in Ruane and James, 2012: 173) by distancing herself
from her masculine identity and embracing the traditionally female role of healer. Similarly to
her portrayal as a male soldier, her depiction as a healer is also quite controversial because it
forces her in a typically feminine role. The criticism on this particular subject, however, will
be discussed in the next chapter.
4.1.3 Éowyn and the “fertility-sterility conflict” (Keenan, 1968: 64)
Furthermore, the “fertility-sterility conflict” (Keenan, 1968: 64) can also be applied to
the character of Éowyn. We have already determined that she is a very complex and
ambiguous character considering that she seems to unite both male and female characteristics
and practiced a typically male and female profession. Moreover, Éowyn’s transition from a
soldier to a healer – and in some respect the transition from a male gender role to a female one
- can also be seen as a transition from sterility to fertility. In her bachelorpaper Bogaert argued
that war and destruction of nature due to industrialisation were irreconcilable with the
presence of women and fertility (2013: 27-29). This is also applicable to Éowyn considering
that during her time as a soldier she was constantly confronted with death and destruction.
According to Bogaert, however, such an environment should be irreconcilable with the
presence of women (2013: 27-29). So how could we explain the presence of a woman in what
is considered a ‘sterile’ environment? What is important here is that Éowyn does not reveal
24
herself as a woman in this scene, but instead has chosen to disguise herself as a male soldier.
Consequently, we could argue that there is no woman present in the beginning of the battle.
Nevertheless, during her confrontation with the Ringwraith she reveals her true identity and
gender (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1101). What is more, it is her identity as a woman that
eventually enables her to kill the Nazgûl considering “[no] living man [can] hinder [a Nazgûl]”
(Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1101). Seeing that she is not a man, she is able to kill him, and,
simultaneously, “turns gender expectations on their head” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1101; Enright,
2007: 104). In light of the “fertility-sterility conflict” (Keenan, 1968: 64) the revelation of her
identity can be interpreted in two ways. On the one hand, it could be argued that she
contributes to Sauron’s ‘sterile’ environment because she destroys a ‘life’. However, this is
irreconcilable with Bogaert’s assertion that women are closely related to nature, and are thus
seldom associated with death and destruction (Shiva, 1988: 47; Bogaert, 2013: 8 and 28). This
argument can be refuted when we take into account that the Ringwraiths are not really alive,
and therefore cannot be killed. On the other hand, by killing the Nazgûl, Éowyn effectively
ends the battle and, thus, prevents innocents from being killed. In this respect the death of the
Ringwraith could be considered as a contribution to the road to fertility. Éowyn ‘gives’ life to
those who would have been killed if there had been no woman to kill the Ringwraith. In
addition, it could also be interpreted as Éowyn’s first step towards a more ‘fertile’ role. Firstly,
in her encounter with the Nazgûl her sword was broken (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1102), which
often “symbolizes spiritual aggression or a hero’s courage […] being in a state of destruction”
(Cirlot, 1971: 325). In other words, Éowyn’s masculine characteristics such as her fighting
spirit and courage may have may have disappeared or, at least, diminished after the battle.
This is also illustrated by the fact that she assumes a more fertile role after the Battle of the
Pelennor Fields. For example, after Faramir has assured Éowyn that she has won the “renown”
that she has longed for (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1263), she seems to consider her ambition of
being a shield-maiden to be fulfilled, and seems eager to agree to Faramir’s wedding proposal
(Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1263-1264). Furthermore, her ambitions shift to being a wife and a
healer, which is illustrated by the following extract:
“the Shadow has departed! I will be a shield-maiden no longer, nor vie with the great
Riders, not take joy in only in the songs of slaying. I will be a healer, and love all
things that grow and are not barren.” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1264)
Especially the last sentence is very important with regard to the “fertility-sterility conflict”
(Keenan, 1968: 64). We see a definitive transition from ‘sterility’ to ‘fertility’. To clarify,
Éowyn renounces her position as a shield-maiden and decides to be a healer instead. She will
25
no longer destroy life and nature, but restore and treasure it instead. As Bogaert pointed out in
her bachelorpaper, women could be associated with fertility because of their close relationship
to nature and their gift of creating life (Shiva, 1988: 47; Bogaert, 2013: 29). Furthermore,
Bogaert and Keenan also argued that this evolution to fertility only takes place after the
destruction of the Ring (2013: 5, 30; Keenan, 1968: 71-72). While the Ring has not been
destroyed yet when she makes her promise, Éowyn mentions that “the Shadow has departed”
(Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1264). In some respect the war has ended for both Éowyn and Faramir
as they are no longer involved in it. Their fate is in the hands of Aragorn and his army who
have gone to the Black Gate to confront Sauron, and Frodo and Sam who still have to destroy
the Ring. Nevertheless, true fertility only comes after the war has ended since it is only then
that she and Faramir have children, and thus contribute to the repopulation of Middle-earth
(Tolkien, 2007: LOR 20)12. This complies with Keenan’s theory that
“The women, even if married, are not shown as mothers. They have charm but
not earthiness. […] [It is] [n]ot until the end of the book [that] women as childbearers appear. […] When Sauron is defeated, the Ring destroyed, and the
lands cleansed, there comes a succession of marriages.” (1968: 71-72)
Furthermore, it should be noted that Éowyn’s change from a strong independent woman to a
child-bearing and apparently obedient wife is often criticised as being a “triumph of
patriarchy” (Fredrick and McBride qtd. in Enright, 2007: 105). On first sight, one would
indeed interpret the change as such, but in reality it could also be seen as a more subtle
ambition for glory (Porter, 2005: 96). While she originally wanted to achieve glory in battle,
she now hopes to find glory in other things such as contributing to the revival of Middle-earth
(Porter, 2005: 96). Enright, for example, argues that Éowyn’s healing “involves […] a
movement from a desire for power and domination (i.e. as a queen) to the desire to heal and to
help things grow” (2007: 105). In other words, Éowyn has not turned into an ambitionless
woman; instead, her ambitions have shifted to ones that are more desirable after the war
(Porter, 2005: 96). That is to say, while glory could primarily be found in battle during the
war of the Ring, it can now be found in helping to repair the destruction that was caused
during the war. In Unsung Heroes of The Lord of the Rings: From the Page to the Screen,
Porter agrees and adds that
“[when] Éowyn recognizes her love for Faramir, she understands […] [she] no longer
has to fight to be allowed to be the woman she wants to be. She can be herself and be
12
While there is no mention of their children in The Lord of the Rings, The Fellowship of the Ring mentions their
grandson, Barahir (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 20)
26
valued for her merits, without having to keep convincing men of her worth or
persuading them of what she needs to do.” (2005: 96)
Furthermore, Porter also argues that even Éowyn’s marriage to Faramir is a testament to her
independence considering that she makes the decision herself (2005: 96). Therefore, it can be
argued that even in a traditionally female role, Éowyn still maintains her independence.
In short, this chapter proposed to link Éowyn to Keenan’s “fertility-sterility conflict”
(1968: 64). Considering that she is a rather ambiguous character she could be linked to both
fertility and sterility. On the one hand, Éowyn’s time as a male soldier could be linked to a
‘sterile’ environment considering she is confronted with destruction and death, more precisely,
the death of her uncle. While Bogaert (2013) had argued in her bachelorpaper that such an
environment is irreconcilable with female characters, we could still explain Éowyn’s presence
in a war environment by arguing that there was theoretically no woman present at the
beginning of the battle. Furthermore, when Éowyn eventually reveals her true identity, she
kills the Ringwraith and effectively ends the battle and prevents further casualties. On the
other hand, we also discussed Éowyn’s road to fertility and briefly touched upon her wish to
be a healer. However, Éowyn’s transformation from an independent shield-maiden to an
obedient wife and healer has been criticised by scholars such as Frederic and McBride who
argued that this could be interpreted as a “triumph of patriarchy” (qtd. in Enright, 2007: 105).
In other words, Éowyn’s efforts to improve women’s right seem nullified by the fact that she
herself eventually falls back into a traditional female role. Enright and Porter both disagree
and point out that Éowyn has not conceded to patriarchal standards, but, instead, has decided
to achieve her goals in a different, more peaceful way (2007: 105; 2005: 96). As a result, she
can still be considered an independent and strong woman who is not afraid to hold her own in
a male-dominated world.
27
4.2 Aragorn
With characters such as Aragorn, Boromir, Denethor, Eomir, Faramir, etc. Men is one of the
most well represented races in The Lord of the Rings. However, as we have seen in the
previous chapter the cast of characters is predominantly male. Regrettably, we will not be able
to discuss all of these male characters, and will be forced to restrict ourselves to one of the
most prominent characters in Tolkien’s trilogy, namely Aragorn. As the future king and de
facto leader of the Fellowship, he has a significant influence on Frodo’s quest to destroy the
Ring, and bears the great responsibility of ensuring the continued existence of Middle-earth.
Consequently, it is not surprising that many critics assign to him the role of the romantic hero,
seeking redemption for his ancestor’s mistake (Flieger, 2004; Ford and Reid, 2009;
Greenwood, 2005; Lakowski, 2002). Considering that heroism is commonly equated with
men and masculinity, this chapter will deal with Aragorn’s heroic nature, and discuss how it
relates to his masculinity and sexual identity (Courcoux, 2014: 225; Madill, 2008; Hagemann,
2004: 116-117). Further, in her essay “Masculinity” Holy A. Crocker argues that through the
character of Aragorn a new type of masculinity emerges which “consolidates power through
its claim to invisibility” (2005: 117). This ‘new type of masculinity’ will be the secondary
focus of this chapter (Crocker, 2005: 117). Lastly, this chapter will also discuss how the
character of Aragorn fits into Keenan’s “fertility-sterility conflict” (1968: 64).
4.2.1 Aragorn: The Romantic Hero
Firstly, we will discuss the heroic qualities that are present in the character of Aragorn.
While many critics agree that Aragorn is undoubtedly a heroic character, there is little
consensus of the type of hero he represents (Flieger, 2004; Ford and Reid, 2009; Greenwood,
2005; Lakowski, 2002). A reason for this may be the different representation of Aragorn’s
character in both book and film (Ford and Reid, 2009: 83). That is to say, whereas the film
mainly depicts Aragorn as “a more contemporary hero who doubts himself and must deal with
those doubts”, the book originally portrayed him as “an epic hero who, while knowing he
must prove himself to others, has no doubt about his ability to do so” (Ford and Reid, 2009:
83). Considering this paper will not deal with Peter Jackson’s film version, we will apply
ourselves to the discussion of Aragorn as the epic/romantic hero. In her essay “Frodo and
Aragorn: The Concept of the Hero” Verlyn Flieger argues that “Aragorn is a traditional
epic/romance hero, larger than life, a leader, fighter, lover, healer. He is an extraordinary hero
who combines Northrop Frye’s romance and high mimetic modes” (2004: 124). As we will
28
see, Aragorn fulfils all of the abovementioned roles, and perfectly fits into Frye’s definition of
a romantic and mimetic hero (Flieger, 2004: 124; Frye, 1957: 33-34). In The Anatomy of
Criticism Northrop Frye writes that a “typical hero of romance” is “superior in degree to other
men and to his environment” (1957: 33). He is a human being, whose actions can be
considered “marvellous”, and who “moves in a world in which the ordinary laws of nature are
slightly suspended” (1957: 33). Considering that Aragorn is the “King of both Gondor and
Arnor” and rightful owner of the Ring (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 321, 1366), he can be considered
to be “superior in degree to other men” (Frye, 1957: 33). Furthermore, the second part of
Frye’s definition also applies to Aragorn considering that he is a human being, who fought in
many great battles, and who belongs to a world in which “the ordinary laws of nature are
slightly suspended” (i.e. the presence of magic and certain races such as Elves, Wizards, Ents,
etc.) (Frye, 1957: 33). While there are many examples of “marvellous” deeds (Frye, 1957: 33)
performed by Aragorn, two of the most remarkable ones are his fearlessness in entering ‘The
Paths of the Dead’, and his courage to directly confront “the Lord of the Black Land”
(Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1033-1034, 1162). Additionally, the former one is also an example of
“the ordinary laws of nature [being] slightly suspended” (Frye, 1957: 33). However, while
Aragorn meets most of the requirements of a romance hero, there is no indication that he is
superior to his environment. Therefore, he can also be considered a “hero of the high mimetic
mode”, which is “superior in degree to other men but not to his natural environment, the hero
is a leader” (Frye, 1957: 33-34).
As we already pointed out, Flieger discerns four important roles that are fulfilled by
the romantic hero – namely, those of “a leader, fighter, lover, [and] healer” (2004: 124).
Firstly, Aragorn’s role in battles such as the Battle of the Pelennor Fields and the Battle of
Helm’s Deep has shown us that he is a undoubtedly experienced fighter (Tolkien, 2007: LOR
696, 1109-110). His prowess in battle is also confirmed by the fact that he emerges from these
battled “unscathed” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1111). Furthermore, his command of the Army of
the Dead and his role as king shows us that he also fulfils the role of leader (Tolkien, 2007:
LOR 1033-1034, 1109). Thirdly, Aragorn’s role as a healer quickly becomes clear when he
heals Frodo after being stabbed by the Ringwraith (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 259). He explains the
medicinal properties of the plant athelas, and it is only later, at the Houses of Healing that the
true significance of Aragorn’s skill is revealed (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1126). There, Ioreth
relates an old lore that “The hands of the king are the hands of a healer” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR
1126). According to Flieger, “[t]he concept of the king as a healer derives from the early
Celtic principle of sacral kingship, whereby the health and fertility of the land are dependent
29
on the coming of the rightful king” (2004: 133). This idea of “sacral kingship” (Flieger, 2004:
133; Nikakis, 2007) closely relates to Keenan’s “fertility-sterility conflict” (1968: 64), and
will be discussed later. Next, we will discuss Aragorn in the role of lover. Tolkien regarded
the relationship between Arwen and Aragorn as one of the most important tales of the
Appendices (Tolkien, n.d.: 181 To Michael Straight [drafts], 255). Furthermore, it is
Aragorn’s love for Arwen that attributes to his characterisation as a romantic hero (Flieger,
2004: 132). Flieger states that “the tradition of romantic love […] requires the knight to
endure hardships and perform great deeds for the love of a lady” (2004: 132). This also hold
true for Aragorn who has to prove himself worthy of Arwen’s love. While he has already
earned Arwen’s affection, her father is not yet convinced that Aragorn is a suitable candidate
for his daughter. Elrond warns Aragorn that he “shall neither have wife, nor bind any woman
to [him] in troth, until [his] time comes and [he is] found worthy of it” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR
1388). Elrond even explicitly states that “[Arwen] is of lineage greater than [Aragorn’s]”, and,
as a result, “[s]he is far too above [him]” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1389). Therefore, Aragorn’s
journey to kingship can also be considered as a way to prove himself worthy of Arwen’s love
– namely, as King of the Reunited Kingdom he can hardly be considered of lesser lineage that
Arwen (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1391).
Lastly, we would like to discuss one of the most vital parts of a hero’s equipment: the
sword. According to Verlyn Flieger “[t]he fates of sword and man are linked, and […] the
destruction of one signals the end of the other” (2004: 131). The close relation between a man
and his sword is also illustrated in Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings, where the destruction of
Narsil, Isildur’s sword, is closely linked with Isildur’s own downfall. That is to say, after
Narsil was destroyed during the Battle of Dagorlad, Isildur came into possession of the One
Ring, “[b]ut was soon betrayed by it to his death” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 316-317). Especially
noteworthy, is the fact it was the broken sword that cut of Sauron’s Ring, and which led to
Isildur being the new Ring-bearer (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 316). Furthermore, the link between
masculinity and the sword has already been described by Sigmund Freud in his
Psychopathology of Everyday Life, wherein he argues that the sword is a typical phallus
symbol (2002: n. pag). Dana Oswald uses Freud’s interpretation of the sword symbolism in
her own analysis of medieval literary works, and argues that “the possession of weapons is
closely related to one’s gender and identity – and particularly to masculine identity” (2010:
93). Therefore, it could be argued that the broken sword is a symbolic castration, and
destruction of the character’s masculinity. Consequently, Aragorn not only has to atone for his
ancestor’s mistake, he also has to reclaim his masculinity. The reforging of the sword can thus
30
be interpreted as the first step towards the restoration of Aragorn’s masculine identity, and is
immediately accompanied by the promise of a valiant quest – namely, the war upon Mordor
(Tolkien, 2007: LOR 360). Aragorn’s masculinity will thus be reaffirmed by his heroic deeds
and his exemplary role as a king. That is to say, as a hero he is not only “presented as the
manliest of men”, he will also be expected to act as role model “for ‘average men’ and in this
way define the norms of masculinity” (Hagemann, 2004: 116). In short, the reforged sword
seems to symbolise Aragorn’s new masculine identity.
4.2.2 Aragorn: Herald of a New Masculinity
This brings us to our next chapter, which will primarily focus on the new type of masculinity
that is introduced by Aragorn (Crocker, 2005: 117). In her essay “Masculinity” Holy A.
Crocker argues that “with the coming ‘Dominion of Men’, a new model of masculinity
emerges that consolidates power through its claim to invisibility” (2005: 117). This
corresponds with Enright’s assertion that true power in The Lord of the Rings grows out of
humility, healing, love, and the renunciation of “earthly dominance” (2007: 106). While
Enright primarily focuses on the powerful roles of women in Tolkien’s trilogy, she
emphasises that “the choice of love over pride [is] a message central to the novel and one that
transcends all gender roles” (2007: 95). Firstly, a clear display of Aragorn’s humility is the
scene in which Aragorn, Éomer, and Imrahil near the city of Minas Tirith (Gondor). He
explains to them that
“[he] will not enter in, nor make any claim, until it be seen whether we or Mordor
shall prevail. Men shall pitch my tents upon the field, and here [he] will await the
welcome of the Lord of the City.” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1127)
Despite being the rightful king, Aragorn does not assume that he can freely enter Gondor
without leave of its Steward, Denethor. He even lays aside his claim of the throne until the
moment is right. This implies an act of self-sacrifice as he puts his own needs aside and
prioritises the war on Sauron (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1127). Moreover, the fact that he allows
Gandalf to lead the final battle shows us that he is not afraid to recognise other people’s
capabilities, and to delegate authority (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1129). Furthermore, Crocker’s
claim that the new masculinity requires invisibility, also hold true for Aragorn seeing that he
has to assume several alter egos (Estel, Strider, etc.) to conceal his identity as Isildur’s heir
(Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1386). Its successfulness is proven by the fact that almost none of the
characters recognise his true heritage until it is revealed to them (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 321,
1133). Secondly, Crocker adds that “Aragorn must refashion the masculinity of his kind to
31
avoid their missteps, [he] reveals his leadership through gestures of service that avoid
visibility” (Crocker, 2005: 117). Thus, on the one hand, Aragorn must make up for his
ancestor’s mistakes, especially those concerning the Ring and reckless assumption of power.
Consequently, Aragorn’s rejection of the Ring when it is offered to him is the first sign
towards a kind of masculinity that distances itself from overt displays of power (Tolkien,
2007: LOR 321). On the other hand, Aragorn’s leadership is revealed through subtle acts of
servitude instead of visible gestures of authority (Crocker, 2005: 117, 121). Especially his role
as a healer is important in this respect seeing that his use of kingsfoil to heal Faramir, Éowyn,
and Merry leads to the revelation of his royal descent (Crocker, 2005: 121, Tolkien, 2007:
LOR 1126, 1132-1133). Thirdly, Crocker warns against “an isolationist attitude that this new
masculinity must avoid” (2005: 118). This type of masculinity should distance itself from the
former estrangements between the different races, and, instead, focus on respecting and
preserving differences in kind, and “[gathering] strength from those groups it rules” (Crocker,
2005: 116, 118). In other words, Tolkien does not seem to advocate a hegemonic type of
masculinity, but instead strives for a kind of masculinity that allows difference and autonomy
(Crocker, 2005: 116, 119). Aragorn’s close ties with the different races of Middle-earth are a
step towards this inclusive masculinity (Crocker, 2005: 120). Moreover, Aragorn and
Arwen’s (biracial) children could be considered an embodiment of this new masculinity
seeing that they are the product of racial and cultural diversity.
Lastly, it should be noted that Sauron’s rule is the exact opposite of this “new model
of masculinity” (Crocker, 2005:117). For example, Sauron’s power is founded on visibility,
and closely associated with overt displays of power. The all-seeing eye makes invisibility
almost impossible seeing that he has various spies, and can use the Ring and the palantír to
spy on those who possess these objects (e.g. Tolkien, 2007: LOR 83, 523, 773). Furthermore,
unlike Aragorn, he does not seem to accept diversity and autonomy in his subjects. An
example of this are the Orcs who are nothing more than his mindless slaves (Tolkien, 2007:
LOR 1486). Therefore, Sauron does not fit in this new model of masculinity. Kord and
Krimmer even go as far as to argue that Sauron’s physical form contradicts his claim to
masculinity considering that the eye is reminiscent of the female genitalia (2011: 99).
However, this is quite a strained interpretation, and can easily be refuted by arguing that the
tower which Sauron inhabits is a phallic symbol (Kord and Krimmer, 2011: 99).
32
4.2.3 Aragorn: The Fertile King
As we have pointed out earlier, Aragorn’s role as a healer is quite significant as it is
reminiscent of the concept of “sacral kingship, whereby the health and fertility of the land are
dependent on the coming of the rightful king” (Flieger, 2004: 133; Nikakis, 2007). “Sacral
kingship” (Flieger, 2004: 133; Nikakis, 2007), in its turn, is closely related to the “fertilitysterility conflict” (Keenan, 1968: 64). Therefore, this chapter will try to determine where
Aragorn fits into the conflict by focusing on the three following aspects: nature, life, and war.
First, we will discuss how Aragorn stimulates fertility in nature. As we have already
mentioned, Aragorn kingship is an example of “sacral kingship”, which implies that his rule
announces a replenishment and protection of the natural environment (Flieger, 2004: 133;
Nikakis, 2007: 83). Once again Aragorn’s rule is clearly contrasted with that of Sauron:
whereas Sauron’s rule was characterised by ruined and barren lands due to industrialisation,
Aragorn’s rule will warrant a revival of nature (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1205, 1207). To
illustrate, after his coronation Aragorn discovers that “alone there in the waste a growing
thing stood. And he climbed to it, and saw that out of the very edge of the snow there sprang a
sapling tree no more than three foot high” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1273). The re-emergence of
the White Tree can thus be interpreted as a first step towards the restoration of nature after it
has been destroyed by Sauron and the war (Nikakis, 2007: 89). Furthermore, the contrast
between the White Tree and the barren land in which it grows, is symbolical of the
discrepancy between the old age and the new age. The barren land, then, represents the
destructive force of industrialisation and war, while the sapling represents the first steps
towards a more fertile environment brought about by the new (rightful) king. In addition, the
fact that the tree was slightly withered, and only reached its full potential after Aragorn
planted it out in his court, suggests that Aragorn’s healing touch is not reserved for people
alone (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1273).
Secondly, in “Who is afraid of women in The Lord of the Ring?” Bogaert argued that
elven women were the proposed example of a race that encouraged fertility in life and nature
(2013: 29). Seeing that Aragorn is married to an elven woman, and because he himself is the
epitome of fertility, their union is key to the continuation of their respective races. After the
war, Arwen, like many women, becomes pregnant and contributes to the repopulation of
Middle-earth and the continuation of Aragorn’s line (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1394). Aragorn,
thus, not only inspires the revival of nature, but also the coming of new life. Taking this in to
account, Aragorn certainly lives up to his (alternate) name, “Envinyatar”, which literally
33
means “the Renewer” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1129). Furthermore, Legolas comments on the
vital role Men will play in the restoration of Middle-earth’s population, and states that “‘[y]et
seldom do they fail of their seed,’ […] ‘[a]nd that will lie in the dust and rot to spring up again
in times and places unlooked-for” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1142). Here, Legolas highlights the
contrast between immortality and mortality and, by extension, sterility and fertility (Flieger,
2001: 112). He emphasises the advantage of Men in knowing the value of life through death.
Death gives Men a purpose in life, and makes them realise that their only hope for
immortality is through procreation. Consequently, Men’s curse of mortality is also a blessing
considering that it inspires fertility, and will eventually lead to Men outlasting the immortal
races of Middle-earth such as Elves and Wizards (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1142). Therefore,
Men, like no other, knows the struggle for life (Keenan, 1968). Or as Verlyn Flieger
perceptively states: “this very sense of passing and loss that on one level Tolkien mourned, on
another he celebrated. For to be capable of living is also to be capable of dying, and without
death there can be no rebirth” (2001: 112).
Thirdly, we will briefly discuss how the “fertility-sterility conflict” (Keenan, 1968: 64)
relates to Aragorn and his involvement in the war. We have already established that Aragorn
is an example of “sacral kingship” and, as a result, a capable healer (Flieger, 2004: 133,
Nikakis, 2007). Consequently, his role in the war is quite ambiguous because he functions as
both a fighter and a healer (Nikakis, 2007: 86). As a fighter, Aragorn causes death and
destruction, which relates closely with the sterility theme. However, his role as a warrior also
contributes to his journey towards kingship, manhood, and eventually his fertile qualities
(Nikakis, 2007: 86). Nikakis explains Aragorn’s need to fight as an attempt to prove his
masculinity and worth as the future king (2007: 86). Conversely, his role as a healer is also
important in the war context. Instead of taking lives, Aragorn is one of the few characters who
is also able to give – or rather restore – life. In other words, he brings life to an environment
which is primarily characterised by death and destruction or, in Keenan’s words, sterility
(1968: 64). In addition, Aragorn seems to be the only one who is able to counter Sauron’s
sterility. Not only is he, as king, responsible for restoring Middle-earth to its former state, he
is also the only one who can cure the “Black Breath” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1126, 1131, 1140,
1272). Tolkien writes about Black Breath, or Black Shadow, that it is
“a malady that would not be healed; and they called it Black Shadow, for it came from
the Nazgûl. And those who were stricken with it fell slowly into an ever deeper dream,
and then passed to silence and a deadly cold, and so died” (2007: LOR 1126)
34
Tolkien describes how the victims are slowly wasting away because of the Nazgûls wound.
Keenan’s interpretation of the conflict as “a struggle of life against death” (1968: 71) becomes
very apparent in this extract. Furthermore, Nikasis points out that Aragorn’s method of
healing is reminiscent of Christ’s healing methods (2007: 86). Especially “the laying on of
hands upon” is similar to Christ’s methods of healing the sick (Nikakis, 2007: 86). In other
words, Tolkien’s Catholicism clearly shines through in this scene and specifically in the
character of Aragorn. Furthermore, it should also be noted that Aragorn also uses his breath to
heal Faramir (Nikakis, 2007: 85; Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1133). As Nikakis insightfully states,
“the positive potency of Aragorn’s breath [is] in direct contrast with the debilitating effects of
the “Black Breath” of Sauron’s agents (I:10 170)” (2007: 85). Aragorn’s ‘breath of life’, thus,
pleads in favour of him being linked with life and fertility.
35
5. Hobbits
In the prologue to The Lord of the Ring, Tolkien writes that “Hobbits are relatives of ours: far
nearer to us than Elves, or even than Dwarves” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 2). Therefore,
considering that the previous chapter dealt with the race of Men, it is only logical that we
move on to Men’s closest relatives: the Hobbits. Firstly, this chapter will discuss the Hobbit
women, particularly Rose Cotton and Lobelia Sackville-Baggins. In addition, we will also
propose to explain why they only appear at the beginning and the end of the trilogy, and why
there is almost no mention of other female Hobbits. Secondly, we will discuss Hobbit men.
However, seeing that there are quite a lot of male Hobbits in The Lord of the Rings, we will
be unable to discuss all of them in this paper. Therefore, we have chosen to only focus on
Frodo because he is the main protagonist of the novel.
5.1 Hobbit women
In her paper Bogaert (2013) argued that not only the portrayed female characters should be
discussed, but that special attention should also be given to the female characters that are not
present in the Tolkien’s works. As a result, Bogaert (2013) not only discussed Shelob and
Galadriel, she also proposed to explain the absence of the Entwives and female Orcs.
Consequently, seeing that we have already discussed Éowyn – and, to some extent, Ioreth –
we will now focus our discussion on a race, whose female counterparts are barely mentioned:
the Hobbits. Nevertheless, it should be noted that there are two Hobbit women present in the
trilogy, but they only have minor roles, and could thus be easily overlooked. Firstly, this
chapter will propose to determine their role in Tolkien’s trilogy, especially in light of the
“fertility-sterility conflict” (Keenan, 1968: 64). Secondly, it will propose to explain why
Hobbit women are absent from the main plot.
Already in one of the first chapters we are confronted with a Hobbit woman.
Unfortunately, Lobelia Sackville-Baggins is far from a likeable character, and does not give
the reader a very good first impression of Hobbit women. Tolkien portrays her as a greedy
and impolite old woman with kleptomaniac tendencies. Therefore, it is not surprising that
critics have accused Tolkien of being a misogynist (Neville, 2005: 101). However, despite her
unfortunate first impression, Lobelia evolves into a spirited and even well-loved Hobbit at the
end of the trilogy (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1326, 1336). Her little uprising against Sharkey’s men
shows us that she is not afraid to use physical force to protect what is hers (Tolkien, 2007:
LOR 1326). While the scene is slightly humorous – an old woman attacking a man twice her
36
size with an umbrella seems a less heroic than, for example, Éowyn killing a Ringwraith with
a sword – it cannot be denied it is an act of bravery. In “Gazing upon Sauron” Jess Battis even
goes as far as calling her “a freedom fighter of sorts” (2004: 914). Furthermore, Lobelia’s
display of aggression towards the group leader puts her in what Battis calls “the martial realm
of […] hobbit masculinity” (2004: 914). In other words, like Éowyn, Lobelia refuses to obey
male authority unquestioningly, and resists what she considers to be an unreasonable order
(Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1326).
The second female Hobbit is Rose cotton, Sam’s love interest and future wife.
According to Battis, Rose is “is an absent figure that [Sam] thinks about only on occasion”,
and that it is primarily Frodo who holds Sam’s affection (2004: 914). While it cannot be
denied that Sam and Frodo have a close relationship, and that Sam is concerned about his
master’s well-being, Rose’s importance to Sam cannot be underestimated either. Sam
thoughts often return to the Shire and Rose when he feels most hopeless (Tolkien, 2007: LOR
1221, 1228). For example, when Frodo and Sam are nearing Mount Doom, Sam becomes
increasingly concerned that their provisions will not last, and that they will not survive their
quest (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1221). However, his memories of Rose repeatedly give him the
strength to go on (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1221, 1228). Therefore, despite being absent from the
main plot, Rose fulfils an important mental role in the quest for the Ring’s destruction. What
is more, after the Ring has been destroyed, she – like many other women in the trilogy –
contributes to the continuation of the Hobbit race (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1342). It could be
argued that both Hobbit women eventually settle in traditionally female roles (Battis, 2004:
914-915) seeing that Lobelia returns to her family, and Rose starts her own family with Sam.
We admit that this may plead against women being powerful and independent characters in
Tolkien’s works, but it should be taken into account that all Hobbits, men and women, prefer
a quiet and peaceful life with their families. For example, Tolkien writes about Hobbits that
“[t]he houses and the holes of Shire-hobbits were often large, and inhabited by large families.
[…] bachelors [were] very exceptional […] All Hobbits were, in any case, clannish and
reckoned up their relationships with great care” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 9-10). Therefore, we
could argue that Rose and Lobelia do not necessarily fulfil traditionally female roles, but,
instead, just conform to something that is inherently Hobbit-like. This was also supported by
Tolkien himself who stated that
“the [Hobbit] ‘household’, was not a monarchy (except by accident). It was a ‘dyarchy’, in
which master and mistress had equal status, if different functions. Either was held to be
the proper representative of the other in the case of absence (including death). […] If the
37
master died first, his place was taken by his wife.” (Tolkien, n.d.: 214 To A.C. Nunn
(draft), 306)
While Tolkien does admit to a division of roles within Hobbit families, he is quite adamant
about the fact that men and women are considered equals (Tolkien, n.d.: 214 To A.C. Nunn
(draft), 306). Consequently, it could be argued that Tolkien had quite a progressive view on
family structures seeing that Hobbit families do not subscribe to a patriarchal family structure
(or a matriarchal one for that matter), but share responsibilities instead.
Next, we will propose to explain why Hobbit women are absent from the main plot. In
the chapter about Tolkien and gender we already discussed that he believed friendship
between a male and a female to be impossible seeing that it would inevitably lead to sexual
relations (Tolkien, 1941: 43 To Michael Tolkien, 59). Therefore, some critics have argued
that Tolkien excluded women from the story in order to avoid sexual themes (Green, 2008:
29-30). While we do not necessarily believe that Green’s interpretation holds true for the
absence of all women in The Lord of the Rings, we still think it may be partially true for
Hobbit women. That is to say, we believe that Tolkien did not depict female Hobbits at the
beginning of the novel because the male Hobbits were still perceived as rather immature.
Keenan, for example, argues that the Hobbits’ enjoyment of birthday parties, gifts, snacks,
and their tendency to “do little work and mostly play” is reminiscent of a child’s enthusiasm
and interest (1968: 66). Furthermore, the fact that Hobbits are rather small and only ‘come of
age’ at the age of thirty-three seems to supports Keenan’s claim (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 28). If
we take Green’s argument into account, it is possible that Tolkien did not incorporate female
Hobbits in the main plot, because he did not want to associate children with the possibility of
sexuality. However, the question then arises why Hobbit women suddenly appear at the end
of the trilogy. This may be explained by the Hobbits’ evolution during the series. In her paper
“A Transactional Psychoanalysis of Frodo” Michele Novellino argues that the Hobbits are “a
metaphorical representation of the process young men undergo during adolescence” (2008:
233). It is true that the Hobbits become more mature throughout the trilogy, and take on many
responsibilities. For example, while Merry and Pippin swear fealty to Théoden and Denethor
respectively, Middle-earth’s fate is literally in Frodo’s and Sam’s hands (Tolkien, 2007: LOR
989, 1018). Therefore, it could be argued that it can no longer be considered taboo to involve
women in the narrative seeing that the male Hobbits have outgrown their childish traits, and
have grown into mature and responsible men. Furthermore, considering both Pippin and Sam
become fathers shortly after the war has ended, the involvement of women has indeed led to
sexual themes, and thus contradicts Green’s assertion that women were purposely banned
38
from the story to avoid sexual themes (2008: 29-30; Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1448, 1450). 13
However, we have to admit that sexual references in Tolkien’s works are always implicit or
symbolical, and never explicitly stated (Partridge, 1983).
This chapter proposed to argue that despite their minor roles in The Lord of the Rings,
Lobelia and Rose still have quite a significant impact on the story. Whereas Lobelia is one of
the few Hobbits to resist Sharkey’s usurpation of the Shire, the thought of Rosie gave Sam the
strength to complete his and Frodo’s arduous task. Furthermore, we also concluded that
Hobbits do not subscribe to a traditional patriarchal family structure seeing that both men and
women are allowed to be the head of the family (Tolkien, n.d.: 214 To A.C. Nunn (draft),
306). Lastly, we also proposed to explain women’s absence from the main plot, and argued
that Tolkien did not want to associate children with sexual themes. As Tolkien wrote in his
letter to his son: “‘friendship’ […] is virtually impossible between man and woman. The devil
is endlessly ingenious, and sex is his favourite subject” (Tolkien, 1941: 43 To Michael
Tolkien, 59). Consequently, the involvement of women would have implied sexual themes.
Therefore, women are only introduced when the male Hobbits have finally matured into
responsible men due to their experiences during the war.
5.2 Frodo
After having discussed the female Hobbits, we will now move on to their male counterparts.
Unfortunately, considering the multitude of male Hobbits in the trilogy, we will not be able to
discuss all of them. Instead, we have decided to limit ourselves to the discussion of Frodo
seeing that he is the trilogy’s main protagonist. Furthermore, we will also come back to his
character in the chapter about homosexuality seeing that his relationship with Sam has been
the subject of much academic debate (Hooker, 2004; Partridge, 1983; Rohy, 2008; Saxey,
2005; Smol, 2004 & 2008; Vaccaro, 2007). This chapter, however, will not yet deal with the
homoerotic aspects between both Hobbits. Instead, it will focus on what Novellino describes
as “[Frodo’s] transition […] into the stage of virility and manhood” (2008: 233). In other
words, we will discuss how masculinity manifests itself in Frodo and the Hobbits in general.
Secondly, similarly to the previous chapters, we will also propose to link Frodo’s character to
Keenan’s “fertility-sterility conflict” (1968: 64).
First, we will begin with the discussion of Frodo’s masculinity. As we have pointed
out in the chapter about female Hobbits, Hobbits are often associated, and even equated, with
13
It is unsure if Meriadoc had any children. His family tree only mentions his wife, Estella Bolger (Tolkien,
2007: LOR 1449).
39
children (Keenan, 1968: 66; Novellino, 2008). As a result, their experiences during the war
could be interpreted as a transition towards adulthood and masculinity. Novellino agrees and
states that “[t]he character of Frodo […] is examined as a metaphorical representation of the
process young men undergo during adolescence” (2008: 233). Novellino mainly founds her
theory on two principles (2008: 233-236). On the one hand, Frodo must fulfil “a rite of
passage [which] detach[es] himself from his childhood family bonds” (2008: 234). For Frodo
this entails leaving the familiarity of the Shire (Novellino, 2008: 234). Due to Hobbits’ love of
the familiar and the predictable, leaving the Shire in order to pursue adventure is commonly
frowned upon. To illustrate, in The Hobbit Tolkien writes that “people considered [the
Bagginses] very respectable […] because they never had any adventures or did anything
unexpected” (Tolkien 2012: HOB 11). Furthermore, Frodo himself is initially reluctant to go
on his journey, and states “[he is] not made for perilous quests” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 86).
Consequently, by leaving the Shire Frodo geographically and personally detaches himself
from his fellow Hobbits (Novellino, 2008: 234). Novellino considers this to be his first step
towards masculinity seeing that his departure from the Shire symbolises “[Frodo distancing]
himself from his family’s mental and cultural reference system in order to explore other
viewpoints” (2008: 234). On the other hand, Novellino states that “[t]he second symbolic
transition consists of a process of identification with male role models” (2008: 234).
Especially noteworthy, are Bilbo and Gandalf, who both function as father figures (Novellino,
2008: 234). Whereas Bilbo literally “adopted Frodo as his heir” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 28),
Gandalf’s role is more advisory. These parental figures “enable Frodo to discover in himself
the dormant characteristics of courage and steadfastness” (Novellino, 2008: 234). For
example, Bilbo’s courage in offering to destroy the Ring himself may have encouraged Frodo
to do the same (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 352). That is to say, while Gandalf quickly points out
that Bilbo’s responsibility lies elsewhere, and that he has become too old for such quests,
Frodo quickly comes to realise that he should be the one to take the Ring (Tolkien, 2007:
LOR 352). Whereas the task is “beyond [Bilbo’s] strength” (Tolkien, 2007; LOR 352), it
certainly is not beyond Frodo’s. As Gandalf said at the beginning of his journey, Frodo has
been chosen, and should “use such strength and heart and wits as [he has]” (Tolkien, 2007:
LOR 80). Thirdly, we would like to add another dimension to Novellino’s analysis by
discussing Frodo’s humble disposition. In her essay “Masculinity” Holly A. Crocker argues
that “[t]he conscientious insignificance that characterizes Hobbits is recognizable in
Boromir’s articulation of masculinity [as a disavowal of] ambitious power” (2005: 116).
Frodo, for example, tries to distance himself from the Ring on several occasions by offering it
40
to – in his opinion – more powerful men such as Gandalf and Aragorn (Tolkien, 2007: LOR
80-81, 321). This shows us that Frodo not only considers himself to be unfit for such a
responsibility, but also that he has no problem with renouncing great power. Nevertheless,
near the end of the quest it becomes clear that Frodo struggles to fight the Ring’s corruptive
power. His obsession with the Ring eventually culminates at Mount Doom where he refuses
to destroy it, and even “set[s] it on his finger” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1237). Consequently,
while it could be argued that Frodo represents an adolescent’s journey towards manhood, it
seems that his journey remains incomplete, or is at least interrupted (Novellino, 2008). The
fact that Frodo is ultimately unable to renounce the Ring’s power contradicts Crocker’s (and
Boromir’s) definition of masculinity (2005: 116). However, it would be naïve to found our
claim on Crocker’s definition alone (2005). Keenan, for example, states that Frodo’s
punishment for claiming the Ring as his own is important with regard to his masculinity
(1968: 69-70). Frodo’s appropriation of the Ring angers Gollum to such a degree that he
violently attacks Frodo and bites off his ring finger (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1238). Keenan
interprets Gollum’s act as a “symbolic castration” seeing that “Frodo’s conscious assumption
of the Ring [could be interpreted as] a symbolic assumption of sexuality, [or] a symbolic
coitus” (Keenan, 1968: 69). In other words, Keenan asserts that the insertion of Frodo’s finger
into the Ring – a female symbol – can be interpreted as a sexual act, and that the subsequent
loss of his finger represents Frodo’s emasculation due to his illegitimate appropriation of the
Ring (Keenan, 1968: 69). Furthermore, Frodo’s ‘incomplete masculinity’ also manifests itself
in his behaviour after he has returned to the Shire. To illustrate, Sam observes that since their
return “Frodo dropped quietly out of all the doings of the Shire” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 13411342). In other words, Frodo has become despondent and passive, which is typically
considered to be a feminine trait (Smol, 2007: 233). In addition, Frodo’s passivity starkly
contrasts with “the masculine aggressiveness of Sam, Merry, and Pippin” (Keenan, 1968: 70).
Therefore, while Frodo has undoubtedly evolved from a carefree child into a burdened adult,
there is no real proof that he has come into his manhood (Keenan, 1968: 67). Unlike the other
Hobbits he loses his male aggressiveness, and ultimately his lust for life. Further, Frodo’s
diminishing interest in “all the doings of the Shire” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1342) also manifests
itself in his disinterest in any romantic relationship. Contrary to Sam and Pippin, who have
started a family of their own, Frodo remains a bachelor after the war (Tolkien, 2007: LOR
1445-1450). Secondly, Frodo’s lack of a wife and children may also be a result of his
“symbolic castration” (Keenan, 1968: 69). Keenan argues that Frodo’s castration entails a loss
of his sexuality and “a death of the body” (1968: 69-70). Consequently, it is possible that
41
Frodo is simply unable to procreate after being affected by the Ring’s sterile influence, and
the subsequent loss of his ring finger. Thirdly, it could also be argued that Frodo’s disinterest
in any (heterosexual) romantic relationships is a result of his lingering feelings towards Sam.
However, this subject will be dealt with in chapter five.
Lastly, Frodo’s inability to procreate brings us to our next subject of debate, namely
Keenan’s “fertility-sterility conflict” (1968: 64). Seeing that we have already discussed
Frodo’s procreative (in)fertility, this paragraph will primarily focus on his link to natural
fertility, and his relation to life and death. Firstly, despite that Frodo does not have any
children of his own, he can still be linked to natural fertility and the procreative fertility of
others. By destroying the Ring, for example, Frodo terminated Sauron’s sterile influence on
Middle-earth, and encouraged nature and life to flourish again. Furthermore, according to
Novellino, Frodo’s role as a ‘bringer of fertility’ is also implied in his name (2008: 235). She
states that ‘Frodo’ “derives from “Frodi,” a child of unknown origin coming from the sea and
bringing fertility” (Novellino, 2008: 235). In other words, Frodo does not represent fertility
himself, but is able to bring it to others by sacrificing his own life. This is also the reason why
Frodo is often described as the sacrificial hero (Lakowski, 2002: 23). Furthermore, the
necessity of his sacrifice is also confirmed by Frodo himself:
“I tried to save the Shire, and it has been saved, but not for me. It must often be so,
Sam, when things are in danger: some one [sic] has to give them up, lose them, so that
others may keep them.” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1346-1347; Lakowski, 2002: 23)
The fact that Frodo’s death implies life for others brings us to the interpretation of the
“fertility-sterility conflict” as a struggle between life and death (Keenan, 1968: 64; 71).
Keenan argues that “hobbits combine the strongest traditional symbols of life: the rabbit for
fertility and the child for generation” (1968: 66). 14 While this may have been true for Frodo
at the beginning of his adventure, the burden of the Ring has forced him to sacrifice “the
eternal child”, and become an adult instead (Keenan, 1968: 67). That is to say, while Frodo
may have represented life and fertility at some point, the Ring’s corruptive power and Frodo’s
near-death experiences (e.g. being stabbed by the Ringwraith, and being stung by Shelob)
brought him closer to death and sterility. Conversely, Sam becomes more closely linked to
fertility after the war seeing that he not only becomes a father, but also manages to plant “one
of the finest [mallorns] in the world” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1339). Therefore, whereas Sam
14
Keenan associates Hobbits with rabbits because of their “well-populated, clan-size burrows” (1968: 66). That
is to say, the fact that they have large families and live in holes under the ground is reminiscent of certain
animals such as rabbits (Keenan, 1968: 66).
42
finds a new purpose in life (i.e. being a father and a renowned gardener), Frodo has
difficulties moving on. He comes to realise that there is no place for him in this new, fertile
world, and that his sole purpose was to sacrifice his own life so that others might enjoy a
peaceful and fertile life (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1346-1347; Rohy, 2004: 938).
This chapter proposed to discuss Frodo’s masculinity and his link to the “fertilitysterility conflict” (Keenan, 1968: 64). Firstly, we discussed Novellino’s claim that Frodo’s
character actually symbolises an adolescent’s journey towards masculinity (2008: 233).
However, despite that Frodo’s evolution shows many similarities to growing up, we
concluded that he does not complete his journey towards masculinity. Instead, his experiences
with the Ring have rendered him incomplete and lethargic. Furthermore, his inability to
destroy the Ring in the end led to his “symbolic castration” (Keenan, 1968: 69), which
possibly explains his passive disposition and disinterest in romantic relationships. Secondly,
we argued Frodo himself symbolises sterility because of his inability (or disinterest) to
procreate, and because of his close link to death. Nevertheless, despite being a ‘sterile’
character himself, Frodo’s sacrifice brought fertility back to Middle-earth, and caused a
proliferation of births and marriages (Keenan, 1968: 72; Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1339, 1341).
43
6. Relationships and sexuality
Lastly, we will discuss Tolkien’s representation of relationships and sexuality in The Lord of
the Rings. Both topics have been extensively discussed because they are so elusive in his
works, and because Tolkien himself was quite clear about how he perceived sexual
relationships in his fictional work. Tolkien considered sexual relationships to be “one of the
chief symptoms of the Fall” (Tolkien, 1941: 43 To Michael Tolkien, 59). In other words,
Tolkien’s religious beliefs seemed to prevent him from incorporating sexual relations in his
works as he saw them as immoral and the devil’s “favourite subject” (Tolkien, 1941: 43 To
Michael Tolkien, 59). Consequently, certain critics have argued that Tolkien’s works are
devoid of any sexual relationships (Green, 1998 & 2008). Green, for example, asserts that
Tolkien purposely used male pronouns for characters who were originally female so that he
could “avoid sexual themes while dealing with close relationships” (2008: 29-30). However,
Green’s assertion that Tolkien’s world is a “sexless one” (2008: 30), has been refuted by
many critics (Partridge, 1983; Battis, 2004; Smol, 2004). Partridge, for example, argues that
the “claim that The Lord of the Rings contains no sex must be refuted; it is there, though it is
closely interwoven with and often masked by various other themes and symbolism” (1983:
179). Nevertheless, despite their differences, Green and Partridge both agree on the fact that
Tolkien seems to fear female sexuality, and that it is one of the reasons why women are so
scarce in the trilogy (2008; 1983: 191, 194-195) 15 . Furthermore, Partridge adds that
“Tolkien’s deep involvement with his male friends to the exclusion of women has strongly
influenced the male and female portraits in The Lord of the Rings” (1983: 194-195).
Therefore, it was not only his fear of female sexuality that led to the lack of female characters
in his works, but also his limited experience with male-female relationships (Partridge, 1983:
194-195; Saxey, 2005: 125). Furthermore, Green’s theory that Tolkien primarily used male
characters in his stories to avoid sexual themes is also refuted by critics who believe that the
relationships between the male characters are sometimes sexually charged (Green, 2008: 2930; Rohy, 2004; Saxey, 2005). The homosexual subtext has also been picked up by numerous
fans whose “queer readings of [the text]” have resulted in “many online communities of
homoerotic fanfiction” (Saxey, 2005: 126). One of the most popular pairing among fans and
critics is the intimate, but still strongly hierarchical relationship between Frodo and Sam
(Partridge, 1983; Saxey, 2005). Nevertheless, Saxey admits that the “homoerotic aspects” in
15
Green (1998) can be found through te following URL:
http://search.proquest.com/docview/750486625?accountid=11077 . No pagination was provided.
44
the text could easily be “re-heterosexualized”, and that “the homoeroticism can [thus] be
safely designated as a ‘subtext’” (2005: 125-127). As a result, while both Partridge (1983) and
Smol (2004 & 2008) acknowledge a homoerotic reading of the text, they also point out that
intimate relationships between men were not uncommon during warfare. Considering that the
nature of male relationships within The Lord of the Rings is quite controversial, it would be
interesting to include it in this paper. Seeing that this chapter deals with relationships and
sexuality, the possibility of homoerotic relations between the characters will be included in
the discussion.
Finally, another important aspect of the novel are the heterosexual relationships.
Especially noteworthy in this respect is that heterosexual relationships only become a
possibility after the war has ended (Keenan, 1968: 64, 71-72). Saxey even argues that the
“appendices heterosexualize many of the characters” (2005: 128). In other words, the end of
the war seems to imply a return to the ‘natural order of things’: nature returns to its original
beauty, children are born, and the homoerotic relations that formed during the war are
replaced by heterosexual ones. Furthermore, critics such as Jane Chance (2001) and Jennifer
Neville (2005) emphasise the importance of the heterosexual relations. In Lord of the Rings:
The Mythology of Power, for example, Chance argues that “the return of the female difference
[at the end of the book] balances harmoniously with the masculine” (2001: 62). The Ents and
the Entwives are a prime example of this principle seeing that the orderly nature of the
Entwives balances the wild and careless attitude of the Ents (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 619;
Chance, 2001: 61-62). In addition, according to Chance Tolkien insisted that
“Power […] must be shared with those individuals and peoples who are different, in
gender, nature, history, and temperament. Those who would lead must tolerate
difference in expression, latitude, and space rather than choke, ignore, abandon, and
repress, or kill it. LotR is the story of difference articulated, nearly crushed, and only
then restored.” (2001: 62)
To sum up, Chance emphasises the importance of complementarity when it comes to
leadership positions (2001: 62). Leaders should accept differences and even encourage it
(Chance, 2001: 62). Moreover, the leaders themselves should recognise the necessity of
sharing their power with someone who balances them because only then a harmonious world
can exist (Chance, 2001: 62). This may explain the death and destruction that characterised
Sauron’s rule. Sauron’s rule was a tyranny because he did not wish to share the power that he
possessed. As illustrated in the books, his lust for power not only caused the destruction of
45
nature and life in Middle-earth, but it also led to his own downfall. Neville also emphasises
the importance of a female counterpart and states that
“it is striking that male characters without female counterparts often fare poorly in
Tolkien’s work (Gollum, Saruman, Sauron, Boromir, Denethor, the Ents, arguably
Frodo himself), while heterosexual couples embody the positive forces of Middleearth (Tom Bombadil and Goldberry, Galadriel and Celeborn, Aragorn and Arwen,
and Sam and Rosie).” (2005: 107).
Seeing that Neville’s list is quite extensive, it will be impossible to describe all the
aforementioned relationships in this paper (2005:107). Therefore, this paper will only focus
on relationships that involve characters which have also been discussed in the previous
chapters. By doing so, we hope to give a complete analysis of the characters instead of only
touching upon certain subjects without being able to analyse them as elaborately as they
deserve.
6.1 Homosexuality
This chapter will discuss the alleged homoerotic tension between Frodo and Sam. As we
already mentioned Frodo and Sam’s relationship is quite a controversial one. While some
critics assert that there is a clear homosexual aspect to their relationship (Rohy, 2004; Saxey,
2005) others claim that their intimate relationship could be explained as a typical male
friendship in times of war (Partridge, 1983; Smol, 2004 & 2008). Considering that both
theories hold convincing arguments, it is difficult to choose one over the other. Nevertheless,
we have to admit that Rohy’s argument that homosexuality is a result of a ‘sterile’
environment fits well in what we have already discussed with regard to Keenan’s “fertilitysterility conflict” (2004: 937, 944; 1968: 64).
To start with, this chapter will discuss sources in favour of a homosocial reading of
Frodo and Sam’s relationship. In both of her articles, Anna Smol argues that Frodo and Sam’s
relationship “reflects a historically contingent mode of British male friendship that belongs to
the First World War” (2004: 950; 2008: 322). Considering that Tolkien himself served in the
War it is likely that he had first-hand experience with these kinds of relationships, and that he
incorporated them in the trilogy’s war theme (Smol, 2008: 322). Brenda Partridge agrees and
adds that “war provides a context in which men can be acceptably intimate because they are at
the same time being seen to live up to the socially desirable stereotype image of the
aggressive male” (1983: 184). While Tolkien’s hobbits do not really meet this “stereotype
image of the aggressive male” (Partridge, 1983: 184), the relationships between the characters
46
seem to reflect a typical army structure. That is to say, there is a hierarchical relationship
between Sam and Frodo that is both expressed in their different social classes, and the
military ranking that they assume (Hooker, 2004: 131; Partridge, 1983: 184; Smol, 2004: 963
& 2008: 323). Many critics have compared their relationship with that of an officer and his
batman (Hooker, 2004: 131; Partridge, 1983: 184; Smol, 2004: 963 & 2008: 323). In “Frodo’s
Batman” Mark T. Hooker gives an elaborate account of the batman-officer relationship and
defines it as follows: “An officer and his batman were from different social classes. While
Frodo represents the English officer and gentleman, born to greatness […] Sam […] was not
born to greatness but had greatness trust upon him [by the fellowship’s quest and as Frodo’s
heir]” (2004: 131). Tasks of a batman included taking care of his master and looking after his
master’s luggage (Hooker, 2004: 125; Partridge, 1983: 184). Furthermore, because the officer
was so dependent on his servant, the relationship between a batman and his master was based
on unwavering loyalty and devotion, which often resulted in a strong and intimate bond
(Hooker, 2004: 125; Partridge, 1983: 184). Because of the similarities between the batmanofficer relationship, and that of Frodo and Sam, it might be interesting to discuss the textual
evidence that supports the claim of Partridge (1983), Hooker (2004), and Smol (2004 & 2008)
that the Hobbits’ relationship holds no sexual component, and is solely based on a deeply felt
trust and friendship. One of the first examples of Sam’s role as Frodo’s batman can be found
at the beginning of their journey when he suggests to take on some of Frodo’s luggage: “‘I am
sure you have given me all the heaviest stuff’, said Frodo. […] ‘I could take a lot more yet,
sir. My packet is quite light,’ said Sam stoutly and untruthfully” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 92). In
this extract, Sam proposes to fulfil one of the batman’s most basic tasks, namely carrying his
master’s luggage (Hooker, 2004: 125; Partridge, 1983: 184). Hooker adds that it was not
uncommon for batmen to make “sacrifices” for their masters (Hooker, 2004: 129). However,
from the beginning it is made clear that Sam’s willingness to make sacrifices for his master
goes much farther than carrying his luggage. When Frodo warns Sam that their quest will be
dangerous, and probably fatal, Sam bravely answers that if Frodo does not return from their
journey, than neither will he (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 113). In other words, Sam is dedicated to
his master till the very end. This is also illustrated by the fact that, at the end of his life, Sam
joins Frodo at the Grey Havens, thus reuniting with his master in death (Tolkien, 2007: LOR
1442). Finally, Sam also fulfils another important task typical of a batman, namely that of
caring for his (injured) master. After Frodo was stabbed by the Ringwraith and brought to
Rivendell, for example, Gandalf mentions to Frodo that “Sam has hardly left [Frodo’s] side,
day or night, except to run messages” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 288). Once again the reader is
47
confronted with the strong sense of loyalty and dedication that Sam possesses for his master.
Moreover, Partridge points out that this scene “is the first sign of a physical side to [Sam’s]
affection for Frodo” (1983: 185). Many handholding scenes follow, which is also one of the
reasons why their relationship has often been interpreted as homoerotic. Furthermore, Sam’s
embarrassment can be interpreted in two ways: either he is uncomfortable showing (a
platonic) affection towards his master, or he is aware that the physical contact may be deemed
inappropriate “now the dangers of armed conflict and illness are (briefly) over” (Saxey, 2005:
128). In J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia Christopher Vaccaro adopts a middle course, and argues
that
“[t]he gentle stroke of Frodo’s hand is not sexual in a genital sense (nor would it have
been coded as such during Victorian and Edwardian England); however, Sam’s tactile
behaviour does seem to cross class, gender, and sexual boundaries […] and offers a
potentially significant image to those readers who identify as homosexual.” (2007:
286)
In other words, Vaccaro seems to suggest that the scene could be interpreted in both a
heterosexual and homosexual way, depending on the reader’s preferences (2007: 286).
However, regardless of the reader’s interpretation of the interaction, Vaccaro denies an
explicit sexual reading of the scene as a whole (2007: 286). Furthermore, as Vaccaro has
already mentioned, the physical contact between both hobbits “seems to cross class
boundaries” (2007: 286). Smol agrees and states that the handholding scene at Mount Doom
implies a shift in social position (2008: 324-325). That particular scene describes Sam laying
Frodo’s hands together, “palm to palm”, while holding them between his own and kissing
their joined hands (Smol, 2008: 324; Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1233). According to Smol this
gesture is a “specific gesture that was part of a medieval ritual of paying homage to one’s
lord” (2008: 324). However, in this particular scene Frodo’s hands are enclosed in Sam’s,
which means that Frodo “takes the position of the vassal”, while Sam “acts as the lord”
(Smol, 2008: 324-325). Nevertheless, this does not mean that their positions have switched, it
merely predicts Sam’s “rise in social position” as he will become the master of Bag End after
Frodo’s death, and mayor of the Shire (Smol, 2008: 325, Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1347, 1441).
Additionally, Smol also emphasises that the gesture does not signify a shift in power, but a
step towards (class) equality (2008: 325). In short, it can be argued that many of the
seemingly romantic gestures between Frodo and Sam can be “re-heterosexualised”, and
explained as a typical display of friendship during warfare (Saxey, 2005: 125; Partridge,
1983; Smol, 2004 & 2008).
48
Nevertheless, a homosexual reading of their relationship remains quite popular among
the critics and fans of the trilogy (Saxey, 2005; Rohy, 2008; Smol 2004 & 2008). The novel’s
war theme, for instance, can also be used to support a homoerotic reading of the Hobbits’
relationship considering that it was not uncommon for soldiers to seek intimacy with each
other during wartime (Lewis, 1960: 93). Lewis argues that the absence of women “on the warpath had no doubt something to do with it” (1960: 93). Consequently, the same could also
hold true for Sam and Frodo. The absence of women, in particularly Sam’s love interest Rose
Cotton, may have driven them to seek comfort with each other. Furthermore, the fact that Sam
immediately falls back into a heterosexual relationship after the war has ended is quite
remarkable, and may indicate that the romantic aspect of his relationship with Frodo arose due
to the dire and lonely circumstances (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1341). This may explain why Frodo
so desperately clings to Sam’s companionship. Even after Sam has already settled in a
heterosexual relationship with Rose, Frodo still suggests that Sam and Rose should come live
with him at Bag End (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1341). In her essay “On Fairy Stories” Rohy
agrees that homosexual relationships are less accepted after the Ring has been destroyed, and
should inevitably yield to heterosexual unions. She writes:
“[w]hen the destruction of the ring restores the hope of straight unions, queer love is
left to figure love’s impossibility; in an age now devoted to procreation, it seems an
awkward remainder and a wasteful expense.” (Rohy, 2004: 930)
This corresponds with Keenan’s theory that children and marriages only occur after the war
has ended (1968: 72). Similarly to Keenan, Rohy argues that fertility is only possible after the
Ring has been destroyed, and thus, when the possibility of heterosexual relations has been
restored (1968: 72; 2004: 930). Consequently, it could be argued that Tolkien equated
homosexual relationships with sterility, and by extension, the infertile lands of Mordor and
the war. Particularly noteworthy in this regard is the culmination of Frodo and Sam’s
relationship when they are travelling through the Black Land. It is during their trek through
Mordor that their subtle touches, kisses, and handholding become more prominent (e.g.
Tolkien, 2007: LOR 957-958, 1190, 1233) (Rohy, 2004: 930). A clear example of their
strengthening physical relationship is the scene in Shelob’s lair where Sam takes the Ring
from Frodo: “Very gently he undid the clasp at the neck and slipped his hand inside Frodo’s
tunic; then with the other hand raising the head, he kissed the cold forehead, and softly drew
the chain over it” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 958). This scene can be interpreted as highly erotic
because of “a hand sliding down a tunic, of flesh meeting flesh” (Battis, 2004: 916).
Additionally, the fact that Sam kisses Frodo, and stops to admire Frodo beauty before leaving
49
him is also rather suggestive (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 959). Furthermore, Rohy points out that
the level of intimacy and physicality present in Frodo and Sam’s relationships does not exist
in any of the heterosexual relationships in the trilogy (2004: 939). Arwen and Aragorn’s
relationship, for example, is deferred to the end of the story and is not really explained or
developed until the appendices (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1385-1395). Rohy agrees and states that
“[all] three [heterosexual] romances seem oddly incomplete, not because they are never
finished, but because they are never started; the culmination of each relationship feels
arbitrary because so little story has preceded it” (2004: 927). Conversely, the homosexual
relationships are started and adequately developed, but they are never completed considering
there is no place for homosexuality after the destruction of the Ring (Rohy, 2004: 930, 937).
Secondly, Rohy also argues that homosexual relationships are considered wasteful in
hindsight (2004: 930). That is to say, considering the emphasis on procreation in the post-war
era, homosexuality is a “wasteful expense” (Rohy, 2004: 930) seeing that it does not bring
forth any offspring. This corresponds with Bogaert’s theory that during the War of the Third
Age many species are in danger of extinction, and that, as a result, heterosexual relations are
vital to the survival of the species (2013: 28-29). Tolkien himself alludes to the importance of
procreation through the metaphor of the Eldest of Trees (2007: LOR 1273). In this scene
Gandalf relates the tree’s ancestry and warns Aragorn that "if ever a fruit ripens, it should be
planted, lest the line die out of the world” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1273). While the link between
Aragorn and the white tree has already been explained in the chapter about Aragorn, it should
be noted that Gandalf’s warning could also apply to the races of Middle-earth as whole,
instead of Aragorn’s dynasty alone. Consequently, Rohy perceptively states that
“it is Sam on whom the heaviest weight of [Gandalf’s] injunction will fall. Echoing
the biblical warning against the profligate spilling of seed, Gandalf’s words predict the
familial turn of Sam’s story; futurity means fertility, and the gardener will be no less
fruitful than the earth he tends.” (2004: 937)
In other words, Sam’s profession as a gardener can be interpreted as a portent of his return to
heterosexuality, and thus fertility. Sam certainly heeded Gandalf’s words, and with his
thirteen children becomes one of the most fertile characters of the fellowship (Tolkien, 2007:
LOR 1450). Additionally, Rohy states that Gandalf’s warning is echoed by Rose when she
reprimands Sam for having wasted a year (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1340; Rohy, 2004: 937). By
doing so, Rose dismisses Sam and Frodo’s relationship, and urges him to focus on their
relationship and future family instead (Rohy, 2004: 937-938). Sam eventually conforms to
social expectations and converts to “socially useful heterosexuality” (Rohy, 2004: 938).
50
Conversely, Frodo does not concede to social expectations, and remains a bachelor till the end
of his days (Tolkien, 2007: LOR Book VI, Ch. 9). The reason for this may be that he is still
heavily influenced by the Ring and his experiences during the war. For example, Frodo still
wears “a white jewel on a chain” as a replacement for the destroyed Ring, and he still suffers
from the wound he received at Weathertop (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1341-1342). Therefore, he is
still physically and mentally anchored to his war experiences, and, by extension, his love for
Sam. Frodo’s incapability to let go of his relationship with Sam is illustrated by his insistence
that Sam comes to live with him (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1340-1341). Moreover, Sam seems to
be aware of Frodo’s lingering feelings towards him considering he seems rather reluctant to
inform Frodo of his relationship with Rose (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1340). Sam’s reluctance is
made clear by his awkward disposition, and the fact that he only tells Frodo about his
relationship with Rose after he is explicitly asked why he cannot move in to Bag End
(Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1340). Consequently, it can be argued that Frodo is still caught up in the
sterility that characterised the war because of the following two reasons. First, the Ring has
clearly left a mark on Frodo, and, as a result, he is still influenced by her “non-productive
love” (Timmons, qtd. in Saxey, 2005: 127). That is to say, one of the qualities of the One
Ring was to inspire lust for power, which was coincidentally epitomised by the Ring itself
(Tolkien, n.d.: 131 To Milton Waldman, 167). The Ring, thus, incites an obsessive lust for
itself, which makes it impossible for its owner to desire anything but the Ring. A prime
example of this is Gollum’s obsessive, and eventually fatal, love for ‘his precious’ (Tolkien,
2007: LOR 1238). Second, the “non-productive love” of the Ring (Timmons, qtd. in Saxey,
2005: 127), combined with Frodo’s feelings towards Sam, have led to his eternal
bachelorship, and a subsequent lack of heirs. As a result, Frodo does not fit in this
heterosexual world “devoted to procreation” (Rohy, 2004: 930, 938). Together with the other
‘sterile’ characters (i.e. Gimli, Legolas, Gandalf, etc.), he “must leave the narrative” in order
to make room for a fertile, and primarily heterosexual, generation (Rohy, 2004: 938).
In short, the topic of Frodo and Sam’s relationship remains quite controversial, and
difficult to define. While many critics have ascribed Sam and Frodo’s close relationship as a
typical officer-batman relationship (Hooker, 2004; Partridge, 1983; Smol, 2004 & 2008),
others have argued that the homoerotic tension between the characters cannot be denied
(Rohy, 2004; Saxey, 2005). Nevertheless, both interpretations were founded on the same
argument, namely that the “war provides a context in which men can be acceptably intimate”
(Partridge, 1983: 184). Whereas one theory argued that it allowed for a close and unique
friendship between an officer and his batman (Hooker, 2004: 125; Partridge, 1983: 184), the
51
other argued that the war, and the absence of women during the war, drove male soldiers to
seek physical intimacy with each other (Lewis, 1960: 93). Secondly, we were also able to link
the homosexual subtext in the trilogy to Keenan’s “fertility-sterility conflict” (1968: 64). We
argued that homosexuality was linked to sterility because of its connection to war, and the
impossibility to produce offspring (Rohy, 2004: 937; 944). This in contrast, to heterosexuality
which can be linked to regeneration and fertility (Rohy, 2004: 937). Furthermore, this also
corresponds to Bogaert’s claim that the absence of women is often associated with sterility,
whereas their presence is a sign of fertility (2013: 27, 29). To conclude, there is no real
consensus about the presence of homosexuality in The Lord of the Rings. Both a homosexual
and a homosocial reading can be supported by textual evidence. As a result, the interpretation
of Frodo and Sam’s relationship is highly dependent on the reader’s own sexual orientation
and on his expectations while reading Tolkien’s trilogy (Vaccaro, 2007: 286).
6.2 Heterosexuality
In the previous chapter, we concluded that homosexual relationships could be linked to
sterility because of their connection to war, and because they offer no possibility of
procreation. This chapter, however, will propose to argue that the heterosexual relationships
in Tolkien’s trilogy are primarily linked with fertility and new life. Furthermore, we will also
analyse these heterosexual relationships to determine how men and women relate to each
other, and if there is clear hierarchy of power present in their relationship. Regrettably, seeing
that it would lead us too far, we are unable to discuss all of the heterosexual unions that occur
in The Lord of the Rings. Instead, this chapter will solely focus on Arwen and Aragorn’s
relationship considering that Tolkien believed their relationship to be the trilogy’s “highest
love-story” (Tolkien, n.d.: 131 To Milton Waldman, 178).
Like many of the romantic relationships in The Lord of the Rings, Arwen and
Aragorn’s relationship has never been developed or explained in the story itself. We are only
informed of their love for each other through small interactions between the characters, or
through subtle hints such as Galadriel’s gift to Aragorn (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 488).16 It is not
until the Appendices, that the reader gains an insight into the beginnings of their relationship
(Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1385-1395). In “The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen” we learn that
Arwen’s father, Elrond, initially did not approve of their love. He claimed that Arwen “is of
16
Galadriel gives him “a great stone of a clear green, set in a silver brooch that was wrought in the likeness of an
eagle wit houtspread wings” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 488). The brooch was actually Arwen’s, but she had asked
Galadriel to give it to Aragorn “as a token of hope (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 488-489).
52
lineage greater than [Aragorn’s]”, and that they will only be allowed to wed when Aragorn
has ascended the throne (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1389, 1391). In other words, Elrond does not
deem Aragorn worthy of his daughter because he does not belong to the appropriate class.
Nevertheless, Arwen does not seem to care much about their class difference, or her father’s
wishes for that matter, and still promises herself to Aragorn before he has made his claim to
kingship (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1391). According to Porter this act of defiance towards her
father is a clear a sign of her independence (2005: 124). Furthermore, Porter also argues that
Arwen’s independence also manifests itself in her relationship with Aragorn (2005: 120). She
is not a fairy tale princess who has to be “saved by her prince/king; she does not improve her
station in life by being “won” by her male companion” (Porter, 2005: 120). Instead, Arwen
can be considered a heroic character in her own right (Enright 2007: 97; Porter, 2005: 120).
Contrary to the male characters, however, it is not physical prowess that makes her a hero, but
her wisdom, compassion, and loyalty (Porter, 2005: 120). For example, Arwen is one of the
few characters who truly seems to understand Frodo’s pain due to his experiences with the
Ring, and offers him a necklace which will drive away the darkness and fear (Tolkien, 2007:
LOR 1276; Tolkien, 1963: 246 From a letter to Mrs Eileen Elgar, 347). However, one of
Arwen’s most heroic acts is undoubtedly “her renunciation of Elven immortality for love”
(Enright, 2007: 97). What is more, Arwen’s sacrifice becomes another person’s salvation
seeing that it enables Frodo to join the others to the Grey Havens (Enright, 2007: 98).
Therefore, like her husband, Arwen also possesses healing powers (Enright, 2007: 98).
However, while Aragorn mainly treats physical wounds, Arwen’s powers are primarily
focussed on healing mental suffering. They thus possess complementary healing skills.
Consequently, it could be argued that their relationship is not a hierarchical one, but one that
is based on equality, complementarity, and respect. This is also supported by Porter who
argues that “Tolkien’s trilogy […] creates a union of equals who realize and value what they
have in each other” (2005: 120).
Lastly, we will briefly discuss how their relationship relates to Keenan’s “fertilitysterility conflict” (1968: 64). In “Emblematic Bodies: Tolkien and the Depiction of Female
Physical Presence” James T. Williamson describes how the women in the trilogy could be
linked to the fertility theme (2013: 142-144). Williamson illustrates his claim by explaining
how Galadriel’s fate is closely related to the natural cycles of Lothlórien: while the forest
flourishes during Galedriel’s lifetime, it quickly deteriorates after she has left Middle-earth
(Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1394; Williamson, 2013: 142). However, unlike her grandmother,
Arwen “is not connected with the natural cycles of her home” (Williamson, 2013: 142).
53
Instead, Arwen seems to be connected to the fates of both Elves and Men (Williamson, 2013:
142-144). Arwen’s elven name Undómiel, for example, refers to her being “the Evenstar of
her people” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 296; Williamson, 2013: 142). Williamson argues that her
elven name refers to the evening, and could thus be considered “emblematic of the time of
endings” (i.e. the evening announcing the end of the day) (2013: 142-143). In other words,
Arwen’s name portends the diminishment of the Elves seeing that many of them decide to
leave Middle-earth after the War of the Ring has ended (Tolkien, 2007; LOR 1347). However,
Williamson points out that because of Arwen’s renunciation of her immortality, she can also
be “associated with rebirth and renewal” (2013: 143). That is to say, Aragon’s reign and his
union with Arwen mark the beginning of a new age, which will be characterised by fertility in
nature and life. It is only after the Ring has been destroyed, and Aragorn has finally become
king that “women as child-bearers appear” (Keenan, 1968: 71-72). As a result, Arwen too will
be linked to reproductive fertility seeing that she and Aragorn have an unspecified amount of
children (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1394). Williamson agrees and writes that “[i]n embracing her
mortality she becomes fertile, and it is the resulting offspring of her body that signals renewal
and continuance in Middle-earth” (2013: 144). Furthermore, Arwen and Aragorn’s
Midsummer’s Day wedding carries a similar significance (Nikakis, 2007: 89). Frazer, for
example, describes how certain cultures believe that midsummer fires possess the ability to
encourage vegetative and reproductive fertility (Frazer, 2011: 520; Nikakis, 2007: 89).
Consequently, like Arwen herself, Arwen and Aragorn’s relationship can also be associated
with renewal and regeneration (Nikakis, 2007; 89).
In short, Arwen and Aragorn’s relationship can be considered as an exemplary one.
Not only do they represent typical post-war values such as fertility and respect for nature and
life, they also comply with the normative ideal of monogamy. Tolkien writes about
monogamy that it “was at this period in the West universally practised, and other systems
were regarded with repugnance, as things only done ‘under the Shadow’” (Tolkien, n.d.: 214
To A.C. Nunn (draft), 308). In other words, Aragorn and Arwen’s values and norms contrast
sharply with those practiced during Sauron’s rule. Furthermore, Tolkien’s portrayal of Arwen
as an independent and powerful woman, whose relationship with her husband is based on
mutual respect and equality, indicates that Tolkien was certainly not a misogynist (Neville,
2005: 101). Instead, his views on gender equality seem to be consistent with an increasing
demand for equal rights during the twentieth century (Brooke, 2014: 50-52).
54
7. Conclusion
In conclusion, this paper proposed to analyse the representation of gender and sexuality in
Tolkien’s The Lord of the Ring. Firstly, we proposed to argue that Tolkien’s portrayal of
women was not inspired by any misogynistic tendencies, as some critics have proclaimed
(Neville, 2005:101), but that they contribute to the plot in their own way. In other words,
while female characters are not as prominent as their male counterparts, they can still fulfil
powerful roles (Enright 2007: 94). Secondly, we also discussed the trilogy’s male characters,
and tried to determine if they met a certain pattern of masculinity. In addition, considering
that gender is not always fixed (Connell, 2000: 16-17; 27-29), we tried to determine if some
of the male characters or female characters displayed characteristics that are typically ascribed
to the other sex. Thirdly, we also discussed the representation of homosexual and heterosexual
relationships in Tolkien’s works, particularly the relationship between Arwen and Aragorn,
and Frodo and Sam. The purpose of discussing both homosexual and heterosexual
relationships was to determine if Tolkien preferred one type of sexuality over the other.
Furthermore, we also proposed to determine if there was a hierarchy of power within these
relationships. Lastly, this paper also tried to link the representation of men and women to
Keenan’s “fertility-sterility conflict” (1968: 64). We asserted that women are primarily linked
to nature and life, whereas men are usually involved in a struggle between life and death due
to the trilogy’s war theme (Keenan, 1968: 64). However, while we eventually concluded that
our assumption was true for the most part, we also found that men, too, can be linked to
fertility in nature and life. A prime example of this was Aragorn, who due to his “sacral
kingship” promoted fertility and health in Middle-earth (Flieger, 2004: 133).
Firstly, we discussed Éowyn’s character because of her unique position as a woman
with typically male ambitions. However, she is initially unable to fulfil these ambitions seeing
that she is hindered by traditional and patriarchal notions of gender roles. While the men ride
off to battle, she is expected to take care of the ‘house’ (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 683).
Nevertheless, Éowyn quickly proves that she not easily acquiesces to these expectations, and
that she can hold her own in a male-dominated environment. An example of this is Éowyn’s
killing of the Nazgûl, which was previously considered an impossible feat (Tolkien, 2007:
1101-1102). Consequently, she is a prime example of women being able to assume powerful
positions in both Tolkien’s trilogy, as well as, in reality (Enright, 2007: 94). Unfortunately,
her assumption of a male identity during the Battle of the Pelennor Fields is quite problematic
since it implies that she is only able to “achieve great deeds in male disguise” (Bradley, 1968:
55
116). However, we pointed out she had already revealed her true identity when she killed the
Ringwraith. Moreover, her being a woman is what enabled her to defeat the Nazgûl seeing
that “[no] living man may hinder [him]!” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1101). In other words, the
emphasis on gender in this extract is certainly not innocuous, and shows us that Tolkien was
not afraid to let a woman defeat one of the most powerful creatures in the books. Furthermore,
it also proves that Tolkien had no problem portraying powerful women (Enright 2007: 94). In
addition, Éowyn’s decision to become a healer and a mother does not indicate a devaluation
of her character, but a maturation. Instead of having to assume male values to hold her own in
a male-dominated society (Ruane and James, 2012: 172-173), she now realises that there is
also power in her female identity (Enright, 2005: 106). Especially noteworthy, is the fact that
Éowyn only becomes a healer and mother after the war has ended. This corresponds with
Keenan and Bogaert’s claim that the destruction of Sauron brought about a proliferation of
nature and births (1968: 72; 2013: 22). Therefore, Éowyn’s new function symbolises her
contribution to the restoration of life and nature in Middle-earth. In short, Éowyn’s character
is a prime example of Tolkien’s critique on traditional gender roles, and shows us that he was
certainly not a misogynist seeing that he was not afraid to incorporate powerful women into
his works (Neville, 2005: 101).
Secondly, we also proposed to determine how Tolkien perceived masculinity by
discussing Aragorn’s character. We concluded that Aragorn seemed to represent a new kind
of masculinity, which is primarily characterised by humility and diversity (Crocker, 2005:
117-118). Moreover, the fact that this new kind of masculinity should preserve differences in
kind and “gathers strength from those groups it rules” (Crocker, 2005: 116, 118), shows us
that Tolkien was opposed to the idea of “one pattern of masculinity” (Connell, 2000: 10), and
instead advocated a kind of masculinity that allows difference and autonomy (Crocker, 2005:
116, 119). Furthermore, we also discussed Nikakis’s and Flieger’s assertion that Aragorn
embodied the concept of “sacral kingship” (Flieger, 2004: 133; Nikakis, 2007). As a result,
Aragorn is closely linked to both Bogaert’s and Keenan’s interpretation of the “fertilitysterility conflict” (Keenan, 1968: 64). On the one hand, Aragorn can be linked to fertility in
nature and life seeing that his rule is characterised by a proliferation of nature and births
(Keenan, 1968: 64). A prime example of this is the birth of his children, and his ability to
revive the withered white tree sapling (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1273). On the other hand, we also
discussed Aragorn’s contradictory role as both a warrior and a healer. We argued that whereas
the former represents death and sterility, the latter symbolises regeneration and fertility.
However, we argued that Aragorn’s healing abilities compensate his ‘sterile’ qualities, since
56
they contribute to the restoration of life in an environment characterised by death and
destruction. In short, because of his role as a sacral king (Flieger, 2004: 133; Nikakis, 2007),
it could be argued that Aragorn himself symbolises the fertility that predominates “the
Dominion of Men” (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1272).
Thirdly, we also discussed Hobbit women and argued that despite their minor role in
the trilogy, they are still able to make an impact on the story. Furthermore, we also proposed
to explain why Hobbit women only appear at the end of the book. We argued that this relates
to Tolkien’s belief that a sexual element is often implied in relationships between men and
women (Tolkien, 1941: 43 To Michael Tolkien, 59). As a result, it would be considered
inappropriate to incorporate women at the beginning of the story due to the male Hobbits’
child-like characteristics (Keenan, 1968: 66). However, it is clear that their war experience
has matured the male Hobbits, which may explain the incorporation of female Hobbits into
the final chapters. Therefore, Green’s assertion that women are banned from the story to avoid
sexual themes could be contested (2008: 29-30). That is to say, while Tolkien obviously did
not want to imply sexual themes when children were involved, he was not opposed to the
implication of sexual relationships between his adult characters. Sam and Rose’s thirteen
children, for example, are proof of their sexual relationship (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1450).
This brings us to our discussion of heterosexual relationships in Tolkien’s works. The
analysis of Arwen and Aragorn’s relationship showed us that their relationship could be
considered as an exemplary one seeing that it is based on equality and mutual respect (Porter,
2005: 120). This could indicate that Tolkien was quite progressive towards women’s
emancipation. However; as we have argued in the chapter about ‘Tolkien and Gender’,
Tolkien’s view on gender in the real world may differ from how he depicted it in his fiction.
Notwithstanding, if he also professed equality in real life or not, his representation of gender
and relationships in his fiction at least makes the reader reflect on these subjects in their own
life.
Conversely, Tolkien’s progressive view did not seem to extent to homosexual
relationships. While he did seem to acknowledge the intimate relationship between two
soldiers, he did not seem to condone homoerotic relationships outside a war context. That is to
say, whereas Frodo and Sam’s relationship is one of the most intimately described
relationships, it is also a relationship which does not survive the war. After the Ring has been
destroyed, Sam returns to the Shire and marries Rosie Cotton. Frodo, on the other hand, is
unable to adapt to this predominantly heterosexual society, and decides to leave Middle-earth
(Rohy, 2004: 930, 938).
57
Finally, Frodo’s character also offered an interesting insight in Tolkien’s
representation of gender since he apparently symbolises an adolescent’s journey towards
masculinity (Novellino, 2008: 233). This is similar to Aragorn’s character whose masculinity
evolves throughout the story, and who eventually comes to represent a new kind of
masculinity (Crocker, 200: 117-118). However, we concluded that, unlike Aragorn, Frodo
does not complete his journey towards masculinity due to the trauma he suffered. In addition,
Frodo’s character is rather unique in that he does not marry or procreate at the end of the
novel, but instead decides to leave Middle-earth. In other words, Frodo sacrificed his own life
and procreative abilities in order to restore Middle-earth’s fertility. In short, it could be argued
that the effects of the Ring entail a (temporary) emasculation and cause sterility. That is to
say, Sauron and Frodo both lost their ring finger because of their obsession with the Ring,
which Keenan interprets as a “symbolical castration” (Keenan, 1968: 69). Alternatively,
Sauron, Frodo, Gollum, and Bilbo amsp seem to be associated with sterility because of the
Ring’s “non-productive love” (Timmons, qtd. in Saxey, 2005: 127). Tolkien thus seems to
associate the Ring’s power and corruptive abilities with a flawed masculinity, which is
marked by sterility and death.
Thus, it can be concluded that Tolkien’s perception of gender and sexuality is rather
progressive for his time. For example, he is not afraid to depict women in typically male
situations, and even allows them to fulfil powerful or heroic positions in these maledominated environments (Enright, 2007). Furthermore, Tolkien’s view on masculinity is also
rather unique considering that many of his male characters incorporate qualities that were
considered typically feminine at the time. Aragorn, for example, acts as a healer during the
battle of the Pelennor Fields (Tolkien, 2007: LOR 1126, 1132-1133). However, during World
War I, women were usually the ones that took on the task of healing the wounded (Garth,
2007: 712-713; Zeinert, 2001: 47-56). Furthermore, we also concluded that Tolkien does not
seem to advocate a hegemonic type of masculinity, but instead strives for a kind of
masculinity that allows difference and autonomy (Crocker, 2005: 116, 119). Thirdly, it could
be concluded that Tolkien’s representation of sexuality is rather ambiguous. On the one hand,
Tolkien seems to advocate equality in heterosexual relationships (Porter, 2005: 120), and
commends them for their ability to reproduce. On the other hand, if we interpret Frodo and
Sam’s relationship as a homosexual one, it could be argued that despite their relationship
being quite intimate, it is still represented as an impossibility in day-to-day society. Whereas
Frodo decides to leave Middle-earth because he does not fit in a heterosexual world “devoted
to procreation” (Rohy, 2004: 930, 938), Sam decides to adapt to societal norms, and starts a
58
family with Rosie Cotton. Lastly, we also linked Tolkien’s perception of gender and sexuality
to Keenan’s “fertility-sterility conflict” (1968: 64). From these analyses it could be concluded
that most characters transition from sterility to fertility. Whereas many men and women are
connected to death and destruction during Sauron’s reign, they are characterised by natural
and procreative fertility after his destruction. Keenan agrees and writes that “[It is] [n]ot until
the end of the book [that] women as child-bearers appear. […] When Sauron is defeated, the
Ring destroyed, and the lands cleansed, there comes a succession of marriages” (Keenan,
1968: 72). Furthermore, we also proposed to link sexuality to the “fertility-sterility conflict”
(Keenan, 1968: 64). We concluded that while heterosexual relationships are generally
characterised by reproductive fertility, homosexual relations are more closely related to
sterility since they mainly manifest in war situations, and are unable to produce any offspring.
Furthermore, it should be noted that we were unable to discuss all of Middle-earth’s
races. The reason why we did not include them in our discussion was because we wanted to
give an in-depth analysis of the characters we discussed, instead of superficially analysing a
multitude of characters. Nevertheless, an analysis of other races such as Dwarves and Wizards
might be interesting. Wizards in particular would offer an interesting insight in Tolkien’s
representation of masculinity since they incorporate what Green calls “the submerged
feminine” (2008: 30). Furthermore, it would also fit into our discussion of women and
sexuality considering Dwarves and Wizards are one of the few races without women.
Therefore, these topics would certainly be recommendable for further research.
Lastly, the aim of this thesis was to give an all-encompassing analysis of gender, and
not regard it as a fixed category (Connell, 2000: 27-29). In addition, Keenan’s “fertilitysterility conflict” (1968: 64) was used to offer a unique interpretation of gender and sexuality.
Furthermore, we also disproved the idea of Tolkien as a misogynistic and conservative writer
(Neville, 2005: 101; Jones, 2003: 112). That is to say, while we do not deny that Tolkien is a
man of his time, he did seem to have quite progressive views towards gender, and maybe even
sexuality. The fact that many of his male characters incorporate typically female
characteristics (and vice versa) shows us that he did not portray gender as a fixed category
(Connell, 2000: 27-29). What is more, Éowyn’s portrayal as a soldier shows us that he is
certainly not afraid to give women powerful positions (Enright, 2007), or include them in a
predominantly male environment. Furthermore, while there is no real consensus about the
nature of Frodo and Sam’s relationship, their relationship shows the reader the importance of
comradery in war. Equally important is Tolkien’s portrayal of Frodo’s war experience since it
gives the reader insight in the effect of war on one’s mental health. In short, The Lord of the
59
Rings is more than a mere Fantasy novel alone (Bogaert, 2013: 30). Instead, Tolkien makes
the reader reflect on societal issues such as gender inequality, homosexuality, and power
relationships between husband and wife. In addition, the novel’s war theme confronts the
reader with the destructive and traumatic effect of war on those who are either directly, or
indirectly involved.
60
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