PETITIONING A
FOURTH-CENTURY EMPEROR:
THE DE REBUS BELLICIS
Thomas Wiedemann
In different societies there are different ways by which new ideas
can be circulated to those who will have to decide whether they ought to
be implemented.
Where the responsibility for putting innovations into
practice is spread over a large number of individuals, we like to think
that there is a "free market" in ideas as in other commodities:
pro­
posals for reforms are advertised in print, and distributed to as wide a
section of informed opinion as possible —
page of a quality newspaper:
typically through the letters-
anyone scrutinising the letter-columns of
(for example) the London Times will see that this is where a reformer
with inventions to market, be they sound or idiosyncratic, hopes to con­
vert the decision-makers.
The contents of the late Latin petition ("libellus," 91.5; "oratio,"
92.8, 93.6 and 97.24)^ entitled in the manuscripts De Rebus Bellieis re­
mind us of nothing so much as one of the more particularly bizarre epis­
tles addressed to the editor of the Times.
It contains five different
groups of proposals:
1.
Cutting tax requirements by reducing the largesse distributed by
the imperial court, including a section (93.17 - 95.7) complaining about
the increasing role of gold since the time of Constantine.
This is really
a digression legitimating the author's proposals by appealing to the pre­
cedent of antiquity, ending with the pun (which appears to be the author's
own invention)
"certe aurea nuncupamus quae aurum penitus non habebant,"
a n d is a c c o m p a n i e d i n the m a n u s c r i p t s b y a n i l l u s t r a t i o n o f w h a t p u r p o r t
to b e a n c i e n t c o i n - t y p e s .
2.
Saving the amount of gold available for circulation by increasing
c o n t r o l o v e r the m i n t , l a r g e l y b y i m p r i s o n i n g the w o r k e r s c o n c e r n e d o n
a n island;
this is a c c o m p a n i e d b y a n i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e a u t h o r ' s d e s i g n s
for a n e w c o i n a g e issue.
3.
P r o t e c t i n g the t a x p a y e r ( " c o l l a t o r e s , " 9 5 .27) b y a p p o i n t i n g o n l y
g o o d m e n as p r o v i n c i a l gove r n o r s .
4.
Military economies —
firstly, pay
(96.12 - 97.11);
this s e c t i o n is
o b s c u r e , b u t a p p a r e n t l y the i d e a is to i n c r e a s e t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f j u n i o r
o r l o w e r - r a n k i n g s o l d i e r s , w h o c a n b e p a i d at a l o w e r rate; s e c o n d l y ,
the i n t r o d u c t i o n a n d use o n a l a r g e s c a l e o f m i l i t a r y m a c h i n e s
105.6):
a c c o m p a n i e d b y t e n i l l u s t r a t i o n s ; a n d thir d l y ,
fications
( "burgl") t h r o u g h l o c a l l a n d o w n e r s
the c e n t r a l t r e a s u r y
5.
(97.12 -
t h i s s u b - s e c t i o n a l o n e t a k e s u p o v e r h a l f o f the t e x t a n d is
financing frontier forti­
("possessores")
rather than
(105.7 - 14).
The p u b l i c a t i o n o f a s y s t e m a t i c l e g a l c o d e (105 . 1 5 - 21).
2
O n e o b v i o u s a n d w i d e l y - h e l d e x p l a n a t i o n for the p r o p o r t i o n o f the
w o r k d e v o t e d to the m i l i t a r y i n v e n t i o n s is t h a t it w a s t h i s a s p e c t of
h i s p r o p o s a l s t h a t r e a l l y i n t e r e s t e d t h e author.
t a k e n s u c h a l i s t of i n v e n t i o n s s e r i o u s l y —
But could anyone have
w a s the w r i t e r j u s t a crank?'
L a t e a n t i q u i t y w a s par exaellenoe a s o c i e t y i n w h i c h d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g
was centralised:
t h e r e w a s n o m a r k e t - p l a c e f o r i deas m e d i a t i n g b e t w e e n
"inventor" and "decision-maker."
T o i n i t i a t e change,
to g e t a n y k i n d of
g o v e r n m e n t a l d e c i s i o n , o n e h a d to a p p r o a c h the d e c i s i o n - m a k e r d irectly.
I n theory, a n d to a v e r y g r e a t e x t e n t a l s o in p r a c t i c e , o n l y o n e i n d i v i 4
dual could take m a j o r decisions:
the Empe r o r .
H e n c e it is n o t s u r ­
p r i s i n g that the w r i t e r of the De Rebus Beltiois f o r m a l l y a d d r e s s e s n o t
a civil servant somewhere down the m i n i s t e r i a l hierarchy, but the supreme
officials:
"sacratissimi principes."
T h e f o r m a l i t y o f this a d d r e s s to
the two (or m ore) m e m b e r s o f t h e B o a r d o f E m p e r o r s is m a i n t a i n e d t h r o u g h ­
o u t the p r e f a c e (91.27; cf.
" v e s t r a e , " 92.3, " v e s t r i , " 92.5, " v e s t r a e , "
93.1); a n d t h e a u t h o r a s s o c i a t e s w i t h t h e e m p e r o r s t h e i r sons
"propagatis" —
second person plural —
(92.1,
" i n f i l i o s : " i.e., t h e r e m u s t b e
at least one son for each e m p e r o r ) .
T h i s p r e f a c e , i f n o t e x a c t l y r h e t o r i c a l , is c e r t a i n l y f o r m a l . ^
D o e s t h i s m e a n th a t t h e d o c u m e n t w a s n o m o r e i n t e n d e d or e x p e c t e d to b e
r e a d b y t h e e m p e r o r s t h a n w e e x p e c t a l e t t e r to t h e e d i t o r o f a n e w s ­
p a p e r c o n v e n t i o n a l l y a d d r e s s e d " D e a r Sir" a n d e n d i n g " Y o u r s F a i t h f u l l y "
to b e r e a d b y h i m r a t h e r t h a n an i m p e r s o n a l p u b l i c ?
It h a s b e e n s u g ­
g e s t e d t h a t a p e t i t i o n as a b s u r d as this c o u l d n o t in f a c t h a v e b e e n
a l l o w e d to g e t as fa r a s t h e e m p e r o r a n d w a s t e h i s s a c r e d t i m e (cf. 96.
16, " o c c u p a t i o a u g u s t a f a s t i d i a t " ) :
it w o u l d h a v e b e e n " i n t e r c e p t e d b y
a c i v i l s e r v a n t a n d p i g e o n - h o l e d w i t h o u t e v e r r e a c h i n g the e m p e r o r "
( T h o m p s o n p. 6 ).
It c o u l d b e a r g u e d t h a t the fact t h a t in the m a i n b o d y o f the w o r k
the a u t h o r o f t e n a b a n d o n s t h e p l u r a l (kept at 95.15) f o r the s i n g u l a r
(94.30, " c u r a e p r u d e n t i a e t u a e , " a n d e s p e c i a l l y 1 03.17, " i n v i c t e i m p e r a tor" a n d 1 0 5.15, " s a c r a t i s s i m e i m p e r a t o r " )
s h o w s that h e is b e i n g c o n ­
ventionally formal in his introductory address
( which h e m a y of c o u r s e
£
h a v e c o m p o s e d a f t e r the r e s t of the text h a d b e e n c o m p l e t e d ) .
This
w o u l d i m p l y t h a t t h e n o t i o n of a B o a r d of E m p e r o r s as a d d r e s s e e is a
p o l i t e fi c t i o n ; b u t if the a u t h o r h a d t h o u g h t h i s d o c u m e n t w o u l d h a v e
b e e n r e a d b y a c l e r k i n the b u r e a u c r a c y , h e w o u l d s u r e l y h a v e m a i n t a i n e d
t h a t f i c t i o n th r o u g h o u t .
Th e us e o f the s i n g u l a r o n l y m a k e s s e n s e if he
t h o u g h t o f h i m s e l f as a c t u a l l y w r i t i n g f o r the e y e s o f o n e i n d i v i d u a l
emperor.
S e e c k p o i n t e d o u t that this i n d i v i d u a l m u s t h a v e b e e n e i t h e r
V a l e n t i n i a n I o r V a l e n s , s i n c e this
( 3 66-375 A.D.) w a s th e o n l y p e r i o d
b e t w e e n t h e t i m e o f C o n s t a n t i n e a n d th a t o f H o n o r i u s an d A r c a d i u s at the
e n d of t h e c e n t u r y w h e n t h e r e w a s a p l u r a l i t y o f e m p e r o r s , w i t h a p l u r a l ­
ity of o f f s p r i n g ( " f i l i o s , " 92.1:
the Consulavia Constantinopolitana
tell us t h a t V a l e n t i n i a n ' s s o n G r a t i a n w a s b o m
Valens' son, V a l e n t i n i a n u s Ga l a t e s , w a s b o m
o n A p r i l 18, 359, w h i l e
o n J a n u a r y 18, 3 6 6 ) . ^
T h e r e a r e a r g u m e n t s i n f a v o u r o f V a l e n s , w h o w a s r u l i n g th e East, as the
addressee:
the D a n u b e
th e a u t h o r ' s i n t e r e s t i n P e r s i a n s
(103.14), a p l u r a l i t y o f u s u r p e r s
t e c h n i c a l te r m s
(104.19) a n d A r a b s
(101.21),
(94.29), the u s e o f G r e e k
( " t i c h o d i f r u s ," " t h o r a c o m a c h u s , " "‘
fascogefrum") an d his
g e n e r a l l y i n v o l v e d L atin; n o n e o f t h e s e p o i n t s is c o n v i n c i n g (Persians,
as t h e c o u n t e r p a r t to b a r b a r i a n s ,
a r e g e r m a n e to a n y r e v i e w of d e f e n c e
n e e d s , A r a b s m e r e l y e x p l a i n the n a m e g i v e n to i n f l a t a b l e skin s , tyrannos
Q
c o u l d b e a r h e t o r i c a l p l u r a l r e f e r r i n g to F i r m u s i n A f r i c a ,
the u p p e r
Danube was w i t h i n Valentinian's sphere of activity,
G r e e k t e c h n i c a l t erms
are u s e d b y o t h e r L a t i n - s p e a k i n g e n g i n e e r s l i k e V i t r u v i u s ,
a n d if w e s u p ­
p o s e t h a t L a t i n w a s n o t the a u t h o r ' s n a t i v e tongue, h e m i g h t j u s t as w e l l
h a v e b e e n a g e r m a n i c s o l d i e r as a G r e e k ) .
V a l e n t i n i a n is w o r t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n as t h e i n t e n d e d a d d r e s s e e , n o t
j u s t b e c a u s e t h e libellus is w r i t t e n i n the l a n g u a g e of t h e w e s t e r n empire, b u t b e c a u s e , as J o h n M a t t h e w s h a s p o i n t e d out,
9
this e m p e r o r w a s
e x a c t l y t h e k i n d o f m a n w h o m i g h t b e i n t e r e s t e d i n the m a t e r i a l c o n t a i n ­
e d i n t h e De Rebus Belliois.
Ammianus M a rcellinus describes h i m in his
n e c r o l o g y (30.9.4) as " s c r i b e n s deco r e , v e n u s t e q u e p i n g e n s et fingens,
e t n o v o r u m i n v e n t o r a r m o r u m , " a n d in a p a r a l l e l p a s s a g e i n h i s b i o g r a p h y ,
t h e w r i t e r o f the Epitome de Caesaribus l i s t s a m o n g h i s q u a l i t i e s " p i n gere venustissime
acra"
(45.6).
. . . nova arma meditari,
fingere cera seu limo simul­
If w e a s s u m e t h a t in l a t e a n t i q u i t y the i n d i v i d u a l i t y of
the e m p e r o r d i d m a t t e r a g r e a t d e a l —
that the emperor in p e r s o n w o u l d
b e e x p e c t e d to l o o k at this j u s t as at a n y o t h e r libellus s e n t to h i m —
t h e n it b e c o m e s m u c h less c u r i o u s t h a t the a u t h o r s h o u l d h a v e t h o u g h t
t h e s e m i l i t a r y m a c h i n e s w o r t h the e m p e r o r ' s a t t e n t i o n , a n d t h a t h i s o r i ­
g i n a l libellus s h o u l d h a v e i n c l u d e d t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n s w h o s e d e s c e n d a n t s ,
v i a a h y p o t h e t i c a l C a r o l i n g i a n a n d a l o s t t e n t h - c e n t u r y codex, a r e to b e
f o u n d i n t h r e e of the f o u r m a i n s u r v i v i n g m a n u s c r i p t s .
The emperor liked
to b e t o l d a b o u t n e w w e a p o n r y , a n d h e l i k e d c o l o u r e d d r a w i n g s
(" imaginent
c o l o r i b u s adumbratam," 9 7 . 2 3 f.).
The p r o p o s a l s r e f e r r i n g to f r o n t i e r f o r t i f i c a t i o n s
f u r t h e r l i n k s w i t h the p e r s o n a l i t y o f V a l e n t i n i a n .
(105.7 ff.) are
It w a s V a l e n t i n i a n
w h o w a s r e s p o n s i b l e for the l a s t m a j o r o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t h e n o r t h - w e s t e r n
d e f e n c e s o f the R o m a n Empire.
A m m i a n u s t e l l s u s h o w i n 368/9:
"Valen-
tinianus m a g n a animo concipiens et utilia, R h e n u m omnem a R a e t i a r u m
exordio, ad usque fretalem Oceanum, magnis molibus communiebat,
castra
e x t o l l e n s a l t i u s e t c a s t e l l a , t u r r e s q u e a s s i d u a s p e r h a b i l e s l o c o s et
opportunos,
qua Galliarum extenditur longitudo:
non numquam etiam ultra
flumen aedificiis positis, subradens b a r baros fines"
(28.2.1).
These
f o r t i f i c a t i o n s m a n a g e d to s a v e the R h i n e f r o n t i e r for a n o t h e r g e n e r a t i o n ;
they are archae o l o g i c a l l y very well attested.
It w o u l d b e w r o n g to
a s c r i b e to V a l e n t i n i a n i n p e r s o n m a j o r i n n o v a t i o n s in the m i l i t a r y a r c h i ­
t e c t u r e o f t h e p e r i o d , s u c h a s p u t t i n g i n t e r n a l b u i l d i n g s up a g a i n s t the
w a l l s o f f o r t s as p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t f i r e o r b o m b a r d m e n t .
B u t t h e r e can
b e n o d o u b t t h a t it w a s V a l e n t i n i a n h i m s e l f w h o w a s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r s y s ­
t e m a t i c a l l y a p p l y i n g t h e s e i n n o v a t i o n s to t h e R h i n e f r ontier.
The ora­
t o r S y m m a c h u s , w h o v i s i t e d the e m p e r o r at t h e h e a d of a d e l e g a t i o n f r o m
t h e R o m a n S e n a t e i n 369,
t e l l s us in h i s S e c o n d O r a t i o n h o w h e w a t c h e d
V a l e n t i n i a n s u p e r v i s i n g the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a fort
N e c k a r a u , o r B r e i s a c h to j u d g e b y 2.20:
tur") i n J u l y o r A u g u s t 369 (2.18 f.):
"Invideant novis moenibus ceter-
ae civitates, quas manus designavere privatae;
principum, livore aemulo mordeantur.
a r t i f i c e s i"(purpu) r a t o s ?
describeres,
(either A l t r i p n e a r
"brachiis utrinque Rhenus urge-
si q u a e sunt c o n d i t i o n i s
H a b e n t a u c t o r e s incl u t o s :
numquid
Interfui . . . cum positis armis fundamenta
felicem dexteram fabrilibus lineis occupares."
Alta Ripa/
A l t r i p is a p e r f e c t e x a m p l e of a fort w i t h the i n t e r n a l b u i l d i n g s b u i l t
up a g a i n s t the w a l l s ,
shape.
a n d it a l s o h a s a q u i t e u n p a r a l l e l e d t r a p e z o i d a l
W h e t h e r o r n o t t h i s w a s h i s o r i g i n a l idea, it w a s V a l e n t i n i a n
w h o p e r s o n a l l y d e c i d e d t h a t this w a s the p l a n that w a s to b e put into
effect. ^
V a l e n t i n i a n ' s p o l i c y o f m a j o r d e f e n s i v e w o r k s o n the Rhine,
i a t e d as e a r l y as 3 6 7
init­
( " c u s t o d i a R h e n i : " cf. CTh 7.1.9, R h e i m s , J a n u a r y
29), a n d o n the u p p e r D a n u b e ( f rom 373: cf. CTh 15.1 . 1 8 , S i r m i u m ,
Jan­
u a r y 26, 374) a n d t h e m a s s i v e e x p e n d i t u r e t h e y e n t a i l e d , r e q u i r e d e q u a l l y
v a s t i n c r e a s e s in taxes:
4.16.
the c o n n e c t i o n is e x p l i c i t l y m a d e b y Z o s i m u s
A l t h o u g h V a l e n t i n i a n m a d e e v e r y a t t e m p t to l i g h t e n the b u r d e n of
t a x e s a n d c o m p u l s o r y m u n i c i p a l s e r v i c e s w h i c h f e l l o n the p r o v i n c i a l s
(Amraianus 30.9.1:
" i n p r o v i n c i a l e s a d m o d u m p a r cus,
tributorum ubique
m o l l i e n s s a r c i n a s " ) , m i l i t a r y n e e d s r e s u l t e d i n a d r a s t i c t i g h t e n i n g up
of the r e l e v a n t r e g u l a t i o n s
(Ammianus 3 0.5.5-6:
a rhetorical passage),
as c a n b e s e e n f r o m a w h o l e seri e s o f e n a c t m e n t s in the T h e o d o s i a n Code.
I;
T h e s o l u t i o n p r o p o s e d in t h e De Rebus Belliois to the c o s t of f o r t i f y i n g
the f r o n t i e r s ,
t h a t l a n d o w n e r s s h o u l d p a y f o r the n e w burgi, m a y n o t h a v e
g o n e d o w n w e l l w i t h possessores ; b u t t h e i m p e r i a l a d d r e s s e e w a s w e l l
a ware o f the p r o b l e m of p ublic expenditure.
O t h e r p a s s a g e s in the De Rebus Belliais a r e e q u a l l y g e r m a n e to
c o n t e m p o r a r y p r o b l e m s w h i c h V a l e n t i n i a n ' s laws w e r e t r y i n g t o co m e to
g r i p s with.
T h e a u t h o r r e c o g n i s e s th a t the p o o r s u f f e r u n j u s t o p p r e s ­
s i o n at the h a n d s of the ri c h a n d p o w e r f u l (94.21 f.).
The same atti­
tude is s h o w n b y the i n s t i t u t i o n o f defensores aivitatum i n CTh 1 . 2 9 . 1 ,
"ut p l e b s o m n i s I n l i y r i c i o f f i c i i s p a t r o n o r u m c o n t r a p o t e n t i u m d e f e n d a tu r i n i u r i a s , " w i t h the s a m e a p p e a l to utilitas as o c c u r s so o f t e n in
the De Rebus Belliais
(" u t i l i t a s " o c c u r s i n this s e n s e in the p r e f a c e
at 9 1 . 7 a n d 13; cf. " u t i l i a " 93.4).
T h i s does n o t of c o u r s e t h r o w a n y
l i g h t o n the e m p e r o r ' s " c l a s s o r i g i n s " b u t r a t h e r i l l u s t r a t e s the G o o d
K i n g ' s f e e l i n g s of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o w a r d s h i s s u b jects.
The concern
that t h o s e i n a u t h o r i t y s h o u l d b e m o r a l l y u p r i g h t is f o u n d e l s e w h e r e
in V a l e n t i n i a n ' s l e g i s l a t i o n (CTh 8.15; 1 1 . 1 1 . 1 ) .
T h e r e is a l s o
a n e n a c t m e n t p r e s e r v e d i n J u s t i n i a n ' s C o d e x ( 4 .63.2) s u g g e s t i n g t h a t
V a l e n t i n i a n w a s w o r r i e d b y the a m o u n t o f g o l d t h a t w a s d i s a p p e a r i n g
f r o m c i r c u l a t i o n , a n d t r i e d to b a n the e x p o r t o f b u l l i o n to the b a r b a r ­
ians;
this m a y b e r e l e v a n t to the c l a i m i n the p r e f a c e
(92.13)
that the
a u t h o r ' s p r o p o s a l s w i l l d o u b l e the a m o u n t of g o l d a n d s i l v e r i n c i r c u l a ­
tion.
V a l e n t i n i a n ' s r e g u l a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g th e m i n i n g of p r e c i o u s
m e t a l s fit the s a m e c o n t e x t
{CTh 1 0 . 1 9 . 3 , 365 A.D.; 5 a n d 6 , 369 A.D.;
a n d 7, 373 A.D.).
T h e t r a c t ' s c o n c e r n w i t h b o t h f i n a n c e a n d f r o n t i e r d e f e n c e s thus
a p p e a r s to f i t the h y p o t h e s i s t h a t it w a s i n t e n d e d f o r the e y e s of V a l ­
e n t i n i a n in person.
Th i s h y p o t h e s i s also, I b e l i e v e , e x p l a i n s t h e l o n g
i l l u s t r a t e d d i g r e s s i o n o n m i l i t a r y i n v e n t i o n s w h i c h m a k e s the w o r k so
unbalanced —
incomplete.
so m u c h so that it h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d th a t o u r M S S a r e
O n e p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n , w h i c h h a s b e e n o n e of the m a i n
a s s u m p t i o n s o f s c h o l a r s h i p a b o u t the De Rebus Belliais d u r i n g th i s c e n ­
tury,
is that it w a s i n fact t h e a u t h o r ' s p r i m a r y p u r p o s e to a d v e r t i s e
l a b o u r - s a v i n g m e c h a n i c a l d e v i c e s w h i c h h e h a d in v e n t e d ;
that w a s w h y
the w o r k h a s b e e n s o a t t r a c t i v e to M a r x i s t s a n d o t h e r s s e e k i n g to p r o v e
t h a t the d e c l i n e of s l a v e r y l e d to a l a b o u r c r i s i s i n l a t e a n t i q u i t y .
14
A.E. A s t i n h a s p o i n t e d o u t r e c e n t l y
that there are great difficulties
i n t a k i n g the a u t h o r ' s i n t e r e s t s to b e p r i m a r i l y t e c h n o l o g i c a l :
almost
e x a c t l y h a l f the w o r k deals w i t h s u b j e c t s t h a t h a v e n o t h i n g to do w i t h
technology; m a n y o f the machines are certa i n l y not his own inventions
( t a k i n g j u s t t h e e v i d e n c e o f the t e x t itself:
h e a p p e a l s to t h o s e w i t h e x p e r i e n c e o f war;
" c u r r o d r e p a n u s ," 100.4:
t h e " t h o r a c o m a c h u s , " 100.28:
invented b y " a n t i q u i t a s ; " and the "ballista fulminalis," w h i c h not only
" u s u c o m p e r t u m e s t , " 102. 2 8 , b u t h a s e v e n b e e n u s e d to s h o o t a c r o s s the
Danube —
" t e s t a t u r , " 1 0 3 . 1 4 ff.).
H i s r e f e r e n c e s to the s m a l l n u m b e r
o f m e n n e e d e d t o m a n h i s m a c h i n e s a r e i n t e n d e d as p r o o f o f e f f i c i e n c y ,
r a t h e r t h a n s o l u t i o n s to a s u p p o s e d m a n p o w e r s h o r t a g e .
I n a n y c a s e the
p r o p o s a l s a b o u t f r o n t i e r f o r t i f i c a t i o n s m a k e n o n s e n s e o f t h e v i e w that
the a u t h o r c a n h a v e i n t e n d e d p r i m a r i l y to s a v e m a n p o w e r ,
son grudgingly admits
as e v e n T h o m p ­
I n fact t h e lihellus is n o t a p l e a
(p. 73).
f o r t h e a d o p t i o n o f n e w w e a p o n s a t all:
it is a p l e a f o r t h e m o r e e f f i c ­
ient use of the government's fiscal resources.
The inventions merely
i l l u s t r a t e o n e o f the a u t h o r ' s p r o p o s a l s t o this end.
If w e c o n s i d e r
t h e f i v e g r o u p s o f p r o p o s a l s the a u t h o r p u t s f o r w a r d (p. 140 f. above)
a n d c o m p a r e t h e m w i t h h i s o w n s u m m a r y i n the p r e f a c e to the w o r k
(92.9
f f . ), w e s h a l l s e e that it is the f i n a n c i a l a s p e c t that h e w i s h e s to
st r ess:
r e d u c i n g t a x r e q u i r e m e n t s , e s t a b l i s h i n g s e l f - f i n a n c i n g burgi,
i n c r e a s i n g t h e o u t p u t o f t h e m i n t , a n d c u t t i n g a r m y pay:
enim quemadmodum,
"Referemus
remisse tributorum medietate, in robur p r o p r i u m pro-
v i n c i a r u m c u l t o r habeatur; unde etiam, ratione fexactionum,
contum e li a limitum, solitudinem,
securus illustret;
cessante
erectis castrorum m u n i t i o n i b u s , incola
quo etiam pacto auri argentique modus sine dantium
p o e n a duplicetur, v e l quo argumento, extra s o l i t a m largit a t e m cumulatus
honoribus, miles exultet."
The author leaves his machines until last
i n t h i s list; a n d h e is as a w a r e as w e a r e o f the i m b a l a n c e o f h a v i n g o n e
o f h i s m a n y p o i n t s t a k e u p h a l f h i s tract.
I n e f f e c t , h e t ells t h e e m ­
p e r o r to t r e a t t h e p a s s a g e d e s c r i b i n g m i l i t a r y m a c h i n e s as a p u r e d i ­
gr e s s i o n :
" H i s e t i a m adneatenda c r e d i d i m u s q u a e b e l l o r u m n e c e s s i t a t i -
bus terra vel mari in acquirendis victoriis procurentur."
A n d he even
g o e s s o f a r as to g i v e a t o t a l l y u n p r e t e n t i o u s r e a s o n w h y h e f eels the
n e e d for such a n excursus:
" E x q u i b u s , fastidii levandi gratia , p a u c a
machinarum inventa referemus"
(the r e f o l l o w s a p a s s a g e d e s c r i b i n g some
o f t h e m o r e c o l o u r f u l o f the m a c h i n e s ) .
W h o w a s it w h o w a s l i k e l y to be
b o r e d b y an account of mere financial technicalities?
Clearly Valentinian.
This is h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g ,
if h e s p e n t the f i r s t f e w h o u r s o f e v e r y
w o r k i n g day g o i n g t h r o u g h a n i n - t r a y f u l l o f p e t i t i o n s of e v e r y c o n ­
c e i v a b l e kind.
T h e a u t h o r a g a i n m e n t i o n s h i s c o n c e r n that h e m a y b o r e
the e m p e r o r w h e n h e t alks a b o u t p a y f o r the a r m y
s u c c e s s in a c h i e v i n g h i s a i m —
"brevius
(unfortunately his
. . . declarabo," 96.17 —
is
s u c h that p a r t s of h i s e x p o s i t i o n are so c o n c i s e as to b e u n i n t e l l i g ­
ible). ^
W h a t b e t t e r m e t h o d to s u s t a i n t h e i n t e r e s t of a n e m p e r o r w h o
was both " n o vorum inventor armorum" and "venuste pingens," or even an
" a r t i f e x -j-(purpu) ratus, " t h a n b y h a v i n g a d o z e n e y e - c a t c h i n g d r a w i n g s
s c a t t e r e d a b o u t h i s tibeltus (it m a y w e l l h a v e b e e n the v i s u a l p r e p o n ­
d e r a n c e o f t hese i l l u s t r a t i o n s that l e d a n i n t h - or t e n t h - c e n t u r y c o p y ­
ist to e n t i t l e this a n o n y m o u s w o r k De Rebus Belliais)
n o c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the c o u r t
The author had
( 93.3 ff.) a n d t here is no r e a s o n to a s s u m e
t h a t V a l e n t i n i a n h a d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n a w a r e of h i s e x i s t e n c e :
the author
h a d to e x p l o i t V a l e n t i n i a n ' s p e r s o n a l t a s t e s a n d i n t e r e s t s to e n s u r e t h a t
h i s tibellus w o u l d n o t i m m e d i a t e l y b e r e j e c t e d , b u t that t h e e m p e r o r
w o u l d h o l d o n to it to l o o k a t a g a i n at h i s leisure.
least partially successful,
In t h i s h e w a s at
for the t r a c t d i d survive, a n d —
s i n c e it
is a s s o c i a t e d in the M S S w i t h o t h e r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d o c u m e n t s l i k e the No-
titia Dignitatum a n d Itinerarium Antonini —
presumably in an official
f i l e ( f r o m the f i f t h c e n t u r y on, p e r h a p s i n the a r c h i v e s of t h e G a l l i c
P r a e t o r i a n P r e f e c t u r e at A r l e s ,
i f n o t at Ravenna)."*"^
T h e c l u e to a n
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the n a t u r e o f this d o c u m e n t is n o t any h y p o t h e t i c a l
t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n t e r e s t o n the p a r t of the p e t i t i o n e r , b u t r a t h e r o n the
p a r t o f the a d d r e s s e e .
n o r a crank:
The p etitioner was neither an inventor of genius
w h a t h e d i d k n o w w a s h o w to p a c k a g e h i s p r o p o s a l s f o r f i n ­
a n c i a l r e f o r m in s u c h a w a y as to a t t r a c t the a t t e n t i o n o f t h e o n e m a n
u p o n w h o m all decisions d e p ended —
University of Bristol
the e m p e r o r V a l e n t i n i a n .
NOTES
^ References are to E.A. Thompson's edition, A Roman Reformer and
Inventor (Oxford 1952), by page and line.
For the MSS tradition cf 0.
Seeck, "Zur Kritik der Notitia Dignitatum," Hermes 9 (1875) 217-42; and
generally 0. Seeck, "Anonymus" (3) PW 1 (1894) 2325.
On the technology
see especially R.P. Oliver, "A Note on the De rebus bellicis," C. Phil.
50 (1955) 113 ff.
2 Possibly misplaced: cf. P. Lejay, Rev. Phil. 36 (1912) 345.
3 "Ein verrückter Projektmacher," Seeck, PW 1.2325.
4 F. Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World (London 1977).
On the
accessibility of the Emperor see esp. 3 ff., 465 ff., 537 ff.
The clausulae were studied by P. Lejay, Revue critique d'histoire
et de littérature NS 68 (1909) 289-91.
At 91.15 the Anonymus gives us
a literary quotation which he ascribes to an "optimus orator."
The sen­
tence cannot be traced to any surviving work of Cicero’s, and one won­
ders whether the orator may have been a contemporary —
say, Symmachus?
^ There do seem to have been contexts where a single emperor was
addressed with the plural in late antiquity.
Thus Vegetius normally
uses the singular, but the plural in the conventional phrases "dementia
vestra" (1 intr.; 2 intr.; 4 intr.) and "maiestas vestra"(2 intr.; 4 intr.); on the other hand we have "maiestas tua" twice (2,3 and 4,31) where
he goes on to address the emperor directly ("imperator Auguste/invicte")
and therefore has to use the singular.
The plural would appear to be con­
fined to introductions (cf. "vestrae perennitatis" at 2 intr. but "tua"
at 2,18) but in all four introductions Vegetius uses the singular as well.
—
S. Mazzarino, aspetti soaiali del quarto secolo (Rome 1951) tried to
explain the Anonymus' inconsistency by suggesting that there were two prin­
cipes but only one imperator (pp. 72-86).
g
Mommsen Chronica Minora - MGR AA 9.239 and 241.
For an example of the rhetorical use of plurals for singulars cf.
Historia Augusta, Probus 2.7, "Sallustios, Livios, Tacitos, Trogos atque
omnes dissertissimos . . . viros."
9
J.F. Matthews, Western Aristocracies and Imperial Court Α.Ό. 364 425 (Oxford 1975) 49 f., which summarises the situation perfectly; al­
though 93.3 ff. suggests that the author cannot have been an official
at the imperial court, since he carefully sets himself apart from the
occupati.
H. Schonberger, "The Roman Frontier in Germany: an Archaeolo­
gical Survey" JRS 59 (1969) 144, and (with reservations about the role
of Valentinian) H. von Petrikovits, "Fortifications in the North-West­
ern Roman Empire from the Third to the Fifth Centuries A.D." JRS 61
(1971) 178 ff.
There is a plan of the fort at Alta Ripa on p. 202
(fig. 31.2).
^
Similar defences were being put up in Britain by Count Theodo­
sius at exactly the same time, although there is no need to suppose
with C.E. Stevens, "A Roman Author in North-West Britain" Transactions
of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society
50 NS (1950/51) 70-79, following the antiquary William Camden, that it
was Theodosius' operations, rather than Valentinian's, that lie behind
chapter 20 of the De Rebus Bellicis.
12 E.g., CTh 11.10; 11.11; 12.3; 11.16.11; 12.1.57-59.
13
The use of the medicina-metaphor (96.1; 105.17) for measures
combating social or moral evils is a standard topos (e.g. Cicero* Rep.
2.34.59) very popular in late antiquity:
cf. Vegetius, Epit. 3.4, or
Salvian, Cub. Dei 7.3.
14
Address to the Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies in
London, June 6, 1978; an expanded version of this paper is being pre­
pared for publication.
The sheer number of petitions an official might have to deal
with is illustrated by Pap. Yale 61, published in J.F. Oates et al.,
American Studies in Papyrology 2 (1967) 184 ff.:
at a conventus at
Arsinoe held in 208-210 A.D., Subatianus Aquila, Prefect of Egypt,
accepted 1804 pleas in two and half days.
Not surprisingly, brevity
in official memoranda was highly esteemed at this time:
"Brevem fieri
dementia tua praecepit" says Festus.
^
A.E. Astin, lect. cit.
^
There is no reason to assume that the different texts which
appear in the Codex Spirensis were all to be found in one and the same
place before Charlemagne urgently needed to read up all available litera­
ture on how to run a Roman empire.
T h e l a t e P r o f e s s o r A r n o l d T o y n b e e w a s the f i r s t to d r a w m y a t t e n t i o n
to the i m p o r t a n c e o f the Anonymus Oe Rebus Belliais f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g
the f o u r t h c e n t u r y .
I w o u l d l i k e to t h a n k a l l t h o s e w i t h w h o m I h a v e
h a d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to d i s c u s s this text, i n p a r t i c u l a r Mr. B.H.
W a r m i n g t o n a n d t h e M . A . s t u d e n t s t a k i n g the c o u r s e i n L a t e R o m a n
S t u d i e s a t B r i s t o l i n 1 9 7 7 / 7 8 , Prof. A.E. Asti n , Dr. J.F. M a t t h e w s
a n d Dr. J. S c h l u m b e r g e r .