Sheeba, M.N. / Educationia Confab
ISSN: 2320-009X
An Anatomy of Science Process Skills In The Light Of
The Challenges to Realize Science Instruction Leading To
Global Excellence in Education
M. N. Sheeba
Research Scholar (Ph.D in Education), University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram,
India
Abstract
Science process skills are the building blocks of critical thinking and inquiry in science
that can be gained through precise science educational activities. In this world of knowledge
explosion, it is very difficult for education planners and teachers to keep in pace with the
expanding knowledge. So, right from the elementary school, students should be taught ‘how to
know’ rather than ‘what to know’. The process skill based science instruction contributes to the
establishment of these skills as operational outcomes whose mastery should be regarded as
foundational to their understanding of science. A strong faith and practice in process oriented
teaching and learning has to become the cardinal philosophy that guides the science educational
scenario. This paper deals with the conceptual details of science process skills, their allied
competency indicators and briefly addresses the challenges in the path of embracing process
skill based science instruction leading to global excellence in education.
Keywords: Science process skills, Basic science process skills, Integrated science process skills,
Competency indicators, Global excellence, Process skill based science instruction
Introduction
Science is one of the great expressions of humanity. Science is simultaneously a body of
knowledge and a way of gaining and using that knowledge. The accumulated and systematized
body of knowledge, which is the ‘product’ of science, has a dynamic counterpart, the methods of
inquiry, which is the ‘processes’ of science. Science is thus a combination of both ‘processes’
and ‘products’ related to and dependent upon each other. A Process is a series of activities or
operations performed to attain certain goals or products. Science Processes are the inter-linked
activities performed by any qualified person during the exploration of the universe. The meaning
of the “process of science” is expressed in many ways. The American Association for the
Advancement of science – AAAS (1968), in their programme, Science - A Process Approach
(SAPA) perceives it as a corresponding de-emphasis on specific science “content”, and more
emphasis on science “processes”. SAPA holds that science is what scientists do. The science
process skills are the intellectual skills needed for scientific investigation attained by students as
Vol. 2, No. 4, April 2013
108
Sheeba, M.N. / Educationia Confab
ISSN: 2320-009X
a result of learning science. As defined by SAPA, the science process skills are a set of broadly
transferable abilities, appropriate to many science disciplines and reflective of the behaviour of
scientists.
In general, process skills refer to the cognitive processes or thinking processes in which
the learner is engaged while learning a subject. The exercise of these process skills generates the
‘products’ of learning a particular subject - meaning, definition, explanation of terms, concepts,
principles, laws, theories, etc., in the domain of that subject. Thus, the products of learning a
subject are generated through the use of the process skills by the learner. Those process skills
which are more often used and emphasized by learners of science and scientists and which are
productive in better learning and problem solving are called process skills in science. Science
process skills are a reflection of the methods used by scientists while generating information on
science. The science process skills include intellectual skills, associated psychomotor and
affective skills that are concerned with the learning of science in all its aspects. A review of
literature enlists the skills pertaining to the various domains. The skills in the cognitive domain
include comparing, communicating, inferring, predicting, using number relations, using
time/space relations/making operational definitions, framing hypotheses, controlling variables,
interpreting data, generalizing, raising questions, applying, quantifying, evaluating, designing
investigations, finding relationships and patterns. Skills of observing, classifying, manipulating,
experimenting and measuring pertain to the psychomotor domain while those in the affective
level include wondering ’why’, enjoying the aesthetics of discovery, ’aha’ experience,
suspending judgement, persevering amidst difficulty and ambiguity and the readiness to give up
pet hypotheses in the face for strong evidence to the contrary. These process skills are helpful in
furthering their knowledge in Science and other disciplines.
Science process skills include the processes, which can be applied in almost every stage
of life, and which should be possessed and used by any individual in scientific literate societies
to increase the quality and standard of life. They enable the students to apply scientific concepts,
procedures and attitudes to their wider life. Therefore, these skills affect the personal, social, and
global lives of individuals. This enhances the value of learning science as the students get an
extensive understanding and a practical conception of how scientific concepts and principles
apply to themselves personally, to their families, their communities and their nation. Moreover,
acquisition of science process skills offers excitement and enthusiasm for learning and motivates
learners to value and pursue life-long learning leading to global excellence in education.
Review of Literature
A methodological review of past literature is a crucial endeavor for any academic
research (Webster & Watson, 2002). The review of literature summarized below, flashes light on
a few of the studies done in the field of process skill based science instruction, mainly in the
recent years. A probe into the studies highlights the science process skills as a conceptual
paradigm for global excellence in education.
Literature showed that the new science curriculum worldwide stresses science process
skills and places emphasis on the development of higher cognitive skills through the studentcentred approach (Shulman & Tamir, 2004). Gauchet (2011) on investigating how a novel
science curriculum geared towards the 21st century student, affected skills and attitude towards
science of tenth grade students, suggested that the task of creating a meaningful and relevant
curriculum based on the necessary skills of the century is not an easy one.
Vol. 2, No. 4, April 2013
109
Sheeba, M.N. / Educationia Confab
ISSN: 2320-009X
The review of literature revealed that science process skills can be developed by
engaging learners in authentic learning activities (Keys & Bryan 2001). This requires teachers to
adopt inquiry-based approaches to science teaching and learning. Remziye et al. (2011) found
that use of inquiry based teaching methods significantly enhances students’ science process skills
and attitudes. The study by Felita (2008) revealed that a statistically significant difference existed
in the science performance of middle school students exposed to hands-on science instruction
than those exposed to traditional instruction. Bilgin (2006) found that when hands-on learning
activities are used together with cooperative learning approach, eighth grade students were more
successful in acquiring science process skills and had more positive attitudes towards science
than those following the traditional methods. Burak (2009) made an investigation into the
relationship between science process skills with efficient laboratory use and science achievement
in Chemistry education. He found a positively significant and linear relationship between science
process skills taught in laboratory applications and efficient laboratory use of the students;
between their efficient laboratory use and their achievement in the course; and between their
science process skills and achievement in the course. Ergul et al. (2011) found that inquiry based
teaching methods enhance students’ science process skills and attitudes.
Harlen (2000) identified three main aspects of teacher’s role: setting up the learning
environment; organizing classroom activities; and interacting with students. Among these
aspects, the most important aspect is teachers’ interaction with students during their teaching.
Maranzo, Pickering and Pollock (2001) asserted that teachers have a profound influence on
students learning even in school that are relatively ineffective. Also, students using cooperative
learning strategies had improved achievement. Turpin and Cage (2004) found in their study that
activity-based methods had some effects on achievement in science process skills, but they did
not find any changes in attitudes towards science courses, and they concluded that teacher
behaviors are more influential on attitudes. Studies carried out by Lanka (2007) revealed that
school laboratory experiences introduce important aspects of science to students while
simultaneously assisting them in developing knowledge in regard to specific science concepts.
Thus, science teachers should have the necessary knowledge and skills for planning and
executing learning experiences that will expose learners to inquiry experience.
Research has highlighted the relevance of science process skills development on
academic ability. Simon and Zimmerman (1990) found that teaching science process skills
enhances oral and communication skills of students. The close relationship between science
process skills and higher order thinking skills is acknowledged by several researchers.
Literature showed that there are various factors that influence the acquisition of cognitive
skills such as science process skills. Study conducted by Jack (2013) revealed that sex, school
location and school type does not influence students’ acquisition of science process skills while
students’ attitude, laboratory adequacy and class size influences their acquisition of science
process skills. Thus, school laboratories should be equipped and expanded to accommodate and
enable teachers to adopt methods that will lead students to have the appropriate skills. The need
for training of science teachers on process skills is also recommended to educate them on
student-activity centred methods which promote active learning in science classrooms.
According to Ajaja (2010) very large class sizes cannot be effectively used to facilitate
investigative inquiry activities, as healthy interactions between students and teachers is almost
non-existent. Tsurusaki & Katelin (2009) explored how making connections between school
science and student’s everyday lives can lead to higher quality science education. Bricheno
Vol. 2, No. 4, April 2013
110
Sheeba, M.N. / Educationia Confab
ISSN: 2320-009X
(2000) cited the importance of small group practical work and using ICT in promoting positive
attitudes to science.
Readiness/motivation is another factor that influences the acquisition of science process
skills. Students’ readiness is perceived as learner’s developmental level of cognitive functioning.
Motivation to learn is an important factor controlling the success of learning. However, the
difficulty of a topic, as perceived by students, will be a major factor in their ability and
willingness to learn it (Ghassan, 2007). Ponchaud (2001) narrates that when asked about what
they liked best in science, children most frequently replied “doing experiments” and “finding out
new things”. Murphy and Beggs (2003) found that children liked doing experiments best in
science. The reasons given included that doing experiments was fun, that they found out things
and that they were learning whilst enjoying themselves.
Harlen (1999) emphasized the need to include science process skills in the assessment of
learning in Science and that without the inclusion of science process skills in science assessment,
there will be a mismatch between what students need from Science, and what is taught and
assessed. Several researchers developed instruments to measure the process skills that are
associated with inquiry and investigative abilities, as defined by Science – A Process Approach
(SAPA), and the Science Curriculum Improvement Study (SCIS) (Dillashaw & Okey, 1980).
There were efforts to develop science process skills tests for both primary and secondary school
learners. The literature on the development of science process skills tests for the different levels
of education, show some shortcomings that prompted subsequent researchers to develop more
tests in an attempt to address the identified shortcomings.
An analysis of the above studies indicated that a process skill based science curriculum,
hands-on facilities at school, innovative instructional and assessment techniques along with
motivation of the students can contribute positively towards the expected science learning
outcomes. A probe into the findings of the studies would lead education planners to arrive at
flexible solutions for imparting the spirit of life-long learning in the students leading to global
excellence in education.
Classification of process skills in science learning
A general discussion on the process skills in science learning as given by various experts
reveals that the science process skills have a hierarchical order. Some basic skills are needed for
the acquisition of higher order skills. One can infer an overlap of many skills in a specific phase
of a problem solving task. Different educators and psychologists have given different
classifications of science processes. There are some commonalities among the various
classifications of skills, but some of them lack the high degree of wholeness of the processes.
Amongst all, the classification of Science process skills according to The American Association
for the Advancement of Science – AAAS gained popularity. SAPA has classified the science
process skills into two types - basic and integrated. The basic (simpler) process skills provide a
foundation for learning the integrated (more complex) skills.
Basic science process skills apply specifically to foundational cognitive functioning
especially in the elementary grades. In addition, these skills also form the backbone of the more
advanced problem-solving skills and capacities. They represent the foundation of scientific
reasoning learners are required to master before acquiring and mastering the advanced integrated
science process skills (Brotherton & Preece, 1995). Basic science process skills are
interdependent, implying that investigators may display and apply more than one of these skills
in any single activity (Funk et al., 1979).
Vol. 2, No. 4, April 2013
111
Sheeba, M.N. / Educationia Confab
ISSN: 2320-009X
Integrated science process skills are immediate skills that are used in problem-solving.
Integrated skills include skills such as identifying variables, constructing tables of data and
graphs, describing relationships between variables, acquiring and processing data, analysing
investigations, constructing hypotheses, operationally defining variables, designing
investigations and experimenting (Funk et al., 1979). As the term integrated implies, learners are
called upon to combine basic process skills for greater expertise and flexibility to design the
tools they apply when they study or investigate phenomena. This process can lead to the
realization and achievement of integrated science process skills as observable and demonstrable
outcomes.
The basic and integrated science process skills advocated by the American Association
for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) are schematically represented in the following
Diagrams I and II.
Diagram I: Basic science process skills
Vol. 2, No. 4, April 2013
112
Sheeba, M.N. / Educationia Confab
ISSN: 2320-009X
Diagram II: Integrated science process skills
Science Process Skills: A Bird’s Eye View
In the following section, the eight basic and five integrated science processes advocated
by the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) are detailed using
relevant example(s) and their allied competency indicators. Each competency indicator is one of
the many behavioral examples which may be used to assess student competency in the particular
process skill (Harlen & Elstgeest 1992).
i) Basic Science Process Skills
1. Observing
Observation is the most fundamental of all of the process skills. An observation is simply a
record of a sensory experience. Observation may be defined as the gathering of information
about an object or event through the use of any one, or combination of the five basic senses;
sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell. Example: Describing a lemon as yellow. The term
observation may also be used to express the result of observing. In other words one might
observe and, as a result, gather observations. These observations can also be called data or facts.
Scientists use observation skills in collecting data. Observation is thus an objective process of
gathering data through the use of one's senses applied in an analytical way.
Competency indicators:
•
•
•
•
use one or more of the senses to gather information about an object/event.
sense similarities and differences between objects
match objects to a given description
identify properties of an object, i.e., shape, color, size, and texture.
Vol. 2, No. 4, April 2013
113
Sheeba, M.N. / Educationia Confab
ISSN: 2320-009X
2. Classifying
Classification is the process of grouping objects on the basis of observable traits. Objects that
share a given characteristic can be said to belong to the same set. Classifying involves grouping
items into like categories. Items can be classified at many different levels, from the very general
to the very specific. In most instances one should seek to classify on the basis of traits that are
essential to the idea of the set. Example: Placing all beads having certain colour into one group.
Science assumes that to a large degree the universe is consistent with its laws holding true
everywhere. Therefore, if a set of objects share one thing in common they may well share other
attributes. The nature of the skill of classification is two fold. First, one must be able to identify
traits and, second, one must select traits that express the deeper essence of the system.
Competency indicators:
•
•
•
identify properties useful for classifying objects
group objects by their properties/ similarities and differences / criteria / observable traits
construct and use classification systems in tabular and other visual forms.
3. Measuring
Measurement is an observation made more specific by comparing some attribute of a system
to a standard of reference. Measuring uses both standard and non-standard measures / estimates
to describe the dimensions of an object or event. Measurement and observation are the only
process skills that are actually two forms of the same thing. Measuring is the process of making
observations that can be stated in numerical terms. Example: Using a metre stick to measure the
length of a table in centimetres. This is the process by which students measure angles, numbers,
sizes, lengths or distances, volumes and mass. The acquisition and practising of skills needed to
do these measurements are essential for learners to be able to think in metric terms. All scientific
measurements should be given in SI units.
Competency indicators:
•
•
•
measure in a given situation using appropriate units to a suitable degree of accuracy
use both standard and non-standard measures or estimates to describe the dimensions of
an object.
use both standard and non-standard measures or estimates in making comparisons or
taking readings.
4. Using space/time relationship
The process skill of relationships deals with the interaction of variables. This interaction can
be thought of as a kind of influence--counter influence occurring among a system's variables.
The inherent nature of this skill is that it requires analytical thought in which one seeks to dissect
cause from effect. The causal elements are the system's variables and the effect is the resulting
interaction. This describes spatial relationships and their change with time. Relationships can
Vol. 2, No. 4, April 2013
114
Sheeba, M.N. / Educationia Confab
ISSN: 2320-009X
occur in multiple or single dimensions. An example of a multiple dimension relationship is speed
with distance and time representing the two dimensions. Single dimension relationships can only
be expressed relative to something else as in the location in space of some object. Its location can
only be expressed with relative terms such as under, near, far etc.
Competency indicators:
•
•
•
describe an object's position i.e., above, below, beside, etc., in relation to other objects.
describe the motion, direction, spatial arrangement, symmetry, and shape of an object
compared to another object.
design patterns or interrelationship in a coherent manner and shape that promotes
scientific appreciation and aesthetic sense.
5. Using numbers
Quantification refers to the process of using numbers to express observations rather than
relying only on qualitative descriptions. The process has two major values. First, by expressing
something in numerical terms the need for translation of verbal meaning is reduced. Second, the
use of numbers allows mathematical logic to be applied to attempts to explore, describe and
understand nature. The skill of using numbers is one application where one seeks precision of
expression by transferring the logic of mathematics to qualitative problems.
Competency indicators:
•
•
•
compute results from raw data.
apply numerical values in place of variables and vice-verse to generate meaning.
resolve theoretical dilemmas in an academic pursuit using mathematical figures of
scientific significance.
6. Communicating
Communicating is the process of sharing information with others. Communication can take
different forms: oral, written, non-verbal, or symbolic. Communication is essential in science,
given its collaborative nature. This process actually refers to a group of skills, all of which
represent some form of systematic reporting of data. The most common examples include data
display tables, charts and graphs. Example: Describing the change in height of a plant over time
in writing or through a graph. The purpose of the communication skills is to represent
information in such a way that the maximum amount of data can be reviewed with an eye toward
discovering inherent patterns of association. Learners can use communication tools such as
graphs, charts, maps, symbols, diagrams, mathematical equations, visual demonstration and
written and spoken words to communicate vital information. The inherent nature of this process
skill involves the ability to see and, consequently, represent information as the interplay among
influencing variables.
Vol. 2, No. 4, April 2013
115
Sheeba, M.N. / Educationia Confab
ISSN: 2320-009X
Competency indicators:
•
•
•
translate information into other forms such as graphs, tables and charts
read information given in the form of graphs, tables, etc,.
decide the best way of presenting information of a certain kind.
7. Predicting
The process skill of predicting deals with projecting events based upon a body of
information. One might project in a future tense, a sort of trend analysis, or one might look for an
historical precedent to a current circumstance. In either case, the prediction emerges from a data
base rather than being just a guess. By definition, predictions must also be testable. This means
that predictions are accepted or rejected based upon observed criteria. If they are not testable
they are not predictions. The nature of the skill of predicting is to be able to identify a trend in a
body of data and then to project that trend in a way that can be tested. Predicting is stating the
outcome of a future event based on a pattern of evidence. Example: Predicting the height of a
plant in two weeks time based on a graph of its growth during the previous four weeks.
Competency indicators:
•
•
•
make use of evidences to formulate the sequence of a forthcoming process of action or
outcome.
use patterns or relationships to extrapolate to cases where no information has been
gathered
forecast events based on observations/previous experiences/ certain patterns of reliable
data
8. Inferring
Inferring is an inventive process in which an assumption of cause is generated to explain an
observed event. It is the process of drawing conclusions based on reasoning or past experience.
This is a very common function and is influenced by culture and personal theories of nature. This
is a process of concluding about the cause of an observation. Example: Saying that the person
used to walk long distances because his shoes were well worn. Direct observation of objects or
events enables people to suggest something, to interpret and explain things and activities
happening in their environment. For instance, an explanation or interpretation of an observation
is indeed an inference.
Competency indicators:
•
•
•
suggest explanations for events based on observations.
analyse the cause and effect of decisions
organize the observed data in a logical sequence leading to possible solutions.
Vol. 2, No. 4, April 2013
116
Sheeba, M.N. / Educationia Confab
ISSN: 2320-009X
ii) Integrated Science Process Skills
9. Identifying and controlling variables
A variable is a concept, a noun that stands for variation within a class of objects, such as
chair, gender, eye colour, achievement, motivation, or running speed”. It is something that can
vary or change (Fraenkel & Wallen, 1996). The process skill of Identifying and Controlling
variables necessitates the identification of the various dependent and independent variables
during an investigation and to control them in due course of the investigation. It looks for the
ability to identify variables (recognizing the characteristics of objects or factors in events) that
are constant or change under different conditions, and that can affect an experimental outcome
keeping most constant while manipulating only one (the independent) variable. Example:
Realizing through past experiences that amount of light and water need to be controlled when
testing to see how the addition of organic matter affects the growth of beans (Padilla, M.J,
1990). The process is an attempt to achieve a circumstance or condition in which the effect of
one variable is clearly exposed. The use of experimental and control circumstances,
standardizing procedures and repeated measures are only a few of the ways in which variables
might be controlled. Understanding the nature of the skill requires analytical thinking in which
the system under study can be reduced to a set of interacting components. The next step is to
establish some circumstance that allows observing one component in isolation.
Competency indicators:
•
•
•
•
•
•
identify the manipulated (independent) variable, responding (dependent) variable, and
variables-held-constant in an experiment.
identify variables that can affect an experimental outcome, keeping most constant while
manipulating only the independent variable.
identify the variables that may affect the dependent variable as stated in a problem.
assign the limits of control of the selected variable in an investigation.
propose degree of freedom of variables in an experiment to test hypothesis.
control the variable in an investigation
10. Interpreting data
This process skill refers to organizing and analyzing data that have been obtained by
collecting bits of information about objects and events that illustrate a specific situation, and
drawing conclusions from it by determining apparent patterns or relationships in the data.
Example: Recording data from the experiment on bean growth in a data table and forming a
conclusion which relates trends in the data to variables. Obviously, there is a direct contribution
of the basic process skill of communication, to interpreting data. The better the data is
represented, the more likely one will detect associations within the data.
Vol. 2, No. 4, April 2013
117
Sheeba, M.N. / Educationia Confab
ISSN: 2320-009X
Competency indicators:
•
•
•
identify the relationship between the variables, from a given graph / table of data (relating
to an investigation)
draw conclusions from the data by determining apparent patterns or relationships in it
form a reasonable conclusion which relates trends in the data to variables.
11. Formulating hypothesis
An inquiry involves an investigation of a question, a problem or an issue. This entails an
investigator striving to obtain a solution to the problem. Finding a solution to the problem
involves decision-making (Lambert & Balderstone, 2000). Before an inquiry is conducted, the
investigator should suggest tentative answers to the problem. These tentative solutions are
hypotheses (Gay & Airasian, 2000; Fraenkel & Wallen, 1996; McMillan & Schumacher, 1997).
Hypotheses are predictions about the relationships between variables (Rezba et al., 1995). They
guide the researcher with regard to which data to gather. The gathered information should be
used to make the best educated guess about the expected outcome of the investigation (Martin et
al., 1994). Example: The greater the amount of organic matter added to the soil, the greater the
bean growth. A good hypothesizer recognizes that explanations are inventions rather than
discoveries and that they are subject to rejection based upon facts.
Competency indicators:
•
•
•
•
•
identify questions or statements which can and cannot be tested
design statements, i.e., questions, inferences, predictions, which can be tested by an
experiment
state the expected outcome of an experiment
develop testable explanation
explain a given observation in terms of conceptual relationships
12. Defining operationally
A definition that attributes meaning to a concept by specifying the procedures that must
be conducted in order to measure or manipulate the concept is an operational definition.
Variables can be defined operationally by applying some kind of a measurement (a measured
operational definition) or by listing the steps taken in an experiment to produce research
conditions (an experimental operational definition) (Ary et al., 1990). An operational definition
is one that is made in measurable or observable terms. An operational definition should neither
require interpretation of meaning nor is it relative. The meaning of the defined term must be
explicit and limited to the parameters established for the definition; stating how to measure a
variable in an experiment and defining the variable according to the actions or operations to be
performed on or with it. Example: Stating that bean growth will be defined as the amount of
change in height as measured from the top of the soil to the tip of the longest stem in centimeters
per week. An operational definition is primarily a research tool and related to the concern for
controlling variables. The major function of operational definitions is to establish the parameters
of an investigation or conclusion in an attempt to gain a higher degree of objectivity.
Vol. 2, No. 4, April 2013
118
Sheeba, M.N. / Educationia Confab
ISSN: 2320-009X
Competency indicators:
•
•
•
state how to measure a variable in an experiment
define the variable according to the actions or operations to be performed on or with it
formulate a meaningful statement that generates a sense of understanding
13. Experimenting
Experimenting is a systematic approach to solving a problem. Example: The entire
process of conducting the experiment on the effect of organic matter on the growth of bean
plants. Usually experimenting is synonymous with the algorithm called scientific method. The
purpose of the process is to judge the extent to which a hypothesis might be true and to set a
standard whereby that judgement is made. An opportunity to practice all the science process
skills, that have been discussed, is provided by experimenting. Experiments are a way of learning
something by varying some conditions and observing the effect on something else (McMillan &
Schumacher, 1997). An experiment is a scientific investigation in which the researcher controls
some independent variables and observes the effects of these manipulations on the dependent
variables. The investigator starts with a question which needs to be solved. The first step to find
solutions to the problem will be to identify the variables, to formulate the hypotheses, to identify
the factors that should be held constant, to define variables operationally, to design an
investigation, to rerun trials, to collect data and then interpret data (Ary et al., 1990). All these
activities include the science process skills that have been discussed earlier.
Competency indicators:
•
•
•
•
•
identify what is to be measured or compared in a given investigation
select a suitable design for an investigation to test a hypothesis
recognize limitations of methods and tools used in experiments, i.e. experimental error.
utilize safe procedures while conducting investigations
using appropriate apparatus
Process Skill Based Science Instruction: The challenging need of the hour
Science education is sought to create a community of diverse learners who construct
meaning from their science experiences and possess a disposition for further exploration and
learning. Viewing science as a “way of thinking” or as a “way of investigating phenomena”
supports the notion of finding a logical and rational balance between the importance of facts,
concepts, principles, laws, hypotheses and theories, and the premises supporting a methodology
that could be followed in the exposition of new and creative assumptions and rational arguments.
The process skill based science instruction coheres to this premise of understanding and
collectively contributes to the establishment of the skills as operational outcomes whose mastery
should be regarded as foundational to all learners’ understanding of science. While it is desirable
that children acquire these skills, it must be said that it is unlikely that any of these skills can be
taught or acquired in isolation, but are involved and developed through many, if not all science
educational activities.
Vol. 2, No. 4, April 2013
119
Sheeba, M.N. / Educationia Confab
ISSN: 2320-009X
In this world of knowledge explosion, it is very difficult for education planners and
teachers to keep in pace with the expanding knowledge. So, right from the elementary school,
children should be taught ‘how to know’ rather than ‘what to know’. The NSTA (1971) has
rightly commented: “To cope with the attempt to solve problems in a rapidly changing society,
young people will need to develop science process skills and associated values to a greater extent
than in the past”. In the present scenario, embracing process skill based science instruction seems
imperative for attaining global excellence in education. The challenging need of the hour towards
meeting this end pertains to the following components:
a)
Improvement of quality of science teachers
The quality of the future citizens of a nation depends largely on the quality of its
teachers. Teachers have a significant role to play in the society, since they are described as
facilitators, social engineers, catalytic agents and reformers. Teacher’s professional development
is central to the overall change process in education. Professional development can help
overcome shortcomings that may have been part of teachers’ pre-service education and keep
teachers abreast of new knowledge and practices in the field. Excellent professional development
requires providers who are capable of facilitating varied experiences and who know about both
science and teaching. Both pre-service and in-service teacher education have to focus on
understanding and application of teachers’ competencies. The responsibility of national and local
governments, higher education institutions, and mostly teacher educators both in pre-and inservice education, in this regard is phenomenal. Teachers also need guidance in designing and
using e-content suitable for the twenty first century learners. The wealth of teaching experience
of the science teacher, an exemplary orientation to emerging educational practices and excellent
science laboratory and technological facilities at school coupled with scientific attitude, a bend of
mind towards academic research, intrinsic motivation for auto empowerment, a concern for the
science learner as a future citizen in the competitive world, a strong will to overcome
professional lethargy and an obligation to improve the quality of science education would
instigate the science teacher to trigger a positive impact. Thus, a generation of teachers who aim
to develop learners instead of teaching them, who help their pupils to become independent
learners, who provide students with motivation and interest for life-long learning and urge them
to become autonomous learners, is essential to meet the new demands in education.
b)
Improvement in the quality of learning environment
Learning can occur anywhere, but the positive learning outcomes generally sought by
educational systems happen in quality learning environments. Effective utilization of the
infrastructural facilities in terms of well-lit and technology integrated classrooms, well-equipped
science laboratories, well maintained library would enhance the quality of the learning
environment. Facilities add hands to the mind. The availability of a well equipped and well
maintained science laboratory coupled with its efficient utilization for teaching learning
procedures is a matter of concern in most of the schools. All students irrespective of any margins
need to be exposed to quality learning environment, where in, they can explore science learning
through inquiry using the various science process skills. Educational authorities have to monitor
Vol. 2, No. 4, April 2013
120
Sheeba, M.N. / Educationia Confab
ISSN: 2320-009X
this aspect to ensure better science learning outcomes to mould the future citizens who are
expected to be highly productive, effective communicators, inventive thinkers and masters of
technology.
c)
Improvement of home – school factors
The 21st century is characterized by learners who have a different mixture of social
expectations, learning characteristics and needs than students in previous generations.
Addressing the needs of such learners require co-operative efforts from school and home along
with the motivation of the learner. It is essential that student’s motivation to learn science be
fostered in science classrooms through child-centred and innovative instructional strategies,
integration of information and communication technology, etc. The motivation to learn science
can lead students to scientific literacy to understand scientific knowledge, identify important
scientific questions, draw evidence – based conclusions, and make decisions about how human
activity affects the natural world. Family the strong, well-knit social unit offers a strong support
to the student for better achievement in science. Achievement is the result of a conscientious
effort made by the learner, with honest support from, teachers, parents and the society at large.
Hence, the various school and home factors facilitating science learning need to be addressed.
d)
Pondering issues / challenges /opportunities through research
Encouraging aspiring investigators in the field of science education to explore the issues,
challenges and opportunities towards fostering process skill based science instruction is vital.
Though not exhaustive, a few areas of immediate interest should likely include the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Studies can be attempted to ponder on ways focusing on differentiated instruction to
address the needs of new generation learners who have a different mixture of social
expectations, learning characteristics and needs than students in the past.
Current assessment methods narrow students’ learning experiences, in sharp contrast to
the broad view of learning goals endorsed in educational policies. Research can explore
the clear links between science curriculum goals and the required assessment methods.
Strategies for linking research, policy formation, classroom practice, and teacher
education might be explored.
The routine evaluation programmes in schools usually lack any scope for the appraisal of
the pupil’s understanding of the process of science. Hence, a science process skills
inventory incorporating the practical skills through performance tasks to assess the extent
of acquisition of the science process skills of the learner can be constructed and validated.
Research may be conducted to inquire into the strategies essential to energize the inservice training sector and to ignite the spark in teachers to implement the learning in
favour of teaching and learning in science.
Research may be done on the extent of awareness of science teacher trainees in imparting
science process skills in the real classroom situations.
Vol. 2, No. 4, April 2013
121
Sheeba, M.N. / Educationia Confab
•
•
ISSN: 2320-009X
Acquisition of science process skills are expected to improve as a student advances in the
academic calendar. Research may be attempted to analyse the improvement (if any) in the
extent of acquisition of science process skills with advancement in grade.
It is vital for the learners to have a crucial awareness of the interrelationship between
science, technology and society. Studies have to be done to explore possible avenues by
which the science curriculum can be upgraded to envisage productive Science and
Technology Education with due emphasis on Science process skills.
Conclusion
Since 1960, the teaching of science became a major concern that it received global attention.
This was a period of intense and vigorous development in the science curriculum, marked by
major curricular innovations as a revolt against the traditional product-led approach and stressed
the development of processes in science teaching. Educational systems are currently undergoing
transformational changes throughout the globe and one of these is a shift from a philosophy that
focuses mainly on the transmission of information to an understanding that supports the
constructivist paradigm of teaching and learning. As the global population crosses the seven
billion milestones, due importance on fostering the acquisition of science process skills by
students would productively contribute towards global excellence in education.
References
[1] Ajaja, O. P. (2010). Processes of science skills acquisition: competences required of science teachers for
imparting them. Journal of Qualitative Education, 6(4)1-6.
[2] American Associates of Advancement of Science – AAAS (1968). Science – A Process Approach. New
York: Xerox Corporation.
[3] Ary, D. Jacobs, L. C., Razavieh, A. (1990). Introduction to research in education. Fort Worth: Harcourt
Brace College.
[4] Bilgin, O. (2006). the effects of hands-on activities incorporating a cooperative learning approach on eight
grade students’ science process skills and attitudes toward science. J. Baltic Science Education, 1, 9, 27-37.
[5] Bricheno, P. (2000). Science attitude changes on transition. Paper presentation at the ASE conference,
Leeds.
[6] Brotherton, P. N., Preece, P. F. W. (1995). Science process skills: Their nature and interrelationships.
Research in Science & Technological Education, 13(1), 5-12.
[7] Burak. (2009). An investigation of the relationship between science process skills with efficient laboratory
use and science achievement in chemistry education, Journal of Turkish Science Education. 6, 3, 114-132.
[8] Dillashaw, F. G., Okey, J. R. (1980). Test of Integrated Science Process Skills for secondary students.
Science Education, 64, 601 – 608.
[9] Ergul, R., Simsekli, Y., Calis, S., Ozdilek, Z., Gocmencelebi, S., Sanli, M. (2011). Effect of inquirybased science teaching on elementary school students' science process skills and science attitudes.
Bulgarian Journal of Science and Education Policy. 5, 1, 48-68
[10] Felita, W. (2008). The effects of hands on science instruction on the science achievement of middle school.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 70, 2.
[11] Fraenkel, J. R., Wallen, N. E. (1996). How to design and evaluate research in education. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
[12] Funk, H. J., Fiel, R, L., Okey, J. R., Jaus, H.H., Sprague, C. S. (1979). Learning Science Process Skills.
Iowa: Kendall/Hunt.
[13] Gauchet., C. (2011). Effects of a novel science curriculum versus tradition science curriculum on problem
solving skills and attitudes for 10th grade students. Dissertation Abstracts International, 71, 9
Vol. 2, No. 4, April 2013
122
Sheeba, M.N. / Educationia Confab
ISSN: 2320-009X
[14] Gay, L. R., Airasian, P. (2000). Educational Research: Competencies for analysis and application. Upper
Saddle River: Merrill Publishing Company.
[15] Ghassan, S. (2007). Learning difficulties in Chemistry: An overview. Journal of Turkish science Education.
4(2), 2-20.
[16] Harlen, W., Elstgeest, J. (1992). UNESCO Source Book for Science in the Primary School - A workshop
approach to teacher education. Paris, UNESCO.
[17] Harlen, W. (1999). Purposes and procedures for assessing science process skills. Assessment in Education,
6, 1, 129-135.
[18] Harlen, W. (2000). Teaching, learning and assessing science, (3rd ed) London: Paul Chapman publishing,
5-12.
[19] Jack, G. U. (2013). The influence of identified student and school variables on students’ science process
skills acquisition. Journal of Education and Practice, 4, 5
ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X
(Online) www.iiste.org
[20] Keys, C. W., Bryan, L. A. (2001). Co-constructing Inquiry-based Science with teachers: Essential research
for lasting reform. Journal of Research in Science, 25 (1) 6631-6645.
[21] Lambert, D., Balderstone, D. (2000). Learning to teach Geography in the secondary school: A Companion
to School Experience. New York: RoutledgeFalmer.
[22] Lanka, S. (2007). Analysis report on teacher training system: Investigation of pre-service
teachers’assessment in scientific process skills. Research in Science and Technology Education, 25 (1) 110.
[23] Martin, R. E., Sexton, C., Wagner, K., Gerlovich, J. (1994). Teaching science for all children. Boston:
Allyn and Bacon.
[24] Marzano, R. J. Pickering, D. J., Pollock, J. E. (2001). Classroom instruction that works: research-based
strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA, Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development.
[25] McMillan, J. H., Schumacher, S. (1997). Research in Education: A conceptual introduction. New York:
Harper Collins.
[26] Murphy, C., Beggs, J. (2003). Children’s perceptions of school science. School Science Review. 84 (308)
109-116
[27] National Science Teachers Association (NSTA). (1971). School science education for the 1980s. Sciencetechnology-society.
[28] Padilla, M. J. (1990). The Science Process Skills. Research Matters–to the Science Teacher. 9004
[29] Ponchaud, B. (2001). Primary Science: Where Next? Paper presentation at the ASE conference, Surrey.
[30] Remziye, Yeter, Sevgül, Zehra, Meral. (2011). The effects of inquiry-based science teaching on elementary
school students’ science process skills and science attitudes, Bulgarian Journal of Science and Education
Policy (BJSEP), 5, 1.
[31] Rezba, R. J., Sprague, C. S., Fiel, R.L., Funk, H. J., Okey, J. R., & Jaus, H. H. (1995). Learning and
assessing science process skills. (3rd Ed.). Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.
[32] Shulman, L. S., Tamir, P. (2004). Research in teaching in the National Science. Second handbook of
Research on teaching: (rd) Rober, M.W.T. Rawera, Chigaco, Rand McNally College Publishing Company.
[33] Simon, M. S., Zimmerman, J. M. (1990). Science and Writing. Science and Children, 18, 3, 7-8.
[34] Tsurusaki, Katelin, B. (2009). Connecting school science and students’ everyday lives. Dissertation
Abstracts International, 69, 10.
[35] Turpin, T., Cage, B. N. (2004). The effects of an integrated, activity-based science curriculum on student
achievement, science process skills, and science attitudes. Electronic Journal of Literacy through Science,
3.
[36] Webster, J., Watson, R. T. (2002). Analyzing the past to prepare for the future: Writing a literature review.
MIS Quarterly, 26, 2, 13-23.
Vol. 2, No. 4, April 2013
123