EOC Review #1: Scientific Method and Chemistry of Life 1. How can you tell the difference between science and nonscience? (SC.912.N.2.1) Science is consistent, observable, natural, predictable, testable, and tentative. Non­science falls outside the scope of science by not following the CONPTT characteristics examples are religion, astrology, and philosophies. 2. What is the difference between inference and observation? (SC.912.N.1.6) Observation may be qualitative (uses a description based on your five senses) or quantitative (uses descriptions based numbers or measurements) that are factual. Inference is an assumption based on the observations and experiences in order to form an explanation. 3. How is hydrogen bonding between molecules related to the structure of the water molecule? (SC.912.L.18.12) Hydrogen bonds in the water molecule are weak bonds that cause a slight bending of the molecule 4. What is the relationship between hydrogen ions (H+) and pH? How is pH related to a solution’s acidity? (SC.912.L.18.12) When water is added to an aqueous solution the hydrogen ions will dissociate and either make the solution acidic or basic depending on the loss or gain of an ion 5. Compare and contrast adhesion and cohesion, using capillary action as an example. (SC.912.L.18.12) Cohesion is water sticking to itself, adhesion is water sticking to other objects. Capillary action is cohesion and adhesion working together to move water against gravity such as plants moving water from its roots to the leaves or you drinking sweet tea through a straw. 6. How does water’s polarity influence its properties as a solvent? (SC.912.L.18.12) Water's polarity gives it the ability to dissolve both ionic compounds and other polar molecules 7. Describe the structure and functions of the four major macromolecules. (SC.912.L.18.1) ● Carbohydrates ○ Function: principle source of energy ○ Structure: made up of Carbon,Hydrogen, and Oxygen atoms­ ring or chain molecular structure of 5­6 Carbon atoms ● Lipids ○ Function: energy storage­also provides insulation for animals (IE. blubber) ○ Structure: also made up of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen atoms­ made up of glycerol and 3 fatty acids ● Proteins ○ Function: energy­makes up the meat in animals­functions as enzymes to regulate chemical reactions ○ Structure: made up of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen atoms ● Nucleic Acids ○ Function: provides genetics in genes and chromosomes ○ Structure: carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur­chain of 100's of nucleotides 8. How does the protein’s structure relate to its function? (SC.912.L.18.1) The amino acid sequence of a protein which is referred to as its primary structure determines the structure or folding pattern of that protein. It is the structure of the protein that determines which molecules that protein can interact with. Proteins will interact with a wide range of molecules based on compatible binding surfaces to carry out different functions. 9. Compare enzyme activity to a lock and key.(SC.912.L.18.11) ● enzymes participate in the reaction they catalyse. ● the reactant molecule (substrate) binds to the enzyme molecule at a particular location called the active sites. ● the highly specific nature of enzyme is due to very precisely defined arrangement of atoms in the active site. the substrate molecule must have a matching shape that will fit into the active site. ● the bond breaking and bond forming processes that transform the substrate into products occur while the substrate is bound to the active site of enzyme. 10. How can changes in an enzyme’s surroundings influence its action? (SC.912.L.18.11) 1: Enzyme concentration If the quantity of enzyme is doubled, the enzymatic activity will also be doubled because more enzymes are now available to work. After a certain level of enzyme concentration, there will be no more increase in the enzymatic activity because all the substrate molecules are combined with an enzyme and the rate of reaction will stabilize. 2: Substrate concentration By increasing substrate concentration, enzymatic activity increases. Increasing the substrate further without increasing the enzyme concentration will not affect the enzymatic activity because all the enzymes are occupied by a substrate molecule. 3: pH value Some enzymes require acidic surroundings, most require a more neutral condition for their activity. Change in the pH can change the enzyme's structure and enzyme become useless. 4: Temperature An increase in temperature of 10 degree celsius doubles the enzymatic activity. Each enzyme has its own optimum temperature at which its enzymatic activity is maximum. Very high temperatures break the bonds that maintain shape of enzyme. If the enzyme denatures, the substrate can not fit into the active sites and enzyme become useless.
EOC Review #2: Cells and Cellular Energy 1. Summarize three statements from the cell theory. Explain the significance of the cell theory to biology. (SC.912.L.14.1) The cell theory states that all living things are composed of cells. It also says that cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things and new cells come from existing cells. The cell theory is significant to biology because all living thing are made of cells. Differences in the structure and function of different life forms are reflected in differences in their cell structures. 2. How does the everyday use of the word “theory” influence how people think about scientific theories? (SC.912.N.3.1) Now I just used the word "theory". "Theory" in the scientific use of the word is different than the everyday language usage today. Most people today use "theory" as just a hunch, guess, belief, or proposal. Science uses the original meaning of "theory": a logical, systematic set of principles or explanation that has been verified—has stood up against attempts to prove it false. 3. Why is the interior membrane of the mitochondria highly folded? (SC.912.L.14.2) The folding of the inner membrane increases the surface area inside the organelle. 4. Explain why a cell wall is needed in plant cells, but not in animal cells. (SC.912.L.14.2) Cell walls are supporting structures that help the plant to have a fixed shape and protect it from injury. Other than that, it helps to keep the plant turgid so that it can stay firm and upright. Because when it enters a high water potential solution, as water moves in, the water exerts turgor pressure on the cell wall and the cell wall thus exerts an opposing pressure to keep water out. Hence cell wall is needed for the plant. On the other hand, animal cells do not need to keep the structures, as they have the skeletal system to protect the organs and cushion them against any external injuries. 5. How do facilitated diffusion and active transport differ? (SC.912.L.14.2) This process is called passive transport or facilitated diffusion, and does not require energy. The solute can move "uphill," from regions of lower to higher concentration. This process is called active transport, and requires some form of chemical energy. 6. How is energy from sunlight used to make sugar? (SC.912.L.18.7) Energy from sunlight is absorbed to generate energy­carrying molecules (e.g. ATP). Those molecules are transferred to other reactions to make sugars. 7. Compare the storage capacity of ATP and glucose. How does the cell use each of these molecules to store energy? (SC.912.L.18.10) A single molecule of glucose stores more than 90 times the energy stored by ATP. However, ATP, which transfers energy quickly, is used by the cell as an immediate source of energy. 8. Trace the events that occur in the chloroplast during photosynthesis. (SC.912.L.18.7, SC.912.L.18.9) Light absorbed by the pigments in photosystem II are used to break up water molecules diffusing into the thylakoid into energized electrons, Hydrogen ions (H+), and oxygen. The electrons then move through the electron transport chain to photosystem I. During this movement of electrons, more H+ ions are moved by a protein pump from the stroma into the inner thylakoid membrane. The energized electrons are added to NADP+ and an H+ to create NADPH. The concentration difference of H+ on either side of the thylakoid membrane provides the energy to make ATP via ATP synthase. 9. What effect does the presence of oxygen have on the events that follow glycolysis? Trace the events of cellular respiration that follow glycolysis. (SC.912.L.18.8, SC.912.L.18.9) During glycolysis, one molecule of glucose is broken in half, producing two molecules of pyruvic acid;cellular respiration uses oxygen to release energy from food. EOC Review #3: Plants and Cell Division 1. In what ways do the leaves of a plant depend on the plant’s roots and stem? (SC.912.L.14.7) Roots enable plants to suck water and dissolved minerals out of the ground...without such water and minerals, the leaves (and the entire plant!) would definitely die. Roots also fasten the plant into the earth so that it doesn't wash away in a heavy rain or blow over in hard wind. Stems deserve some glory, too. For one, they lift the leaves up toward the sun. 2. Describe three main functions of a plant leaf. (SC.912.L.14.7) ● they help in photosynthesis ● they help the plant to respire(transpiration) ● they store various food material 3. Explain why the stomata of a plant open after the plant has been watered. (SC.912.L.14.7) because of "transpiration" ­ the plant releases water vapor from the stomata, thus making under pressure in its vessels, thus the water gets sucked into roots from the soil.
4. How can a tree which is rooted in place produce offspring with another tree hundreds of miles away? (SC.912.L.14.7) The movement of pollen from one plant to another. Pollination is necessary for seeds to form in flowering plants. 5. How are fruits and seeds important adaptations for plants? (SC.912.L.14.7) To attract animals because plants rely on animals and wind and water to help scatter their seeds. 6. What kinds of problems does growth cause for cells? How does cell division help a cell solve these problems? (SC.912.L.16.14) The larger a cell becomes, the more demands the cell places on its DNA. In addition, the cell has more trouble moving enough nutrients and wastes across the cell membrane. The resulting decrease in the cell's ratio surface area to volume makes it more difficult for the cell to move needed materials in and waste products out. 7. Describe what happens during the four phases of mitosis. (SC.912.L.16.14) During mitosis, the cell separates its cytoplasm, organelles and DNA equally. Mitosis is a continuous process but it is useful to divide it into four stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. During prophase, the nuclear membrane disappears and a framework of microtubules is formed. The microtubules form spindle fibers that originate at the poles. Some spindle fibers span the entire cell and others attach to the chromosomes. The spindle fibers function to move the chromosomes. During metaphase, each chromosome is positioned along the central axis of the cell called the metaphase plate. The centromeres are situated directly along the metaphase plate with the each chromatid positioned on opposite sides of the metaphase plate. The cell begins to elongate. During anaphase, each centromere splits into two, causing sister chromatids to separate. Once separated, each chromatid is considered a chromosome and the once­joined sisters are pulled to opposite poles of the cell by the microtubules. Also during anaphase, the entire cell begins to elongate and, therefore, further separates the sister chromosomes. During telophase, a daughter nuclei begins to form at each pole, enveloping the gathered chromosomes. Finally during cytokinesis, the cytoplasm divides resulting in two genetically identical daughter cells. 8. Describe how cancer cells are different from other cells. Based on these differences, explain why cancer has been such a difficult condition to cure. (SC.912.L.16.8) cancer cells do not respond to normal controls on growth and division. by dividing uncontrollably, cancer cells form tumors and spread throughout the body. a cure for cancer includes a way to both prevent cancer cells uncontrollably and to allow normal cell to continue dividing normally. finding a way to stop the cell cycle in some cells, but not to interfere with the cell cycle in other cells, has made it difficult to cure cancer.
EOC Review #4: Heredity and Reproduction 1. Describe the structure of a DNA molecule. What might the similarity between the four bases indicate about the origins of life on Earth? (SC.912.L.16.3, SC.912.L.16.9) We all come from a common ancestor, as the description of origins of life suggest that Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur were present and the structure of DNA are composed of those same elements. 2. Describe the process of DNA replication. Why does a cell need to replicate its DNA quickly? (SC.912.L.16.3, SC.912.L.16.9) DNA replicates before a cell divides. The replication process is semi­conservative, which means that when DNA creates a copy, half of the old strand is retained in the new strand to reduce the number of copy errors. DNA contains the code for building an organism and making sure that the organism functions properly. For this reason, DNA is often called the blueprint of life. 3. How does cellular information pass from one generation to another? Explain why chromosomes, not genes, independently assort. (SC.912.L.16.16) Genetic recombination=The production of offspring with new combinations of traits different from those combinations found in the parents; results from the events of meiosis and random fertilization 4. What is the relationship between meiosis and genetic disorders such as Down’s Syndrome and Turner’s Syndrome? (SC.912.L.16.16) At the formation of human gametes by meiosis, each ovum or sperm should receive 23 chromosomes, one from each pair. If this process fails there can be serious consequences. In one form of Down's syndrome, one of the gametes received two copies of Chromosome 21, so the zygote will have 3 copies (1 from one gamete and 2 from the faulty one) In Turner's Syndrome, one of the gametes lacks a sex chromosome so the zygote has only one X chromosome (if it only inherited a Y it would not survive) 5. Compare and contrast the processes of mitosis and meiosis. How are the two processes similar? How are the two processes different? (SC.912.L.16.17) mitosis and meiosis are both processes of cellular division and follow the same steps: interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. However mitosis only occurs in the somatic body cells and results in two daughter cells. The purpose of mitosis is for cells that grow too large that their surface area:volume ratio is inefficient and the cell cannot support itself, so it divides into 2 smaller cells to restore normal function. It also replaces old and dying cells. Meiosis occurs in the ovaries and testes, and only with germ cells. The purpose of meiosis is to produce gametes. This division also results in 4 daughter cells as opposed to 2 in mitosis. One major difference is the chromosome number in cells that result from mitosis and cells that result from meiosis. Mitosis produces diploid cells, they have a full set of chromosomes. Meiosis produces haploid cells, which have half the number of chromosomes. This is due to the double slit that allows for 4 daughter cells to be produced, and also to increase genetic variation for fertilization 6. If a human had their bone marrow removed, altered genetically, and re­implanted, would the change be passed on to their children? (SC.912.L.16.16) Bone marrow is the flexible tissue found in the interior of bones. In humans, marrow in large bones produces new blood cells. Studies suggest that removing bone marrow, altering it and re­implanting it would only cause a change to the host, not to any children the host produces. 7. How does a human develop from a single cell to a newborn baby? (SC.912.L.16.13) EOC Review #5: Genetics and Biotechnology 1. How does information flow from within the cell nucleus to direct the synthesis of proteins in the cytoplasm? (SC.912.L.16.5) The genetic code is a code for making proteins. The genetic code is read three "letters" at a time. Each "word" is three bases long (called a codon)and corresponds to a single amino acid. Ribosomes use the sequence of codons in mRNA to put together amino acids into polypeptide chains. Long, functional polypeptide chains are proteins. The strongly held belief of molecular biology is that information is passed from DNA to RNA to protein. This means that the code used to make DNA, RNA, and proteins is almost universal among organisms. 2. Contrast the functions of the three main types of RNA. (SC.912.L.16.5) mRNA: Messenger RNA. This is RNA which goes on to be translated into protein. tRNA: transfer RNA. tRNA has a role in translation of mRNA into protein. It recruits amino acids to the ribosome where they build the growing protein. rRNA: ribosomal RNA. This makes up part of the ribosome, a protein­RNA complex which is involved in the translation of mature mRNA into protein. 3. Mendel might have been surprised to learn that genes simply contain the instructions for assembling proteins. What do proteins have to do with the phenotype of an organism? (SC.912.L.16.5) Gregor Mendel might have been surprised to learn that most genes contain nothing more than instructions for assembling proteins. He might have asked what proteins could possibly have to do with the color of a flower, the shape of a leaf, or the sex of a newborn baby. The answer is that proteins have everything to do with these traits. 4. Why is it that a Punnett Square is only useful as a predictive tool?​
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(SC.912.L.16.1) Punnett squares are a useful tool for predicting what the offspring will look like when mating plants or animals. 5. Why is it that a genotype of an organism can always tell you its phenotype, but a phenotype can only sometimes tell you its genotype? (SC.912.L.16.2) You can determine an organism's phenotype from its genotype but not the other way around. For example, a gene controlling fur colour has two alleles: R for red and r for black. R is dominant to r. If two organisms with Rr genotype mate, ideally they would produce offspring of RR, Rr, Rr and rr. From RR and Rr, you can ascertain that the offspring has red fur. The same with rr, you know it's black. But if you were told suddenly that one of it is red, you wouldn't know if it's a heterozygous red or homozygous red. Therefore, there's such a thing as a testcross to determine what genotype an organism has if we only know its phenotype. 6. Explain the difference between complete dominance, incomplete dominance and codominance. (SC.912.L.16.1, SC.912.L.16.2) Codominance is similar to incomplete dominance in that there is no dominant allele. However, the phenotypic expression is quite different. If two alleles have a codominance relationships, in the heterozygote both alleles will be completely expressed. 7. What potential dangers exist to the environment and to society if we allow every individual to make their own decisions with regards to increasing the use of biotechnology in our everyday lives? (SC.912.L.16.10) 8. Why do some kinds of point mutations cause greater changes in proteins than others? (SC.912.L.16.4) If a point mutation occurs in a non­coding region of DNA, then it won't cause any change at all­ these are called silent mutations. However, if a point mutation occurs in a coding region, then it could vary in how much it affects the protein. A substitution may have a slight effect on the protein, if it changes the amino acid to something else with slightly different properties, a massive change in the protein, such as the sickle­cell anemia case, or no change at all in the protein, if it manages to mutate the third base in a codon, because there is the "wobble" which sometimes makes it code for the same amino acid. Over types of point mutations can do much more. Insertions or deletions of a point mutation causes a more drastic change through a frameshift. Because the amino acid sequence is read in codons of three bases, if you delete or add one base, and all the following bases are shifted a little, then every codon from that point on is completely changed. This basically makes a completely useless protein, or no protein at all. EOC Review #6: Theory of Evolution 1. Why doesn’t the phrase “survival of the fittest” accurately reflect Darwin’s concept of the evolutionary fitness? (SC.912.L.15.13, SC.912.L.15.14) Darwin's concept of evolutionary fitness refers to how the genes reproduced through generations are those that are necessary to survival. So, if an organism has a genetic trait that makes it susceptible to prey, then it gets killed and cannot pass its genetic information to offspring. So, its trait is lost over time. This is darwin's concept. The phrase "survival of the fittest" is not accurate in terms of Darwin because it refers to strong organism, which is not necessarily the case in terms of survival through genetic traits. These traits may be present in a small, weak organism, which may not seem strong and physically fit, but its genes are still passed on since it survives 2. Why is it said that natural selection acts on phenotypes rather than on the genetic material of an organism? (SC.912.L.15.13) Because the phenotype or physical characteristics is what actually determines if the organism is able to reproduce and pass along its genotype to the next generation. 3. What are the benefits and consequences of artificial selection? Compare the similarities and differences between natural selection and artificial selection. (SC.912.L.15.13) Artificial and natural selection are really the same process but one is driven by man and the other is driven by an organism's traits that allow them to survive and reproduce. Artificial selection is when mankind chooses certain traits in plants and animals and breeds to enhance that trait. Natural selection is also a process where traits are selected for, but that selection is based upon a trait that gives the organism a mating or survival advantage and this allows them to pass down the traits they possess. 4. What are five factors that can lead to evolution occurring at the population level? (SC.912.L.15.14) 1. Gene flow​
­ individuals immigrating and emigrating change allele frequencies in a population. 2. Genetic drift​
­ by pure chance, a current population produces a new, smaller population with less variation. 3. Mutation​
­ a new, favorable allele will increase in frequency in a population over generations. 4. Natural selection​
­ traits improving survival rate (also improving reproduction rate) will increase in frequency. 5. Sexual selection​
­ traits improving mating success will also increase in frequency. 5. How is the idea of common descent supported by examples of homologous structures? (SC.912.L.15.1) Because Homologous Structures are made of essentially the same 'parts' it follows logically that they come from the same ancestral structure. 6. What is wrong with the statement “it hasn’t been proven?” (SC.912.N.3.1) 7. “A larger brain means a smarter organism.” Explain why this is true or false. (SC.912.L.15.10) 8. Draw a basic diagram of the brain identifying the cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla oblongata, midbrain, pons, and the four lobes (frontal, occipital, temporal and parietal). (SC.912.L.14.26) EOC Review #7: Origins of Life and Classification 1. Describe Stanley Miller and Harold Urey’s famous experiment. Describe their results as well and the significance behind their findings. (SC.912.L.15.8) 2. Define and explain the endosymbiotic theory. (SC.912.L.15.8) Symbiogenesis, or endosymbiotic theory, is an evolutionary theory that explains the origin of eukaryotic cells from prokaryotes. It states that several key organelles of eukaryotes originated as a symbiosis between separate single­celled organisms. 3. Why is it important for biologists to include scientific names for organisms when reporting their findings to other biologists around the world? (SC.912.L.15.6, SC.912.L.15.4) organization and to know about the species 4. What are some limitations of the Linnaean classification system? (SC.912.L.15.6) is based on physical characteristics alone 5. What role does molecular evidence play in determining how closely two species are related to each other? (SC.912.L.15.4, SC.912.L.15.5) Molecular evidence reveals species' relatedness 6. How have new discoveries helped us to redefine the relationships among organisms? Give an example. (SC.912.L.15.5) For example, new discoveries about eukaryotes ­ organisms whose cells enclose DNA within a membrane ­ are redefining: the study of how organisms are related, called phylogeny; the evolutionary history of eukaryotes; how we got to be the way we are EOC Review #8: Ecology 1. Why is a herbivorous diet more energy efficient than a carnivorous diet? (SC.912.L.17.9) A herbivorous diet can be argued as being more energy efficient than a carnivorous diet due to less resources being needed to grow plants and legumes, as opposed to raising livestock. However, over­farming issues can be brought up as a counterpoint. 2. How might the stability of an ecosystem be affected if all the decomposers were suddenly removed? (SC.912.L.17.9) Decomposers cause for another species to survive. When the wolves were removed from Yellowstone, the elk became overpopulated.The elk ate all the young trees and the beavers had no trees to make dams on rivers. So fish had nowhere to breed. 3. How might an oil spill in the ocean affect an aquatic food web? What might happen to the food web on land located near the spill? (SC.912.L.17.9) Density dependent factors can only affect a population when it reaches a certain density. For example, competition, predation, disease, parasitism, crowding, and stress are all factors that only affect populations with high densities. 4. Discuss four ways population size can change. Differentiate between exponential and logistic growth. (SC.912.L.17.5) A population will increase or decrease in size depending on how many individuals are added to it or removed from it. There are two ways individuals can be added to a population. Individuals can be born into the population, or they can move into it from outside the population, or immigrate. There are two ways individuals can be removed from a population. They can die, or they can move out of the population, or emigrate. 5. How might a density­dependent limiting factor be affected by a flood or some other natural disaster? (SC.912.L.17.5) 6. Compare and contrast primary and secondary succession. (SC.912.L.17.4) Primary succession occurs on land that is new and has never had a flora and fauna example: glacier retreats, lava flows. Secondary succession occurs on land that has been cleared example: by fire, of flora and fauna, but which still has viable seeds and spores in the soil. 7. What are introduced species? How are they a threat to biodiversity? (SC.912.L.17.8) Almost half of the native species in America are endangered because of invasive species. Compared to other threats to biodiversity, invasive introduced species rank second only to habitat destruction, such as forest clearing. 8. Explain how having bottled drinking products, and other bottled items, is both a benefit and a detriment to our environment. (SC.912.L.17.20) Most participants believed that bottled water conferred general health benefits but were unsure as to the nature of these. In terms of specific health beliefs, the idea that the minerals in bottled water conferred a health benefit was the most commonly cited. There were concerns over links between the plastic bottle itself and cancer. Participants believed that bottled water has a detrimental effect on the environment. Convenience, cost and taste were influential factors when making decisions as to whether to buy bottled water; health beliefs were unimportant motivating factors. 9. How has human expansion impacted animal habitats and the environment? (SC.912.L.17.20) Habitat Destruction When humans destroy wild land to build homes, factories, shopping malls, amusement parks, garbage dumps, even to build a visitor center, store and restaurant in a park, the land is changed. The animals that once lived there, from the bugs that lived in the ground to the birds that ate them, all may disappear. Some can move to new home areas, but there are already other animals living there. There is not enough food, water or shelter for all of them. Many of the animals will die. 10. The progressive increase in Earth’s human carrying capacity came from advances in technology. What density­independent and density independent limiting factors may prevent the human population from continued growth? (SC.912.L.17.11) If human populations are regulated by density­dependent factors, then as the population approaches the carrying capacity, either birth rates will decrease or death rates will increase, or both. If populations are regulated by density­independent factors, then if environmental conditions change, then either both rates will decline, death rates will increase, or both.