Genocide and Mass Killing: Origins, Prevention, Healing and Reconciliation
Author(s): Ervin Staub
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Source: Political Psychology, Vol. 21, No. 2 (Jun., 2000), pp. 367-382
Published by: International Society of Political Psychology
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PoliticalPsychology,
Vol.21, No. 2, 2000
Genocideand Mass Killing:Origins,Prevention,
Healingand Reconciliation
ErvinStaub
at Amherst
University
ofMassachusetts
Thisarticlefocuseson intensecollectiveviolence,especiallymasskillingand genocide.It
briefly
presentsa conceptionof theirorigins,withnew elementsin theconceptionand
comparisonswithotherapproaches.Variousaspectsof genocideand mass killingare
considered,includingtheirstarting
points(such as difficult
lifeconditionsand group
culturalcharacteristics,
and
social
conflict),
psychological
processes(suchas destructive
and
ideologies),the evolutionof increasingviolenceand its effecton perpetrators
and therolesofleadersand ofinternal
and externalbystanders.
Actionsthat
bystanders,
be takenbythecommunity
violenceare
might
ofnationsand otheractorstohaltorprevent
described.In considering
preventionthereis a focus on processesof healingwithin
betweenhostilegroups.A projecton
previouslyvictimized
groupsand reconciliation
and reconciliation
inRwandais briefly
described.
healing,
forgiveness,
KEY WORDS: genocide,masskilling,
betweengroups,
healingbyvictimized
groups,reconciliation
Rwandagenocide,originsofgenocide/group
ofgenocide/group
violence.
violence,prevention
In addition
togreatandsmallwars,the20thcentury
hasseenmanygenocides,
masskillings,
andinstancesofethnicwarfare
oftenaccompaniedbymasskilling
or genocide.An empiricalreportindicatesa declinein thelastfewyearsin the
numbers
ofsuchviolentevents(Harff,
Gurr,& Unger,1999).However,itis during
thissameperiodthatthetragedies
ofBosnia,Rwanda,Kosovo,andSierraLeone
have occurred,
withcontinuing
violencethatdestroys
lives and communities
in
aroundtheworld.
Angola,theSudan,Sri Lanka,Chechnya,and othercountries
Without
thecreationofan international
masskilling
systemthatdoesnottolerate
and genocideand thatengagesin seriousefforts
to preventviolencebetween
groups,suchviolenceis likelytocontinue.
Thetremendous
rateofchangeintheworldplacesgreatdemandsonindividuals and groups.In manyplaces,thesechangesare takingplace in thecontextof
orevenincreasing
Suchconditions
areinstigators
ofviolence.
continuing
poverty.
367
0162-895X@ 2000 International
Societyof PoliticalPsychology
Publishedby BlackwellPublishers,
350 Main Street,Malden,MA 02148, USA, and 108 CowleyRoad,Oxford,OX4 IJF,UK.
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Staub
368
In addition,thecollapseof Sovietcommunism
and theresulting
changein the
to
and
to
efforts
ethnic
has
led
international
independence
gain
by
groups
system
a
and
serves
as
model
their
Their
minorities
to
assert
inspiration
example
by
rights.
forothers.Theconflicts
thatresultcan lead tocollectiveviolence.Theremayalso
orpoliticalpowerwithin
aroundethnicity,
be seriousconflicts
religion,
revolving
newcountries
thatarecreated.
Thereis a recenttrendto referto variedkindsof violencebetweengroups,
warfare.
Butthere
as ethnicorethnopolitical
including
genocideandmasskilling,
such
aremanybaseson whichgroupsturnagainsteachotherapartfromethnicity,
These divisions
as religion,politicaldifferences,
and social class membership.
butnotalways.InCambodia,forexample,theKhmer
oftencoincidewithethnicity,
I
what
othershave referred
to as "autogenocide"
committed
and
(Staub,
Rouge
Khmer
wereregardedas political
of
numbers
of
who
the
1989),
killing huge
to the ideal of totalsocial equalitythey
enemiesor incapableof contributing
envisioned.At thesametimetheyengagedin genocideagainstethnicminorities
is overusedandbecomesa blanket
(Kiernan,1999).Thereis a dangerthatethnicity
termformanydifferences.
In thisarticleI briefly
describea conception
of theoriginsof (or influences
leadingto) genocideand mass killing,withoccasionalreferenceto specific
instances
(see Staub,1989,1996,1999a).Theseinfluences
giveriseto
mayatfirst
variedformsof"ethnopolitical"
(orcollectiveorgroup)violence,outofwhichthe
extremesof mass killingor genocideevolve.An important
questionis why,in
forintenseviolenceare present,
certaininstanceswhentheconditions
violence
In thecourseofthediscussion,
I refer
remainslimited.
tosomeimportant
concepts
andfindings
offered
anddiscusssomeissuesinunderstanding,
byothers
prediction,
I also discussreconciliation
as a meansof preventing
and prevention.
renewed
inRwanda.
violenceandbriefly
describea projecton healingandreconciliation
Definitions
and Approaches
Genocideis an attempt
to eliminate,
directly
bykillingthemorindirectly
by
conditions
that
lead
to
theirdeath,a wholegroupof
starvation)
creating
(e.g.,
whichdefinesgenocideas "actscommitpeople.TheU.N. GenocideConvention,
tedwiththeintent
todestroy
inpartorinwholea national,
racial,orreligious
ethnic,
as
not
does
cover
the
of
of
members
a
such,"
group
killing
politicalgroup.This
wastheresultofpoliticalconsiderations
thatled somestatesatthetime,especially
theSovietUnion,to resisttheinclusionof politicalgroupsundertheGenocide
Convention.
of groupsidentified
Althoughsomehave called theelimination
by
theirpoliticalaffiliation
&
Gurr,
1990),manyscholarsconsider
politicide(Harff
itgenocide,as I do.
The GenocideConventionalso createsotherproblems,forexample,by
tokillinga group"inpart"as genocide.Inmyview,killinglargenumbers
referring
of people withouttheapparentpurposeof eliminating
thewholegroupis best
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369
Genocideand Mass Killing
regardedas mass killing.The purposeof mass killingmaybe to eliminatethe
thegroup,and in generalto reestablish
leadershipof a group,or to intimidate
ofpeoplewhoarekilledcanbe muchsmallerin
thenumber
dominance.
Although
masskillingthanin genocide,itcan also be verylarge.
The influencesleadingto mass killingand genocideare similar.Because
to
masskillingcanbe a waystation
genocideis oftentheoutcomeofan evolution,
or
violence
is
of
collective
the
likelihood
predictable,
group
genocide.Although
can onlyaimat group
theexactformof itis probablynot.Therefore,
prevention
elaborate
ofscholarshaveoffered
atgenocide.A number
violence,notspecifically
of genocide(see Fein, 1993b). Because the emphasishere is on
definitions
of collectiveor groupviolence,and
theoriginsand prevention
understanding
thisgoal,efforts
ofgenocidedo notespeciallyfurther
becauseprecisedefinitions
toexactlydefinewhatis andwhatis notgenocidearenotcrucialforthisarticle.
ofgenocides.Forexample,
Some scholarshavealso offered
categorizations
monoSmith(1999a) hasproposedfivetypes:retributive,
utilitarian,
institutional,
motives.
But
different
In
these
different
and
typesimply
polistic, ideological. part,
influences
and motivesare oftenmultipleand oftenoverlapacrossthedifferent
sourceofgenocidein the
types.Accordingto Smith(1999a), "themostfrequent
ofpower"(p. 7), thatis,thequestionof
hasbeenthemonopolization
20thcentury
I
who will havepowerand who willrule.However,a numberof theinfluences
in a group,a
describebelow-such as motivesarisingfrompast woundedness
lifeconditionsthatlead to
betweengroups,or difficult
historyof antagonism
in
all
be
intensification
ofgroupconflict-may
present thecase ofa monopolistic
genocide.
the
The approachI have used in thepast,and followhere,is to identify
the
influences
thatnormally
contribute
tocollectiveviolence.In specificinstances,
thataremostimportant
influences
(andthemotivestheygiveriseto) can thenbe
efforts.
Thiscan be doneinbothposthoc analysesandpredictive
identified.
The OriginsofGenocide,Mass Killing,and OtherCollectiveViolence
life
difficult
Instigators.Therearetwoprimary
starting
pointsorinstigators:
ofthetwois especially
ina society,
andgroupconflict.
Thecombination
conditions
ormotive-which,
instigator
likelytolead tocollectiveorgroupviolence.A third
combinedwiththeotherinfluences
describedbelow(e.g.,devaluation),
can lead
Thiscan lead to whatSmith(1999a) has
to collectiveviolence-is self-interest.
calledutilitarian
self-interest
has led
genocide(ormasskilling).Mostcommonly,
a
subordinate
tooneoftwokindsofviolence:violencebydominant
groupsagainst
and violenceagainstindigenouspeoplesarising
groupdemandingmorerights,
fromtheintention
to taketheirlandor developthearea thattheyhaveoccupied
&
Twedt,
1997;Staub,2000).
(Hitchcock
Economicprobconditions
andtheir
life
psychological/social
effects.
Difficult
conflict
and
and
intense
and
lems,political
disorganization,
rapidsocial change
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370
Staub
notonlyhavematerial
butalso profoundly
orincombination)
effects,
(separately
frustrate
basic humanneeds(Staub,1989,1996,1999a,1999b).To satisfy
needs
foridentity
andconnection,
peopleoftenturnto a group.Theyelevatethegroup
or physically
diminishing
(Tajfel,1978,1982; Turner,1987) by psychologically
whichprotects
their
othergroups.Theyscapegoatanother
groupforlifeproblems,
withinthegroup,andprovidesa psychologically
connection
strengthens
identity,
of events.As partof theprocessleadingto
useful(even iffalse)understanding
violence,thegroupusuallycreatesor adoptsan ideology,a visionofidealsocial
Thisoffers
arrangements.
hopeofa betterfuture,
providesa newcomprehension
to otherpeople,and offersthepotentialforeffective
of realityand connection
an enemygroup.
suchideologiesalmostinvariably
action.Unfortunately,
identify
devaluated
Effective
actionmeansdealingwiththisenemy,usuallythepreviously
andscapegoatedgroup.
The groupand its individualmemberschangeas theyengagein harmful
actionsagainsttheothergroup.Theydevaluetheothergroupmore,andexclude
itsmembers
fromthemoraluniverse(Opotaw,1990;Staub,1990).The standards
ofgroupbehaviorchange,institutions
change,ornewonesarecreatedtoharmthis
The
evolution
violence
can endin masskillingorgenocide.
ofincreasing
enemy.
Theviolenceoftenexpandstoothergroups.Thisevolution
can takeplaceoveran
extended
historical
with
of
relative
Itis a central
feature
period,
periods
tranquility.
ofintensegroupviolence.
Culturalcharacteristics.
Certaincharacteristics
of a culture/society
makeit
morelikelythatdifficult
conditions
will give riseto theprocessI described.A
crucialone is a historyof devaluationof a groupof people.The morethisis
in theformofdiscrimination
maintained
orpersecution,
the
bysocietalstructure,
moredangerousit is. Anotherimportant
characteristic
is verystrongrespectfor
Accustomedto beingled,peoplewill turnto new leadersin difficult
authority.
destructive
times,oftentothosewhopropagate
ideologies.Theywillbe lesslikely
to opposetheactionsof leadersand thegroup,includingharmful
actstowarda
victimgroup.Theywillbe morelikelyto obeydirectordersforviolence.Monolithiccultures-thosewithnondemocratic
(Rummel,1994),
governmental
systems
a limitedrangeofvalues,andlimitedaccessbypeopletothepublicdomain-also
contribute
to thelikelihoodofgenocideandmasskilling."Mature"democracies,
withwell-established
civicinstitutions
andpractices
(Staub,1999a),areleastlikely
toengageingenocide.
Thepastvictimization
ofa groupandtheunhealedwoundsthatresultarealso
contributors
togenocideandmasskilling.Without
of
important
healing,members
a victimized
will
feel
diminished
and
vulnerable.
will
see
the
world
as
group
They
will
to
to
conflict
with
conditions,
dangerous.
They
respond instigating
especially
anothergroup,withviolence,whichtheyexperienceas necessaryself-defense
(Staub,1998,1999a; see also Herman,1992;McCann& Pearlman,1990).
Collectiveviolence,and mass killingand genocide(whentheyresult),are
ofinfluences.
ButSerbviolenceinthe1990s
alwaystheoutcomeofa combination
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371
Genocideand Mass Killing
seemsa goodexampleofviolencethathaditsroots,inpart,in pastvictimization
and unhealedwounds.The Serbswereruledforfivecenturies
by Turkey,until
late
in
the
19th
Hundreds
of
thousands
of
Serbs
were
killedduring
fairly
century.
A victim
theSecondWorldWarbya fascistCroatrepublicalliedwithGermany.
in
the
for
self-defense
become
and
the
belief
have
necessity aggressive
part
identity
WhenYugoslaviabegantocollapseintheearly1990s,after
Croatia
ofSerbculture.
andtheremaining
led by SerbiaattackedCroatia,
declaredindependence
country
cleansedfrom
as thetideturnedin thewarabout200,000Serbswereethnically
thewar,thismadetheSerbsfeel
Croatia(Hodge,1999).Eventhoughtheystarted
and
like victimsagain.(This was confirmed
to me in meetings,
conversations,
interaction
withaudiencesinpubliclecturesI gaveinBelgradein 1995.)
Theroleofbystanders.As violencebetweengroups,orbyonegroupagainst
another,intensifies-andas the membersof a group(or a smallergroupof
withinit)becomeincreasingly
committed
to theirideologyandthus
perpetrators
of theothergroup-theyareless andless likelyto shiftcourse
to thedestruction
on theirown. Onlywitnessesor bystanders
can stoptheevolutionof increasing
violence.Unfortunately,
bothinternal
ofthegroupwhohave
(members
bystanders
notjoined the perpetrators)
and externalbystanders
(outsideindividualsand
groups)usuallyremainpassive.Theirpassivity
(Taylor,1983),andevenmoretheir
andcomplicity,
affirms
theperpetrators
intheirbeliefsand
not-infrequent
support
withdiplomatic
actions(Staub,1989,1999a).Suchsupport
rangesfromcontinuing
andbusinessrelations
as usual(Simpson,1993)to economicandmilitary
aid.
An extreme,
butnotunusual,exampleofbystander
andcomplicity
passivity
occurredin Rwanda.The Frenchsupported
theRwandangovernment
militarily
andinotherwaysbeforethegenocidein 1994,without
totheoccasional
responding
massacresofTutsis(des Forges,1999;Gourevich,
continued
1998).Thissupport
evenafterthegenocidebegan(des Forges,1999). The UnitedNationswithdrew
mostofitspeacekeepers
afterthekillingsstarted.
The restoftheworldrefusedto
call thekillingsgenocide,thereby
the
foractionimpliedbythe
avoiding obligation
Thegenocideendedonlyafter
GenocideConvention.
theRwandanPatriotic
Front,
a Tutsiarmyopposingthegovernment,
defeatedthegovernment
forces.
Group Conflictas theOriginof CollectiveViolence
Many of the psychologicaland culturalinfluencesdescribedabove also
forviolenceis a conflict
ofinterests
betweengroups.
operatewhentheinstigator
Even whenconflictinvolves"vital"interests,
suchas territory
neededforliving
elementsusuallymakeconflicts
thatis,persis"intractable,"
space,psychological
tentanddifficult
toresolve(Fisher,1997;Staub,1989).Often,
a particular
territory
is centrally
connectedto a group'sidentity,
andmayrepresent
hopeforsecurity.
Thisseemedtohavebeenthecase intheIsraeli-Palestinian
conflict
(Kelman,1990)
as wellas theconflict
aroundKosovo.
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372
Staub
A frequent
formofconflict
leadingtocollectiveviolenceis betweendominant
in Argenin
a
and subordinate
groups
society(Fein,1993a).The disappearances
in
the
in
the
much
of
the
violence
Cambodia,
Colombia,
tina,
autogenocide
Armenians
in
had
their
in
and
even
the
of
roots,
Turkey
genocide
genocide Rwanda,
Economicproblemsin a societyoftenintensify
at leastin part,in suchconflicts.
theloss of
butrather
theconflict.
Butitis notpoverty
byitselfthatseemscentral,
a
sense
of
of
basic
and
the
threat
to
and
frustration
needs,
injusticeor
well-being,
times.
in difficult
in comparison
to othersthatis intensified
relativedeprivation
that
it
is
the
dominant
not
respondswith
group
Frequently,
although always,
nonviolent
and
toimprove
subordinate
both
violencetoattempts
violent,
by
groups,
theirpositionin society.Such groupsact notonlyto defendtheirprivilegeand
andworldview,a legitimizing
butalsotodefendanidentity
status,
ideology(Levin,
& Federico,1998),thatmakestheirpositioninsocietyright
Sidanius,Rabinowitz,
intheireyes(Staub,1989).
OtherConceptions
A numberof theinfluences
I have describedhave also been notedby other
lifeconditions
and
ofwhatI havecalleddifficult
scholars,suchas theimportance
An exampleof thelatteris
conceptsrelatedto devaluationand discrimination.
Helen Fein's (1979) conceptof placinga groupoutsidethe"universeof moral
ofthe
concernwithandappreciation
However,therehasbeenlimited
obligation."
psychologicalprocessesand forcesat work.For example,thefocushas been
on discrimination
as a structural
notdevaluation
as a psychocondition,
primarily
force
or
motivator.
logical
The importance
of leadershas been stressed,but witha focus on their
I described
motivation
forpowerandinfluence.
In contrast,
theconception
points
to certainotherimportant
of
destructive
One
origins
leadership. of theseis that
life
destructive
leadersare themselvesaffectedby social conditions(difficult
in theway therestof the
conditionsor groupconflict)and thegroup'sculture,
The followers'readinessopensthewayfordestructive
leadergroupis affected.
At
destructive
leaders
be
to
to
the
needs
of the
may trying respond
ship. times,
in
that
the
culture
has
both
leaders
and
members
to
prepared
group ways
group
In
a
the
and
are
leaders
Another
of
sense,then, group
respond.
joined.
origin
destructive
inthecase ofpreviously
victimized
leadership
groupsis thewoundednessoftheleaders.Thiswoundedness
in
maybe simplydue to theirmembership
thegroup,or itmaybe personal(whentheirownfamilyhas suffered
fromprior
victimization).
That violenceevolves has been noted.For example,the increasingharm
inflictedon Jewsin Germany,one of the moststraightforward
examplesof
hasbeendescribed(Hilberg,1961).Butthecrucialandpossiblycentral
evolution,
role of suchevolution(Staub,1989) has notbeen stressed,withpsychological
and changesin groupprocesses,group
changesin individualsand a collectivity
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Genocideand Mass Killing
373
ofviolenceis usuallytheoutcome
Evena suddenflare-up
norms,andinstitutions.
inculture,
sudden
andofpriorevolution.
Suchseemingly
ofhistorical
continuities
of
limited
occur
after
or
no
as
in the
can
violence,
intervening
periods
flare-ups
orthemasskillinginBosnia.
case ofthegenocideoftheArmenians
In theformer
remained
unattended
Yugoslavia,pastwoundsandantagonisms
This
of
life
conditions
communist
era.
made
the
difficult
the
emergence
during
economic
the
of
the
of
communism,
difficulties,
breakupof
(consisting
collapse
of
as
a
and
the
Croatia
thecountry)
(Bennett,
1995)
emergence
separatestate(with
Croat
inflicted
tremendous
of
a
thehistorical
republichaving
background prior
and
to
Serb
violenceon Serbs)intensely
security identity.
threatening
togenocideormasskillingthatarenot
Two important
influences
contributing
presentedabove have also been
explicit,separateelementsin theformulation
someformofwar,oftenanethnicorrevolutionary
identified:
war,andan "abrupt"
in regimeswheretheleadersareunableto createa viablesystem.
Both
transition
of thesehave sometimes
been regardedas indications
of "statefailure"(Harff,
1996;Harffetal., 1999;Melson,1992).
A civilwarrepresents
ofthemostextreme
form;itusuallyarises
groupconflict
as
well
as
difficult
life
conditions.
Civil
wars
from,
embodymutual
engenders,
devaluationor an especiallyintenseformof it whichI have calledideologiesof
orotherideologiesarealsousuallypresent.
(Staub,1989).Nationalistic
antagonism
ingovernment
inwar.A transition
Theevolution
ofincreasing
violenceis inherent
and thefailureof thatgovernment
to successfully
establishitselfand lead the
andstableconditions)
are
country
(e.g.,tocreatepositiveeconomicdevelopment
ofdifficult
lifeconditions.
specificindicators
important
A positivefactor(Harffet al., 1999) thatmakesgenocideless likelyis the
betweena particular
stateandotherstates.This
degreeofeconomicinterconnection
to a country,
theless isolateda country
suggeststhatthemoreotherstatesmatter
thatgiven
is,thelesslikelyitis toengageingenocide.Itis also possible,however,
theseinterconnections
theeconomicsituation
of suchcountries
is usuallybetter,
one typeofinstigation.
reducing
can be affected
However,even statesthatisolatethemselves
by bystander
actions.Afterthefundamentalist
in Iran,thehistorical
revolution
of
persecution
Baha'i flaredup.Morethan200 Baha'i wereexecutedina relatively
shorttime.It
is reasonableto expectthatwithoutbystander
the intensity
of the
influence,
violencewouldhaveincreased.However,actionsbyBaha'i communities
outside
andtointernational
Iran,andrepresentations
bythemtogovernments
agencies,led
to a numberof resolutions
the
United
Nations
and
individual
countries
by
by
the
of
the
in
Baha'i
Iran.
various
formsof
condemning persecution
Although
the
have
been
executions
halted
continued,
persecution
(Bigelow,1993). They
ona muchsmallerscale,inthemid-tolate1990s.
resumed,
unfortunately,
although
Is it possiblethatthereare conditions
underwhichtheinfluences
described
aboveareunnecessary
inleadingtoextreme
violencebyonegroupagainstanother?
The behaviorof conquerors
in earlierhistorical
times,theirkillingof thosethey
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374
Staub
as routineor institutionalized
conquered,has been interpreted
genocide(Smith,
1999a).Perhaps,at thetime,thewaythe"other"(all thoseoutsidethegroup)was
andmilitary
seen,combinedwithpoliticaljudgment
practicethatled toroutinization(Kelman,1973),madesuchkillingeasier.Although
valuesof
theproclaimed
theinternational
of people no
systemincreasingly
encouragethehumanization
matter
whatgrouptheybelongto,theactualpractices
thatexistatcertain
timesand
in thefaceof violence,
places,and thepassivityof theinternational
community
stillallowsuchviolencetobecomeroutine.
Thereare manydifferent
formsof groupor collectiveviolencethatcan and
do leadtogenocideormasskilling.TheapproachI havedescribed
focusesonbroad
influencesthat,in my view,underliemostof them.In part,thisemphasison
ofcauseshasbeena responsetoearlygenocideresearch,
withitssharp
generality
differentiation
betweengenocideand otherkindsof violenceby groupsagainst
itis empirically
othergroups.Moreimportant,
based.Variousgenocidesandthe
in thelate 1970s (Staub,1989,
less focused,and limitedviolencein Argentina
1999a),as wellas theviolenceinBosniainthe1990s(Staub,1996),seemedtobe
theresultof thekindsof influences
describedabove. In considering
important
differences
in thegroupsthatbecomeviolentwitheach other,conflicts
between
based
on
or
involve
but
so
can
groups
ethnicity religiondeeply
identity,
politically
based violence.The heresyofreligiousdivergence
andtheheresyofevenminor
can bothlead to violentfury.
politicaldifference
as
have suggested,distinctions
Nevertheless, recentcommentators
among
different
kindsof groupviolencemay advanceour understanding
of origins.
Distinctions
can be made,forexample,amongformsofviolencesuchas official
and ethnopolitical
warfare(civil war) (Suedfeld,1999);
revolution,
persecution,
of
or
motives
forgroupviolencesuchas conquest,
amongtypes genocide; among
and
so
on
and research
(Smith,1999b).Such distinctions
revenge,purification,
basedon themmayhelpto establishtheextentofcommunality
in theinfluences
in specificformsofconflict
and
proposedabove,as wellas additionalinfluences
violence.It maybe, forexample,thatoutoftheinfluences
identified
earlier,the
thatispresent
ina particular
withadditional
instance,
specificcombination
together
willdetermine
themotives,
conditions,
aims,andformsofviolence.
Examiningspecificregionalor local conditions-forexample,the mass
killingsof Hutusby thedominantTutsisin Burundi,and theireffectson the
the
psychologyand actionsof theHutuleadershipin Rwandathatengineered
genocidein 1994(Wessells,1999)-can helpin understanding
specificinstances
ofmasskillingorgenocide.Payingattention
tothespecificnature
ofviolence,and
to cultureand local customin dealingwithitsaftermath,
is also quiteimportant
withregardto prevention
to
(Wessells,1999). In Rwanda,forexample,efforts
further
ofthenature
ofthegenocide
healingandreconciliation
requireanawareness
butalso
there,in whichthekillersincludednotonlythearmyandparamilitary,
andevenrelatives(Staub& Pearlman,
inpress).
neighbors
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Genocide
andMassKilling
375
PreventingCollectiveViolence
is crucial.I have distinguished
betweenhaltingand
The roleof bystanders
former
refers
tostopping
violence
violence
The
(Staub,1999a).
preventing
group
refers
atleasttosomedegree;thelatter
totakingaction
thatis alreadyinprogress,
existthatmakeviolenceprobable.Whenviolencehasalready
whentheconditions
itrequires
to
a
substantial
level,evenifitis notyetmasskilling,
halting
progressed
theinfluence
andpoweroftheinternational
community.
in either
Withsomeexceptions,
theUnitedNationshas remainedineffective
or
individual
nations
have
not
collective
violence.
Traditionally,
halting preventing
or
"intervention"
to
save
the
lives
of
citizens
of
another
(often
regarded
engagement
noras necessarily
as a moralobligation,
distant)country
servingtheirinterests.
Thisis shortsighted,
becauseas violenceexpands,governments
thathaveengaged
inmasskillingoftheirownpopulation
tendalsotoattackothercountries.
Examples
from
ofthisincludetheCambodianincursions
intoVietnam,
Argentina
progressing
thedisappearances
totheFalklandwar,andIraqinvading
Kuwait.Itis conceivable
thatstrong
international
ofJewsandother
responsestotheincreasing
persecution
transgressions
by Germanyin the 1930s wouldhave haltedtheevolutionthat
contributed
tothemanifold
violencethatGermany
laterengagedin.It is probable
thatearly,committed
andactionsbytheinternational
reactions
before
community,
a strong
commitment
toviolenceand/or
a system
thatpromotes
ithavedeveloped
in a givennation,couldusuallyhaltviolencewithout
theuse offorce.
Haltingviolence.Haltingviolencemay involvetheuse of specialenvoys
thedisap(CarnegieCommission,1997; Staub,1999a). Theycan communicate
andconsequences
thatwillfollowifviolence
provaloftheinternational
community
continues.They can also offerhelp of variedkinds:withmediation,
conflict
withleadersin supportive
andhealingways,andhelping
resolution,
engagement
leadersto findwaysto respondto theneedsof theirpeople without
generating
violence.
The engagement
ofhigh-level
international
leaders,theirdirectcontactwith
leadersofpotentially
at
times
be crucial.Becauseissuesof
genocidalgroups,may
and
connection
to
are
others
often
centralamongthosewho
identity,
security,
the
of
involvement
international
perpetrate
genocide,
important
figurescan help
the
of
a
and
a
of
by affirming identity group
feeling importance
by thegroup's
leaders.Itcanenhancea feelingofsecurity
andcreatea senseofconnection
tothe
restoftheworld.
Whennecessary,
sanctions
andboycotts
needtofollow.Thesemight
be more
effective
andcreateless suffering
a
if
are
more
on
focused
among population they
leaders-forexample,targeting
theirassetsin foreign
countries
Com(Carnegie
mission,1997). Finally,militaryactioncan be essentialin certaininstances,
especiallywhenno prioractionhas beentaken,to stopmasskillingorgenocide.
Bothtohaltviolenceandtoprevent
todevelopa conception
it,itis necessary
ofwhenactionis needed,whatkindofaction,whois toperform
theseactions,and
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376
Staub
action.Earlywarning
andperforming
has becomea
a relatedsystemof initiating
the
crucial
issueis
Buthistory
that
recentfocusofgenocideprevention.
suggests
the
creation
and
existence
of
a
that
which
system responds
earlyaction,
requires
abouttheimpending
to information.
For example,theexistenceof information
violencein Rwandadid notlead to anyresponse(des Forges,1999; Gourevich,
1998;Staub,1999a).
violence.Withregardto prevention,
one focushas beenon ecoPreventing
This
nomicdevelopment
is important,
butwilltake
1997).
(CarnegieCommission,
timeandis byitselfnotenough.First,foreffective
subordinate
prevention,
groups
and to rightswithina
oughtto have greateraccess to economicopportunities
times.Thisinturnrequireschangesinthedominant
society,especiallyindifficult
betweengroups.Second,
groups,as wellas in subordinate
groupsandinrelations
toprevent
ormutualhostility.
Various
violence,groupsmustovercomedevaluation
conflict
resolution
approaches(Deutsch& Coleman,2000;Fisher,1997;Rouhana
& Kelman,1994)andgroupsworking
forcommongoals(Pettigrew,
1997;
together
in
Staub,1989,1999a)havebeenproposedandusedforthispurpose.Experiences
suchgroupscan also further
healingandreconciliation.
newapproachtopreventing
collecHealingand reconciliation.A relatively
tiveviolenceandbreaking
violencehasbeenworkonhealing
cyclesofcontinuing
andreconciliation
1996;Staub,1998,1999a;Staub& Pearlman,
(Agger& Jensen,
1996,in press;Weine,1999; Wessels& Montiero,in press).As notedbefore,
healingbyvictimized
groupsmakesviolencebythemless likely.In ordertoheal,
membersof victimized
needto engagewith
individuals,
groups,likevictimized
theirexperience.
thepain,sorrow,
andloss undersafe
Theyneedto reexperience
conditions.
and
fromeachother
affirmation
Theyneedtoreceiveempathy,
support,
and,ideally,frompeopleoutsidethegroup.
connections
tootherhumanbeings,bothwithin
and
Theyneedtoreestablish
outsidetheirgroup.Individuals
andgroupsfromtheoutsidereaching
outtothem,
theirpain and offering
forhealing.
acknowledging
support,can be important
Variousforms
ofjustice,ranging
frompunishment
ofperpetrators
torestitution
by
cancommunicate
tovictims
thatwhathashappenedtothemis notacceptable
them,
humanconduct.All thiscan supportvictims'identity,
enhancetheirfeelingsof
and
with
and
contribute
to
reconciliation.
So canthe
security, thereby
help
healing
of
and
(Staub,1998, 1999a,Staub&
expression regret apologyby perpetrators
in
Pearlman, press).
Whenmembersof victimand perpetrator
groups-or,as is oftenthecase,
that
have
victimized
each
other-live
is
reconciliation
groups
mutually
together,
essentialto breakthecontinuing
is morethan
cycleof violence.Reconciliation
hostilegroupslivingnear each otheror simply
coexistence,thatis, formerly
and
Reconciliation
ofthetwo
interacting working
together.
requiresthatmembers
come
to
see
the
ofone another.
It meanscomingto accepteach
groups
humanity
otherandtodevelopmutualtrust.
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377
Genocideand Mass Killing
is difficult
andtheveryidea ofitcan
Thisalso requiresforgiving.
Forgiving
afterhorrible
eventsliketheHolocaust,thegenocidein Rwanda,or
be offensive
formanysurvivors
toconsider
thegenocidalviolencein Tibet.It is evendifficult
who
have
not
members
of
the
those
personally
particigroup
perpetrator
forgiving
groupor because
patedin violence,eitherbecausetheybelongto theperpetrator
is important
becauseitmakes
Nonetheless,
forgiving
theywerepassivebystanders.
in
And
when
live
as
Bosnia
andRwanda,
reconciliation
groups together,
possible.
of
of
the
violence
areever
and
without
reconciliation,
feelings insecurity
danger
present.
totakeplace,
Notonlyvictimsbutperpetrators
needtohealforreconciliation
Membersoftheperpeas do thosewhohavebeenbothvictimsandperpetrators.
oftenbypriorvictimization,
butattheveryleastas
trator
grouparealso wounded,
Without
a resultof theviolencetheyor othersin theirgrouphave perpetrated.
are
continue
to
blame
and
withtheirownpain,perpetrators likelyto
engagement
victims.Onlyas theybeginto healcan
devaluetheirformer
andpotential
future
shelltheycreatearoundthemselves
weaken.Thisin
theprotective
psychological
turncan open themto the people theyhave harmedand allow a processof
tobegin.
reconciliation
and forgiveness
mutuallysupporteach other.An
Healing,reconciliation,
andtogether,
advanceineachcanfacilitate
advancesintheothers.Separately
they
contribute
to thefulfillment
ofbasic humanneeds:forsecurity,
positiveidentity,
tootherpeople,anda comprehension
ofreality
thatoffers
hope.
positiveconnection
and Reconciliationin Rwanda
Healing,Forgiveness,
Genocideand itsimpact.In 1994,in a 3-month
periodfromAprilthrough
June,perhapsas manyas 800,000peoplewerekilledin Rwanda,mostof them
moderate"Hutus,or Hutuswho
Tutsis,butincludingabout50,000 "politically
wereregarded
as enemiesforotherreasons.Thegenocidewasperpetrated
primarbutalsobyneighbors
andevenbyrelatives
ilybythearmy,
byparamilitary
groups,
of Tutsiswhowereeithermarried
to Hutusor wereof mixedethnicbackground
(des Forges,1999). The influencesleadingto the genocide,the evolutionof
violenceoveran extended
period,and(as notedearlier)thebehaviorofbystanders
wereall consistent
withthemodelpresented
here(Staub,1999a).
The greatimpactof thegenocideon survivors
for
providesthebackground
efforts
towardhealing,reconciliation,
and forgiveness.
On tripsto Rwanda I
interviewed
someTutsisurvivors
whowerehelpedby Hutus.We gainedfurther
information
abouttheexperienceand impacton survivorsin thecourseof an
in Rwanda(Staub&
and reconciliation
ongoingprojecton healing,forgiveness,
in
Pearlman, press).1
1ThisprojecthasbeensupportedbytheJohnTempletonFoundation.
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Staub
378
because
ofoneyoungwomanwas killed.Shesurvived
Everyoneinthefamily
withanother
when
the
This
took
shewas traveling
family
genocidebegan.
family
Another
heras a slavelaborer.
herinbuttreated
woman,whosehusbandwaskilled,
tookin a childwhowas leftfordead and stayedfordaysin a pileofcorpses.His
even his capacityfor speech,has been severely
psychologicaldevelopment,
survived
because his motheris Tutsi,butafterthe
One
man
barely
impaired.
his
father
is Hutu.In additionto theimpactof
had
because
genocide
problems
divisionsnowin
betweenHutusandTutsis,therearefurther
eventson therelation
from
thegenocideandthosewhoreturned
RwandabetweenTutsiswhosurvived
or
their
from
earlier
of
violence
Tutsis
othercountries,
against
refugees
periods
inchargeofthegovernment.
A helpful
descendants.
Thislattergroupis primarily
is concernedwith,promotes,
andhas initiated
a
influence
is thatthegovernment
and
reconciliation."
tofacilitate
"unity
program
In our projectwe have trainedstafffroma numberof local organizations
& Hagengimana,
(Staub,Pearlman,
1999)thatworkwithgroupsinthecommunity
on healing,or reconciliation,
or helpingpeoplecome together
to do agricultural
efforts.
The training
includedexperiential
work,or in othercommunity-building
components,
specifically
havingpeoplewrite,or draw,orjust thinkabouttheir
witheachother,
experiences
duringthegenocideandthensharetheseexperiences
withparticipants
also trainedin empathicresponding
to others'stories.In the
course of this,participants
talkedabout verypainfulexperiencesduringthe
such as
genocide.The trainingalso includedpsychoeducational
components,
learningabouttheeffectsof traumaon individuals,
examining
pathsto healing,
andlearning
abouthowgenocideoriginates.
This last componentseemedto have a profoundimpacton participants.
theroleofthese
Learningabouttheinfluences
leadingtogenocide,andconsidering
influences
bothinothergenocidesandinthegenocideinRwanda,seemedtohave
severalconsequences.
seemedtofeeltheirhumanity
reaffirmed:
First,participants
If thesethingshavehappenedelsewhere,
and iftheseare understandable
human
then
what
in
horrible
as
it
does
not
exclude
Rwanda,
was,
processes,
happened
themfromthehumanrealm.Second,some shiftin attitude
towardperpetrators
seemedto takeplace,as a resultof hearingaboutand discussingtheforcesthat
to theiractions.If theperpetrators
areaffected
operatein leadingperpetrators
by
conditionsin societyand the natureof culturein comprehensible
ways,then
if
perhapstheirevil actionsarenotsimplytheresultof an evilnature.Moreover,
influencesthatled to thegenocideare comprehensible,
thentherecurrence
of
violencemay be preventable.
All theseshiftsin perspective
mayenhancethe
of
not
for
but
for
Hutus
as
well.In addition
possibility reconciliation, only Tutsis,
tothediscussioninthegroup,changesinparticipants
thatresulted
from
thetraining
as a wholewereindicated
information
collected
in
bypreliminary
questionnaires.
We have begunto collectfurther
information
frommembersof groupsin the
thattheparticipants
in ourseminar
workwith.
community
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Genocideand Mass Killing
379
avenuesto healing,
Althoughexperiencesin smallgroupscan be important
thecreationof processesthatpromotehealingon a largerscale,involving
more
is essentialwhena wholesocietyis affected.
Ceremopeopleorthewholesociety,
andvictimgroupscan
andmemorials
canbe useful.Perpetrator
nies,testimonies,
join ingriefandsorrow.Thenatureoftheseeventsshouldbe suchthattheydo not
andconnect
buthelppeopleengagewiththeirexperiences
reinforce
woundedness,
witheachotherin waysthatpointto a morehopefulfuture
(Staub,1998).
InRwanda,ata meeting
ofwomen
Othersocietalprocessesarealsoimportant.
women
the
reconciliation
the
and
commission,
many
expressed
organized
by unity
fortheirfamiliesas partofthekindofjustice
needfora better
economicsituation
A womaninourworkshop,
whosehusbandwas
thatwillhelpwithreconciliation.
whenmylivelihoodwas destroyed
andI cannot
killed,said: "How can I forgive,
evenpayfortheschoolingofmychildren."
economic
forpeople
Although
support
is difficult
in Rwandaandin otherpoorsocietieswherecollectiveviolencetakes
place,an increasein socialjusticecan providea positivegroundforprocessesof
inpress).Obviously,
andforgiveness
(Staub& Pearlman,
healing,reconciliation,
economicaid byothercountries
canbe ofgreatvalue.
WhentheEvolutionDoes NotIntensify
inwhichtheevolution
ofincreasing
Therearesomeinstances
violenceremains
The
I
in
inhibited. influences discussed causingand preventing
masskillingand
genocidehavea rolein this.
Actionby bystanders
is usuallyimportant.
It was important
in bringing
to an endin SouthAfrica.The exclusionofSouthAfricanathletes
from
apartheid
international
eventscontributed,
followedbytheimportant
economicboycott.
The
ofnationshelpedto stopviolencein Bosnia,whenfinally,
afterlong
community
NATO tookmilitary
action.
hesitation,
Bothbystanders
andinternal
societalprocesseswereimportant
ina number
of
instances.This was thecase in SouthAfrica.It was also thecase in Northern
Ireland.The relatively
limitedviolencein thisseemingly
intractable
conflict,
just
over3,000deathsfromthe1960sto thelate 1990s,was probably
to a significant
extentbecauseofthepresenceoftheBritisharmyanda substantial
policeforce.
BothBritainandtheUnitedStateshad significant
rolesin starting
andhelpingto
maintain
therecent
hasimproved
peaceprocess.Alongtheway,positiveleadership
thequalityof lifeof theCatholicminority.
Internal
werealso active:
bystanders
betweenCatholicsand
Community
groupsandschoolshavecreatedmanycontacts
Protestants
(Cairns& Darby,1998). Similarly,violencebetweenIsraelisand
Palestinians
of external
mayhave remainedlimitedbecauseof theinvolvement
bystanders,
especiallytheUnitedStates,as wellas bothinsideandoutsideparties
workingon creatingpositivecontactbetweenJewsand Palestinians(Kelman,
1990;Rouhana& Kelman,1994).
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380
Staub
the
I havenotedearlier,as an exampleof theunusualpowerof bystanders,
to
the
evolution
of
of
the
international
Baha'i
violence
community stop
ability
towardtheBaha'i in Iran(Bigelow,1993).Couldthispowernotbe exercisedby
toprotest
and violencetowarda
persecution
anypersonswillingtojoin together
iftheyarewilling
ofnations,
group,andevenmorebynationsandthecommunity
to speakandact?
Conclusions
ofcollectiveviolencerequiresa multifaceted
The prevention
approach.One
essentialissue is to developknowledgeof how to do this.Anothereven more
difficult
is tomobilizetheinternational
problem
community-nations,
nongovernmentalorganizations,
concernedindividuals-totakeaction.Withoutan establishedsystemthathas thetaskofpreventing
collectiveviolence,theactionsthat
aretakenwillbe ad hoc,usuallytoolateforprevention,
andofteneventoolateto
haltviolenceonce itbegins.The essentialtaskof scholarsincludesfurther
study
oftheoriginsofcollectiveviolence,thedevelopment
ofknowledge
aboutprevenas activists
tobringa preventive
tion,andworking
systemintoexistence.
AUTHOR'S ADDRESS
thisarticle
shouldbe senttoErvinStaub,Department
Correspondence
concerning
ofPsychology,
TobinHall,University
ofMassachusetts,
MA 01003.
Amherst,
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