Lesson: Letters
Lesson Topic: Mail on the Front Lines
Mail on the Front Lines
Written by Krista Garver
Many war movies have a scene in which soldiers gather for mail call.
They wait anxiously to hear their names, and those who receive letters
read theirs aloud. Letters boost the morale, or spirits, of soldiers fighting
in harsh conditions far from their homes. The military has long recognized
the importance of mail, and special systems work to deliver letters to
soldiers. Even prisoners of war regularly receive mail, thanks to
humanitarian organizations, like the International Red Cross, that are
dedicated to helping those in need.
This WWII poster encouraged
civilians to boost their military
loved ones' spirits by writing
letters.
Military mail is delivered in much the same way as civilian mail. The only difference is the type of
address. The military uses the APO/FPO system, which stands for Army Post Office/Fleet Post Office.
This system can send mail to military personnel anywhere in the world.
The huge amount of received mail has to
be sorted by department and division
before it gets to the intended military
personnel.
It wasn’t always so easy. During the Revolutionary War,
sending mail was very expensive. Postal couriers on horseback
rode for miles looking for armies. You can probably imagine
that a lot of mail got lost. As mail became more affordable and
more letters were sent, the post office had to develop new
methods. During the Civil War, mail was shipped to the front
lines on wagons and trains, along with food and supplies.
Civil War mail delivery between blue
Union states and red Confederate states
could be difficult because the areas of
fighting were constantly moving. Light
blue areas represent border states.
World War I saw a huge increase in mail, so in 1918 the
War Department created the first military mail service in U.S.
history. Mail was routinely carried to the front, along with
rations, ammunition, and other supplies. The supply corps also
transported letters from soldiers away from the front lines.
During heavy battle, the mail could not be delivered, so it was
kept in rest areas and base camps.
Trench warfare was used in WWI and
WWII. Soldiers in the front line trenches
often had to wait a long time for their
mail.
By World War II, the demand for mail was very high, and the military postal system operated
worldwide. Letters were written on regular paper and then copied onto microfilm. The microfilm was sent
overseas and then the letters were copied onto much smaller paper. This saved a lot of money on
shipping.
During the Vietnam War, mail was transported overseas on
commercial and military airplanes and ships. The letters were
then put into bags and dropped into the jungle from
helicopters. But the bags were camouflage and often got lost in
the bushes. Helicopters were also used to deliver letters to
aircraft carriers and submarines.
Thick jungle combat zones in the
Vietnam War made battle and mail call
difficult.
Today, the Internet makes it much easier for soldiers on the front lines to communicate with their
families and friends. There are special times for Internet access built into soldiers' scheduled personal
time, and camps or bases have Internet stations. Even though the Internet provides more instantaneous
access to loved ones, the importance of the human connection that has motivated all forms of military
mail and communication has not diminished with the advance of time and technology.
Lesson: Plan for Saratoga
Lesson Topic: The Revolutionary War: Combat Up Close
The Revolutionary War:
Combat Up Close
Written by Krista Garver
Combat during the Revolutionary War was much different from that of modern military conflicts. In
contrast to today, with armies using mostly missiles, grenades, and long-range rifles to fight, the
Revolutionary War was fought up close. American and British soldiers used three main weapons:
muskets, bayonets, and cannons.
Soldiers mostly fought in up close and hand-to-hand combat in the Revolutionary
war, as seen in the painting on the left. Today, soldiers are more likely to use long
range weapons.
Muskets: Slow, Heavy, and Inaccurate
A musket is a long-barrelled gun that is fired from the
shoulder. A trained soldier could reload a musket in fifteen
seconds, but after several shots the barrel would be full of ash
that had to be cleaned out. Muskets did not have sights for
aiming. They also were not very accurate, especially at
distances greater than 75 yards. Only about twenty percent of
the shots fired on one side would reach the other side.
As the soldier on the right fires his
musket, the soldier on the left reloads his
weapon.
To make up for these inefficiencies, the men would stand in
a line, shoulder to shoulder, and fire volleys. This meant that
they all fired at the same time. The line behind them would
then step forward and fire while the first set reloaded. And then
they would switch again. The goal was to break up the other
side’s line and disrupt their reloading patterns so that they
could eventually charge the enemy on foot. Since the soldiers
stood in straight lines, the strategy was called “linear tactics.”
American soldiers stand in a line and fire
off volleys at the enemy, using their
muskets. Notice the soldiers standing by
waiting to fire next while their comrades
reload.
Bayonets: Up Close and Dangerous
A bayonet is a knife that can be attached to the barrel of a
musket. After firing on the enemy with muskets and breaking up
their line of soldiers, a unit would attack with bayonets. Most of
the fighting was actually done with bayonets because of the
unreliability and inefficiency of the muskets. Bayonets were also
effective against soldiers on horseback, known as cavalry.
Once the troops were close enough to
engage in hand-to-hand combat,
soldiers used bayonets to attack their
enemy.
Cannons: Powerful and Destructive
A cannon is a very large gun mounted on wheels. Cannons
were the most powerful weapons of the Revolutionary War
because they could fire a large cannonball or several pounds of
shot all at once. Cannons also had a much longer range than
the smaller firearms. They were highly accurate between about
500 and 1000 yards. At close range they could destroy an entire
unit with one blast.
It took many people to fire a cannon.
This engraving shows Revolutionary War
heroine Molly Pitcher packing the
cannon barrel with gun powder.
Other Weapons
Rifles and pistols were used less frequently. Rifles were more
accurate than muskets, but they took almost one minute to load
and could not be fitted with bayonets. Pistols were even less
accurate than muskets, except at very close ranges, and usually
only officers carried them. Other hand-to-hand weapons
included swords, knives, and tomahawks.
This painting shows General George
Washington on horseback with a sword
in hand as he commands the American
troops.
Many men who fought for American independence did so with poor weapons and little combat
training. All they had was the desire to establish their own nation and the willingness to sacrifice
everything for that. Many died and many more were injured. They were also able to use unique tactics,
such as ambushes, to make the most of their knowledge of the land and do their best to disrupt the
better equipped British army. It just goes to show that superior technology doesn’t always lead to victory.
The British raise a white flag in surrender after the Battle of Yorktown
in 1781.
Lesson: Fairy Circles
Lesson Topic: The History of Toll Bridges
The History of Toll Bridges
Written by Alison Zeller
There are approximately 250 million cars in the United States today, and not one of these
automobiles can cross deep water on its own. For hundreds of years, public and private entities have
been building bridges to promote efficient transportation. There are currently more than 600,000 bridges
in the United States. Many of these are toll bridges and require a fee for passage.
The first principle of a toll bridge is that it provides a quick
and easy route for travelers. Cars are able to pass over the
water at any time of day and get to their destinations (which
would not be the case with a car ferry, for example). For bridge
owners, the obvious benefit is collecting money. That revenue
pays for the costs associated with operating and maintaining
the bridge.
The money collected from tolls is used
to finance new projects or maintenance
on highways and bridges.
In the 18th and 19th centuries, many private landowners
built bridges. These original toll bridges were usually short and
skinny spans. They were meant for the passage of animals,
buggies, and a few cars.
A ferry existed here at the Old Shoreham
Bridge in England during medieval times
to the nineteenth century. It took those
from Old Shoreham across the river and
marshes to the Pad Inn.
As America expanded and the popularity of the automobile surged, the toll bridge changed. State
and local governments began acquiring private bridge structures. Multi-lane toll bridges were built
across large spans of water. Today, toll fees bring in billions of dollars of revenue each year.
The Dingmans Ferry Bridge is one of the last privately
owned toll bridges in the United States. It crosses the Delaware
River to connect Dingmans Ferry, Pennsylvania, and Sandyston
Township, New Jersey. The present bridge is over 100 years
old. Nearly 4,000 cars use the bridge daily. Cars cross for $.75
and trucks pay a toll of $1.25.
A single toll collector stands at The
Dingman's Ferry Bridge to collect a toll
from every automobile.
Another toll bridge in Detroit, Michigan, connects the United
States with Canada. The Ambassador Bridge represents the
busiest international trade crossing between the United States
and Canada. Nearly 25 percent of all merchandise traded
between the two nations travels across the bridge. More than
10,000 cars pay $4.75 to pass over on the bridge every day.
The span is privately owned by American business executive
Manuel Moroun.
The bridge, over the Detroit River, had
one of the longest suspended central
spans in the world — 1,850 feet. The
bridge's total length is 7,500 feet.
Construction began in 1927 and was
completed in 1929.
One very famous government-owned toll bridge is California’s Golden Gate Bridge. It crosses the
San Francisco Bay to connect the city of San Francisco with Marin County. Cars pay $6 to cross the 1.7mile structure. Well over 110,000 cars cross the toll bridge each day. The tolls generated by this bridge
alone was over $100 million in 2010. This money supports the maintenance of the bridge, plus the bus
and ferry system in San Francisco. If only generating revenue was always as simple as providing a way
to get from Point A to Point B!
Lesson: The Swamp
Lesson Topic: Swamps and Marshes: Essential Ecosystems
Swamps and Marshes: Essential Ecosystems
Written by Krista Garver
Swamps and marshes are types of wetlands. The
differences between them are where they are found and their
type of vegetation. Swamps are usually found near rivers, and
they are characterized by the presence of trees and shrubs
with woody stems. Marshes form near lakes and ponds. Their
vegetation includes reeds, grasses, and other plants with soft
stems. Both types of wetlands are found all over the world.
A wetland is an area saturated with
water. Both swamps and marshes are
types of wetlands.
Trees need clever adaptations to survive
in swamps. Their root systems extend
along the surface rather than into the
ground.
Swamps and marshes form in areas with poor surface drainage, so the soil stays wet. Swamps are
like lakes, but shallower. They are mainly found along river floodplains, where they either flood
seasonally (every spring and fall), or stay flooded all of the time. In the United States, most swamps are
found around the Great Lakes and in the South. Swamps are named for the main type of tree that grows
in them; for example, there are Red Maple swamps, cypress swamps, and hardwood swamps.
Marshes form in shallow areas surrounding ponds and lakes and
along coastlines. They are kept wet by streams or groundwater. Marshes
can also be located around rivers, and some are affected by ocean tides.
In some cases, a marsh represents an intermediate step between a pond
and a swamp. Eventually, the area becomes a forest.
Both swamps and marshes can be freshwater or saltwater. These
areas are vibrant ecosystems, providing habitats for many plants and
animals. To survive in swamps and marshes, the vegetation has to adapt
to the wet conditions. Trees growing in swamps spread their roots along
the soil surface rather than down into the ground. This allows them to
access as much oxygen as possible.
The Florida Everglades is
home to the largest marsh in
the United States. It covers
more than 4,000 square miles.
When it rains, swamps and marshes absorb water, which reduces flooding in surrounding areas.
They also help keep the soil in place. Swamps are natural water treatment areas. Chemicals such as
nitrogen are absorbed by the plants and trees or sink to the bottom and become buried. This purifies the
water. Marshes are also productive ecosystems: they produce more plants than drier areas, and these
plants play a large role in cleaning the air.
For a long time, humans didn’t recognize the importance of swamps and marshes, so they drained
the areas for farmland and homes. More than 70% of the floodplain swampland in the United States has
been destroyed. But these ecosystems provide us with clean air and clean water, so it is vital that we
protect them, just as we must with the other habitats of the natural world.
This U.S. map shows remaining
wetlands in green, marking critical
wildlife sites in red. About half of
wetlands worldwide have been
destroyed in the last 100 years.
Lesson: The Glass Dog
Lesson Topic: The Stunning Art of Glassblowing
The Stunning Art of Glassblowing
Written by Krista Garver
Look around the room. What are some things that you see
are made of glass? The windows? Lighting fixtures? Drinking
vessels? All of the glass used to make these things was once
just tiny grains of sand on a beach.
The glass used to make a fish bowl was
made out of grains of sand heated to
very high temperatures.
Natural glass was first used by humans more than 4,000 years ago. People in the Stone Age
discovered that natural volcanic glass called obsidian was a useful tool for hunting when it was carved
into a sharp arrowhead. Later, the Egyptians and the Mesopotamians used fulgurite (natural glass
made when lightning strikes sand) to make things like beads and jewelry. At that time, the glass was
simply carved or shaped around a mold.
When lightning strikes sand, it instantly melts the
minerals in the sand to form a fulgurite, as shown on
the left. A close up of the fulgurite on the right shows
the small crystals of glass that were fused together.
Around 50 B.C.E., glassblowing was discovered. This technique was
done by heating the glass to very high temperatures and then blowing it
into a bubble shape. With this new method, people started to make many
more items out of glass, including drinking vessels and perfume bottles.
Of course, more complex or intricate shapes increased the difficulty of
the glassblowing process.
For many years, glassblowing was a top-secret craft done by only a
few artisans, but in the 1600s a book was published that changed
everything: It told readers how to make and blow glass. Although new
technologies have been introduced since then, the basic process of
glassblowing is still the same.
This piece of blown glass was
discovered in ancient city ruins
in modern day Lebanon.
The first step in glassblowing is to heat the sand to more
than 2000°F (about as hot as the flame of a blowtorch). At this
temperature, the sand becomes molten and can be easily
shaped. Glassblowers use a tool called a blowpipe, a 4-foot
long metal pipe. The glassblower dips one end of the blowpipe
into the molten glass and then blows on the other end to create
a bubble. As the pipe is turned, more glass is added and blown
As one artist blows into the blowpipe to
inflate the glass, another rotates the pipe until the bubble is the right size. The pipe has to be rotated
to shape it.
constantly so that the bubble doesn’t become lopsided.
Special tools like pliers are used to more
precisely shape the glass or add details
to the piece of art.
Once the bubble is big enough, it is shaped using a variety of tools, including a marver, a flat surface
on which to roll and shape the glass; a wooden tool called a block; a bladed tool called a jack; and
tweezers or pliers. More glass can be added to make shapes, and metals can also be added to make
different colors.
When the piece is finished, it is cooled down very slowly in a
process called annealing. This takes about 24 hours, and it
makes the glass stronger. Once the glass is completely cool, it
is smoothed and polished, and then it can be etched and
detailed.
Glass needs to cool slowly or it might
crack.
The glasses we use for drinking were
most likely made in a large factory. Each
factory-made piece looks almost
identical to the others.
Today most standard glass objects are made in factories, which use artificial vitrification to turn
substances into glass. The materials and techniques are similar to glassblowing: The sand must be
heated to high temperatures to create glass crystals, the crystals are melted down and shaped, and
then the piece cools slowly. However, it is all done in large quantities by programmed machines rather
than by hand.
Despite the intrusion of modern technology, the art of
glassblowing is still alive and well. Dale Chihuly, a famous
American glass artist, has shown the world the many amazing
things that can be done with blown glass. Many galleries
across the world and an entire museum in Seattle is devoted to
his complex and unique work. There, one can see hundreds of
elaborately shaped and assembled sculptures that seem to
Each glass sculpture usually requires a
burst with color. For those not already familiar with the intricate team to help put it together; otherwise, it
can take months for Chihuly to do it
process of glassblowing, he has proven that it is indeed an art, alone.
and a very fine one at that.
Lesson: Dr. Dolittle
Lesson Topic: Understanding Your Parrot
Lesson: The TV Buff
Lesson Topic: Who Turned Out the Light?
Who Turned Out the Light:
Causes of an Electrical Blackout
Written by Krista Garver
The U.S. power distribution system is
divided into several regions. If the
distribution center for one region gets
damaged, a blackout can occur over
several states.
Electricity is the basic power that fuels our everyday life. Almost everything in our homes, from lights
and heaters to refrigerators and computers, runs on electricity. Our schools, hospitals, businesses, and
subways all need electricity. Imagine what would happen to those services if the power went out. Even a
temporary loss of electricity can be catastrophic.
A complete loss of power to an area is called a blackout.
This is the most serious form of power outage. In some cases,
the power is out for only an hour or two. In others, it can be out
for days or even weeks. The causes of these blackouts can be
divided into two main categories: weather, and everything else.
Extreme weather events cause the most
serious power outages. Following the
2011 Japanese tsunami, more than
600,000 people were out of power.
According to the Edison Electric Institute, 70% of blackouts
are caused by weather, including some of the most severe
power outages in the world. Hurricanes, floods, tsunamis, and
earthquakes can all damage electrical equipment. Lightning,
wind, ice, snow, and rain can also cause blackouts. It is very
important to protect electrical equipment from all moisture,
including humidity. Moisture can damage the equipment and
Storms can also make trees fall on
power lines.
creates the danger of electric shock. Even dust and sand can
cause a power outage if they get into electrical circuitry.
The “everything else” category includes a wide variety of causes, such as vehicles crashing into utility
poles and trees falling on power lines. More than ten percent of blackouts are caused by animals such
as birds and squirrels coming into contact with electrical equipment. This causes it to short circuit.
Sometimes power company workers or building contractors accidentally damage the lines and
equipment.
A short circuit happens when the current
takes a different path than intended in a
circuit. This is dangerous because short
circuits can cause electrical fires.
Too many people using too much power can put a strain on the equipment and cause it to overload.
This is common in the summer in very hot areas, where people often run their air conditioning day and
night. Sometimes a utility company will purposefully schedule power outages when they expect
increased demand. This is called a rolling blackout, and it helps prevent the equipment from becoming
overloaded.
Finally, there can always be problems with the electrical
system, including faults at the power station and damage to the
distribution system. Many institutions like hospitals and
schools, as well as essential services like communications
systems need to protect against the damage that can be
caused by blackouts. They usually have generators to provide
electricity until the system is working again. Even if your home
Electrical generators are great
doesn’t have a generator, it’s still important to carefully prepare investments for businesses as well as
for a blackout. As with any emergency, the best defense is the private residents.
simple act of preparation.
Lesson Topic: Television Addiction
Television Addiction
Written by Kerry Hogan
Have you ever sat down to watch television for what feels like a short time, only to find that hours
have passed? Some people report feeling hypnotized by television, which makes it hard to stop
watching. This can happen from time to time, but if you experience this frequently, you may have an
addiction to television.
This advertisement jokes
about the hypnotic effects of
television. However, it can
turn into a serious addiction.
Television addiction is a type of behavioral addiction characterized by a compulsion to watch
television. This goes beyond simply watching TV frequently. People who are addicted to television watch
more than four hours of TV every day and may skip other activities in favor of watching TV. They rarely
exercise and may have poor eating habits as well. Time that should be spent on taking care of
themselves is instead spent on the couch in front of the television.
Early televisions only featured a few
stations. Now viewers can subscribe to
hundreds of stations, making it harder to
stop watching.
Although television addiction is not officially recognized by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders (DSM), many people are outspoken about the addiction. Many places sponsor a
Screen-Free Week, which encourages people to give up watching TV and using computers and
smartphones for one week. The Campaign for a Commercial Free Childhood, which sponsors ScreenFree Week nationally, hopes that this will encourage people to spend time communicating with family
and friends instead of watching TV.
Screen-Free Week may help for a while, but others think that more
drastic measures must be taken to fight television addiction. Some
people get rid of their televisions because they cannot resist the
temptation to watch TV constantly. Others designate certain TV-free
days. People who find it extremely difficult to deal with television
addiction may seek the help of a therapist. Therapists recommend not
only turning off the TV, but also replacing it with other activities. New
hobbies can help people avoid the habit of watching television out of
boredom.
In the 1970s TV sitcom
"Sanford and Son," Fred tries
to get rid of his television
addiction by being hypnotized.
This would likely not work in
real life.
Watching a little television from time to time is no big deal.
However, if you find yourself unable to control your television
viewing, you may have a problem. Try to limit the time you
spend in front of the TV. Instead, set time aside to spend with
your friends and family or doing something else outside. It is
important to remain active so you don’t watch too much TV!
Soccer is enjoyed by kids around the
world, especially in countries where
access to technology is limited.
Lesson: The Box of Robbers
Lesson Topic: The Writing Career of L. Frank Baum
The Writing Career of
L. Frank Baum
Written by Krista Garver
L. Frank Baum (1856–1919) is best known for writing The Wonderful
Wizard of Oz, the story of Dorothy’s journey to the Emerald City. What
many do not know is that his writing career began early and included
many works. In his 63 years, Baum wrote nearly 60 novels, 83 short
stories, more than 200 poems, scripts, and newspaper columns. He
wrote many of these works under pen names.
In 1939, Baum's most famous
work was turned into a movie.
As a boy, Baum became interested in printing, so his father bought him a
printing press. By the age of seventeen, Baum had published two magazines,
The Rose Lawn Home Journal and The Stamp Collector, as well as a stamp
dealers’ directory. At the age of 24, he founded a third magazine, The Poultry
Record. When he was 30 he wrote his first book, which was about chickens.
This is the cover of
Baum's Complete
Stamp Dealers
Directory from 1873.
Baum loved the theater and he also wrote plays. For The Maid of Arran, a melodrama based on a
popular novel, Baum not only wrote the script and the songs, but he played the lead role as well.
Baum continued to write for magazines and newspapers, becoming the editor and columnist for The
Aberdeen Saturday Pioneer in Aberdeen, South Dakota. He also wrote books of fairy tales and nursery
rhymes. Mother Goose in Prose was published in 1897. It was so popular that two years later he wrote
Father Goose: His Book. At 175,000 copies, this book of poems was the best-selling book of 1899.
In 1900, at the age of 44, Baum published The Wonderful Wizard of
Oz, for which he also wrote a stage play, though it is not like the film
we know today. He wrote other fantasy books, but none were as
popular as the Oz books. The series eventually reached 14 novels (two
of which were published after his death), a comic strip, and a book of
short stories.
The Oz books were very
popular. After Baum’s death,
several authors continued the
series.
Many authors choose to write under pseudonyms, or pen names, but Baum had at least seven, both
male and female. He wrote under the names Floyd Akers, Laura Bancroft, John Estes Cook, Capt. Hugh
Fitzgerald, Suzanne Metcalfe, Schuyler Staunton, and Edith Van Dyne. He also wrote at least one novel
anonymously. Almost all of Baum’s fiction was for children, except the books he wrote as Schuyler
Staunton and the anonymous novel.
L. Frank Baum was a very busy man. In addition to writing, he managed stores, bred chickens, and
acted in plays. He was married and raised four children with his wife. As any fan of his can tell, he was
devoted to many interests and people in his life, but writing was one of his greatest talents and passions.
Lesson: The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County
Lesson Topic: Dialect in Mark Twain's Works
Dialect in Mark Twain's Works
Written by Krista Garver and Laura Kachelmeyer
Anyone that has ever read one of Mark Twain's novels or short stories has most likely noticed
something a little unusual about his writing style. Fo' example, you's might notice thet some o' de wo'ds
look peekoolyar. Or thet th' chareeckers talk 'n a diffrunt way.
Mark Twain didn't forget how to spell or how to use proper grammar; he was using dialect to make
his characters seem more authentic and have personalities of their own.
A dialect is a particular way of talking that is associated with a
specific region or group of people. Dialects are combinations of how
words are pronounced (an accent) and special vocabulary and
grammar. In the United States, although we all speak English, there
are several regional dialects. The differences in dialects are most
obvious when we compare different words or phrases used to
describe the same thing. For example, in the Pennsylvania Dutch
dialect, "make rain?" means "is it going to rain?" But in Texas, you
might hear someone ask "it fixin to rain?" instead.
In Italy, there are different dialects
in each region. Although they all
are variations of the Standard
Italian, a person from southern
Italy might not be able to
understand a person from the
north, and vice versa.
The characters Huck Finn and Jim have
very different ways of speaking in
Twain's novel about the South.
American writers started using dialect in literature mainly after the Civil War. Mark Twain is
considered one of the best writers of American dialect. In fact, in an explanatory note to Adventures of
Huckleberry Finn, Twain had to explain that he uses a variety of dialects on purpose so that the
characters do not all sound the same: "IN this story a number of dialects are used. The shadings have
not been done in a haphazard fashion, or by guesswork; but painstakingly, and with the trustworthy
guidance and support of personal familiarity with these forms of speech. THE AUTHOR." Since it was a
new practice in literature, people were initially confused by the writing style.
So, why do writers use dialect? The way people speak can give us additional information about them.
We can often tell where people are from based on their accents, but speech gives us other insights as
well. If someone uses very formal, proper English, we assume that person has been well-educated. On
the other hand, when people seem to make a lot of grammatical mistakes while speaking, we might
assume they have not been well-educated. Writers use dialect to create authentic, believable characters
and to give us some background information about them.
In Huckleberry Finn, Twain uses dialects to distinguish different
groups of people who live along the Mississippi River. In “The
Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County,” he uses dialect to
distinguish between the social classes of the two main characters.
The narrator in the story (perhaps Twain himself?) speaks
grammatically correct English. His speech is also very formal, and
he uses sophisticated words like conjectured, reminisce, obligations,
During his time as a steamboat
captain, Mark Twain heard many
different dialects as he traveled up
and down the Mississippi River.
and hereunto.
In contrast, Simon Wheeler speaks in the local dialect. He says
“feller” instead of “fellow” and “thish-yer” instead of “this here.”
Wheeler also breaks most of the rules of grammar. As readers, we immediately see these characters as
having different educational backgrounds and possibly belonging to different social classes.
Twain’s use of dialect in this short story sets up certain expectations for the reader, but can also
make us call our assumptions and stereotypes about characters into question. We expect the narrator to
be too clever to be tricked into listening to the "fat and simple" Simon Wheeler. Of course, as the story
progresses, we see that we are wrong. The narrator gets trapped in Simon Wheeler's story telling web,
just as he guessed that his friend wanted! The narrator may be well-educated, but his education means
little to someone that has years of learning from real-life lessons and experiences like Simon Wheeler.
Dialect works best when it operates on two different levels: building characterization and challenging
readers' assumptions. Twain's characters are never as simple as they may sound, and his message is
never as straightforward as we assume. His works are always pushing us to think more deeply and
reflect on our own biases.
Lesson Topic: Golden California: Rushing After the American Dream
Golden California:
Rushing After the American Dream
Written by Krista Garver
For many people in the 1800s, America was the "Land of Opportunity." It was seen as a place where
someone could find success through hard work and a little ingenuity. The California Gold Rush
exemplifies this optimistic attitude; thousands of people spent their life savings, borrowed money, and
left their families to seek a quick fortune in California.
This painting of the Gold Rush is on display in the
California state capitol building in Sacramento.
When James Marshall discovered gold in northern California
in January 1848, he couldn’t have imagined what a storm he
would unleash. As news of his find spread across the country
and through the world, people boldly dreamed of finding their
own fortune and flocked to California. Between the beginning of
1848 and the end of 1849, the non-native population of
California grew from about 800 to more than 100,000.
James Marshall was working as a
carpenter building Sutter's Mill when
he found a few nuggets of gold in the
stream bed.
The miners lived in camps that sprung up wherever gold was
suspected. Life in the camps was hard, and the cost of living
was high. Since most miners didn’t actually strike it rich, they
lived in extreme poverty. They slept in small tents or simple
wooden buildings, which offered little protection from rain and
snow. Their diet was mostly beans and meat cooked over an
open fire, with very few fruits and vegetables.
Miners built makeshift camps wherever
news of gold led them.
The miners were all men—most had left their families
behind—and there were very few women in the camps. For
fun, they mostly played cards and gambled with what little
money they had. As time passed, the camps grew bigger,
sometimes transforming into small towns. Since they sprang up
so quickly, basic services were not organized. Fresh water was
not always available, and the general conditions were pretty
dirty. The miners didn’t bathe or wash their clothes regularly,
so diseases like pneumonia and cholera spread quickly.
Deadly accidents were also common. Since the camps and
The miners had one thing on their
minds: finding gold. Everything else, like
sturdy housing, cleanliness, and safety,
came second.
towns were built entirely of canvas and wood, fires started
easily. Sometimes a whole town would be destroyed by a fire. About 30% of the miners died from
disease, accidents, or fires.
There were no laws in California at the time, and violence
and theft were also common. Bandits, criminals, and other
thugs ran freely through the camps. Even the names of the
camps were rough: Gouge Eye, Hangtown, Rough and Ready,
and the like.
There was also a large amount of racism, as people came
from all over the world to prospect for gold. Chinese, Mexican,
Chinese miners usually lived and
worked in mining camps together.
Whenever they found gold, they had to
pay a large Foreign Miners Tax.
and Native American people were treated particularly poorly.
They were forced to pay higher taxes and often had their land
claims stolen from them.
Many miners died, and many went back to their homes
without striking it rich. The few who succeeded were able to
send for their families. When the gold ran out in a particular
area, the camps and towns shut down as people packed up
and moved elsewhere. Some of these are still ghost towns
today. They stand in testament to a time when the frontier was
as much a mental state as a geographic one. The people who
once filled the now-empty buildings were among the first
Americans to recognize the potential of westward expansion in
the pursuit of the American Dream.
Remnants of once bustling mining towns
now sit empty and abandoned in many
areas of California.