LIKELY MECHANISM OF DYE ADHESION ON FABRICS
1
D. MALOMO, 2S.A ABIMBADE, 3A.K OLUWASEUN, 4O.EGHAREBA
1,2,3
Department of Industrial Chemistry, Federal University Oye Ekiti, Nigeria
4
Rubber Research Institute of Nigeria, Benin City, Nigeria
E-Mail - [email protected]
Abstract - The mechanism of adhesion of dyes as colouring agents on different types of fabrics is hereby examined. The
dyes under study include, basic dyes, acidic dyes, azo dyes, mordant dyes, and vat dyes while the fabrics are cellulosic
materials, wool fabrics, nylon 6,6 fabrics, nylon 6 fabrics, silk fabrics and polyester materials. The principle of adhesion
proposed leading to the fastness of the colourants is illustrated by the bonding of atoms and molecules arising from
intermolecular interactions between functional groups of the dyes and the substrate materials. The functional groups
involved are hydroxyl group (-OH), carboxylic group (-COOH), carbonyl group (=C=O), imino group (-NH-) ester group (COOR), amide group (-CONH2) as well as conjugation in aromatic groups. The types of bonding proposed are ionic,
covalent, dative covalent, dipole-dipole forces, and inter molecular hydrogen bonding. The study also shows that adhesion
may be enhanced by physical entrapment of the colouring molecules on the substrate.
Keywords - adhesion, entrapment, bonding, functional group, fabric and dye
complex, as a member of factors must be considered.
This paper set out to examine various types of dyes
and fabrics as well as present likely mechanistic
processes by which some selected dyes are adhered
on the surfaces of some chosen fabrics. The study
will therefore, discuss the nature and chemistry of
dye/fabrics, chemical structures/functional groups
present in dye and fabrics as well as various bonding
types. This information will form the basis of
postulating possible mechanism by which dye as a
colouring material is adsorbed on some fabrics
surfaces.
I. INTRODUCTION
A dye is a colouring substance that has affinity for the
substrate to which it is being applied (Popoola, 2015)
It is usually applied in an aqueous solution and may
require a mordant to improve the fastness on the
fabric which are essential fiber material. A fibre
being a single elongated piece of a given material
roughly round in cross-section often twisted with
other fibres to form a thread. Dyes posses colour
because they absorbs light in the visible region of the
electromagnetic spectrum (400-700nm). They have at
least one chromophore, colour-bearing group usually
with conjugated double bond system. They exhibit
resonance of electrons which is stabilizing force in
organic compounds (Abrahat, 2009). Most dyes also
contain auxochromes (colour enhancers) and
examples includes; Carboxylic acids, sulfonic acid,
amino and hydroxylic groups.While these are not
responsible for colour, auxochromes are e-donating
groups which shift absorption spectrum towards
longer wavelength in dye molecule having conjugated
π-bond system (Popoola, 2015). Example of these
groups include, -CH3 , -OH, -OCH3, -NH2,-NHCH3
and –N(CH3)2. They most often influence dye
solubility.
Fabric refers to any material made through weaving,
knitting, spreading, crocheting or bonding that may
be used in production of further goods such as;
garments. Fabrics are manufactured from various raw
materials which are of natural or synthetic origin or a
mixture of the two. Essentially fabrics contain fibres
material made of continuous filaments which are
discrete and elongate like the length of thread pieces.
Fabrics are classified on the basis of origin, processes
or its end uses. (Balter, 2009)
The applications of dye on fabrics for the purposes
imparting colours to enhance aesthetic value have
been a process as old as civilization. The chemistry
behind the mechanism of adhesion of dye on fabric is
II. CLASSIFICATION OF DYES
Dyes can be classified as organic or inorganic natural
or of synthetic origin. They are also classified by
method of application or by the nature of
chromophores they posses. Natural dyes are obtained
from natural source such as plants, animal or mineral.
Roots, nuts and flowers, and leaves contain natural
dyes. A common example is indigo
Synthetic dyes which are man-made colouring
substance of organic origin made from coal tar and
benzene derivatives.. They cost less and have ability
to offer wide range of colours. They are applied
applied in medicine, chemistry, plastics, paint, ink,
rubber and cosmetics.Dye application for numerous
surfaces or processes of application form basis for
another method of classification. Examples include
leather dyes for leather, oxidation dyes for hair,
optical brightness for paper, solvent dyes for coloured
lacquers, while others are fluorescent dyes for sports;
fuel dyes fuels, smoke dyes for military activities,
sublimation dyes for textile printing. Ink jet dyes are
used for inkjet printers and leuco dyes for electronic
industries and papers.
Classification of dyes based on the chemical
composition of a dye is possible and this is associated
with the chromophore present in the dye. A
Proceedings of 62nd ISERD International Conference, Boston, USA, 14th-15th January 2017, ISBN: 978-93-86291-88-2
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Likely Mechanism of Dye Adhesion on Fabrics
chromophore is a functional group present in the
molecule of a dye which imparts the molecule with
the ability to absorb uv radiation strongly thereby
leading to colour generation. Some examples are
listed include the following:
dyestuff, most ideal for dyeing cotton and some other
cellulose fibres.The azoic dyeing technique involves
the application of insoluble azo dye on fibre by direct
contact using a coupling component.The toxic nature
of the chemicals used is now responsible for decline
in applicatio. The dispense dyes are water- insoluble
finely ground materials which in the process of
dispersing agent are applied as spray or powdering
form on polyester, nylon and acrylic fibres. The
dyeing rate can be significantly influenced by choice
of dispersing agent used during the grinding process.
The sulphur dyes are used to produce dark
colours,,they are cheap and it involves reaction
between an organic compound such as nitrophenol
and sulphide source.
Table 1: Examples of chromophores and some applications
III. SYNTHETIC DYES
A Synthetic dye is any of the organic dyes originally
derived from coal-tar derivatives, but currently
synthesized from benzene and its derivatives. The
first human-made organic dye, mauveine, was
discovered by William Henry Perkin in 1856.
Thousands of synthetic dyes have since been
prepared. Synthetic dyes quickly replaced the
traditional natural dyes. They cost less, they offer a
vast range of new colours, and they imparted better
properties upon the dyed materials.They are used in
medicine, chemistry, plastics, paint, printing ink,
rubber and cosmetics
A typical example of a dye structure classified by
using chromophore is the Yellow azo dye where the
double bond in the Azo group –N=N- is in
conjugation with the double bonds in the two
aromatic groups. This increases the intensity of
colour generation.Majority of dyes stuff is primarily
consumed by the textile industries and this
necessitates industrial classification of the substance
particularly the azo types. The dyes used in the textile
finishing industries are acidic, basic, direct, mordant,
vat, reactive and dispense types. Others are sulphur
dyes and the azo types. The acidic dyes are applied
on silk,wool and nylon. They are anionic have ability
to attach to the cationic group of the fibre through salt
formation ( Aspland, 1997).Basic dyes are water
soluble cationic dyes which contain some other dye
which helps the uptake of dye on the fibre (
Longstaff, 1983).Direct and substantive dyes are used
on cotton, paper, wool, silk and nylon. They are pH
indicators as well. (Gregom, 1986).The mordant dyes
are chemical substance which improves the fastness
of the dye against water light and perspiration.The
mordant dye helps to form a strong link between the
fabrics and the dye, example include metal
hydroxide, tannic acid, aluminum, iron and
chromium. The colour of the final product depends
on the dye and the mordant used, for example a piece
of cloth immersed in turkey red (alizarin) is red with
aluminum mordant but violet with iron mordant.
Most mordant produced from heavy metals are
hazardous to health and care must be taken in their
applications. Vat dyes are insoluble in water and
cannot be applied directly but reduction in alkaline
medium produce water soluble alkaline metal salt of
the dye which has affinity for textile fibre .The
reactive dye as they are called have the ability to react
with the fibre substrate through formation of covalent
bonds. This makes the reactive dye a permanent
IV. STRUCTURES OF DYES
i.
ACID BLACK DYE
ii.
BASIC RED DYE
iii.
VAT DYE
Proceedings of 62nd ISERD International Conference, Boston, USA, 14th-15th January 2017, ISBN: 978-93-86291-88-2
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Likely Mechanism of Dye Adhesion on Fabrics
V. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS IN DYES
iv.
REACTIVE DYE
v.
AZOIC DYE
VI. CLASSIFICATION OF FABRICS
vi.
Generally fabrics are classified on the basis of the
origin of fibres (natural or synthetic) or its processing
or its end use ( Balter, 2009).
Classification on the basis of origin gives natural or
synthetic fabrics. The natural fabrics are those created
from the fibres of animal coats, the cocoons of
silkworms and plant seeds, leaves and stems. They do
not change colours on exposure to uv light until they
lose tensile strength ( Lorenzani ,1998). The synthetic
fabrics on the other hand are man-made from
inorganic or organic materials. They can be made to
specification depending on end use condition (
Garret, 1963)
DIRECT RED DYE
VII. FABRICS OF NATURAL ORIGIN
vii.
NITRO DYE (MARITUS YELLOW)
viii.
MORDANT RED
ix.
x.
SULPHUR RED
The fabrics obtained from natural fibres include
cotton, silk, linen, wool, leather, ramie, hemp and
jute. The cotton fabric is one of the most unique of
them all as it has distinctive features which makes it
adjust easily with climatic conditions. It keeps body
cool in summer by absorbing sweat easily and gives
warmth feel in winter season. Silk is equally weather
friendly and it is the strongest natural fabric which
also has the quality of softness, luster, beauty and
luxurious appearance. The linen, another naturally
sourced fabric is considered king of natural fabric
because of its versatility in application such as homes
furnishing and apparel production. Linen does not
cause irritation and allergy yet, it is strong and
durable. It is easily maintained by mere hand
washing. The wool fabric is a weather friendly
natural fabric which is soft strong and durable with
excellent aesthetic value. It does not wrinkle easily
and is resistance to dirt, wear and tears. The wool
fabrics does not get inflame easily as it only
smoulders in flame (Morgan 2005). A comfortable
fabric in hot and cold weather, resistant to
Proceedings of 62nd ISERD International Conference, Boston, USA, 14th-15th January 2017, ISBN: 978-93-86291-88-2
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Likely Mechanism of Dye Adhesion on Fabrics
temperature aberration is the leather fabric. It absorbs
water vapour and retains dimensional stability under
stress (Kite, 2005).Other types of fibres in common
use include; ramie,hemp and jute.
IX. STRUCTURE OF FABRICS
The chemical structures of various fabrics are given
below for the identification of different types of
functional groups that will enhance the understanding
of dye-fabric association
VIII. FABRICS OF SYNTHETIC ORIGIN
These are fabrics produced by chemical processes by
man through the use of petroleum as raw material.
These include acetate, chiffon, acrylic, organza,
lastex,nylon,velvet,polyester,taffeta,denim,rayon,geor
gette,viscose,grey and polypropylene. Acetate fabrics
are made from cellulose of cotton or wood pulp. It is
resistant to shrinkage, moth and dew. The fibre has
soft and luxurious appearance (Kadolph,2007).
The Chiffon fabrics are manufactured using silk,
rayon, polyester or cotton. They are specially used for
making bridal gowns, evening dresses, pron dresses
and scarves. This material commands magical look
on the wearer thereby exuding high personality. The
acrylic fabrics are synthetic materials used for
making shirts and ladies clothes and seats for chairs.
It maintains its quality for a long time because of its
excellent wear and tear resistances (Koham,
1995).Organza fabric refers to a thin, plain weave
fabric made from silk yarn worms, and filament
fibres of nylon and polyester. They are nice to touch
with high degree of sophistication and uniqueness. A
special type of fabric made from latex is known as
lastex fabrics. They are elastic in nature and are used
with other complex fibres (Dedie, 2005).
Nylon fabric is synthetic materials used for clothing,
shirts covers and industrial appliances. They are made
from the polyester of the amides obtained from
petroleum (Munro,1990). Velvet fabrics are used for
making trousers, shirt, bed sheets, covers and
curtains. Polyester fabrics is another man-made
material which has the unique qualities of wrinkle
resistance and springing back to original shape. They
are strong and soft materials and can be mixed with
other materials such as the cotton. Taffeta fabrics are
crisp, soft and smooth materials manufactured from
rayon, silk or nylon. They are used for women
garments. Denim is a rugged cotton material which is
generally coloured with indigo dye to create blue
jeans. The rayon fabric is a synthetic textile fabric
which is produced by forcing a cellulose solution
through fibre spinnerets. Georgette fabric is a sheer
and strong silk or silk like clothing that often comes
with a dull creped surface. It is exquisite and unique
fabric which enjoys high demand in the market.
Viscose fabric material is commonly used for coating,
stocking and under wears as well as staple for towels
and table cloth.Grey fabric is used for cloth
manufacturing due to its cost effectiveness and
longevity. The material show cases aesthetics and
glamour. The polypropylene is a synthetic material
suitable for winter season because of its ability to
keep the body warm.
Cellulose Fabric
Nylon 6,6 Fabric
Wool Fabric
Silk Fabric
Polyester Fabric
Nylon 6 Fabric
Functional Groups in Fabrics
Cellulose Fabric -OH
Wool Fabric
-COOH, -NH2, -CONH- , -C=O,
-NHPolyester Fabric -CH2-, -C=O, -COOR, Aromatic
Nylon 6,6 and Nylon 6 -CONH,
Silk Fabric
-COOH, CONH-, -NH2, -C=O, NH-
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Likely Mechanism of Dye Adhesion on Fabrics
The interaction between acid dye and cellulose fibres
is almost nonexistent, but a partial attraction is
proposed as follows (NOUN, 2011)
X. THE PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES
OF THE MECHANISM OF DYE ADHESION
ON FABRICS
Adhesion is the ability of two different materials to
stick together by material interactions and formation
of chemical bonds. The process of dyeing depends
not only on the type of the dye but on the type of
fibre. Generally reactions between dyes and fabrics
must take into account the various types of forces
exerted by one material upon another. All dyeing
mechanism can be divided into three broad categories
(Popoola, 2015).
1.
1. Formation of specific bond between the dye
and fabric owing to the covalent bond,
hydrogen bond, ionic bond dipole-dipole
interaction and london forces. The formation
of these bonds is dependent on the type of
functional groups present in the dye and the
fabrics
2. Non-specific attraction between dye and
fabric owing to ion exchange or van waals
forces.
3. In the absence of any interactions dyes can
be adherent on fabric by physical
entrapment.
The oxygen of the OH group in the cellulose
molecule interacts with the electropositive or cationic
Na atom of the sulphonic acid group of the dye. This
bond, though weak but several of it promote the
adhesion of the dye on the cellulose material. Another
example is observed in the interaction between the
electronegative oxygen atom of the cellulose and the
cationic Na atom of the dye molecule. Acid dyes are
generally applied to fibres such as silk, wool, nylon
and modified acrylic fibres. Acid dye-wool
interaction may simply be represented by the
formation of intermolecular hydrogen bonding
between the H-atom of dye and the electronegative N
atom of the fibre.
The chemistry of interactions between some pairs of
dye-fabric
materials
are
also
based
on
hydrophilic/hydrophobic properties as well as the
formation of salt linkages between dye and fabric
functional group.
1.
2. 1. Acid dye-cellulose fabric.
2. Basic Dye- Wool Fabric System
(a)
(b)
Proceedings of 62nd ISERD International Conference, Boston, USA, 14th-15th January 2017, ISBN: 978-93-86291-88-2
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Likely Mechanism of Dye Adhesion on Fabrics
The cellulose fabric is represented by the ROH in the
mechanism. The adhesion between the dye here and
the cellulosic molecule could be due to the H bonding
observed between the H atom of the dye and the
electronegative oxygen atom of the cellulose
molecule.
3. Reactive dye – Wool Fabric System
8. Direct Red Dye - Cellulose System
4. Azo Dye – Wool Fabric System
In No 8 above the cellulose fabric is represented by
the ROH in the mechanism. A dipole – dipole
attraction between the Na atom and the Oxygen atom
where non -bonding electrons are found can enhance
adhesion. Several of such attractions between the two
molecules proposed for the affinity of the two
surfaces for each other.
5. Acid Black Dye – Cellulose
9. Reactive Dye – Cellulose Fabric Sytem
Cellulose fabric
6. Azo Dye – Cellulose System
dye – fabric system for adhesion
7. Mordant Red Dye – Cellulose Fabric System
dye adhesion with cross linking
The fibre reactive dye adhesion is due to the
formation of ether linkages (R-O-R) to the OH groups
of the cellulose (R-OH). The cellulose is activated by
treatment with Na2CO3 base to form alkoxide (RO)
groups which then attack the trianzene rings
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Likely Mechanism of Dye Adhesion on Fabrics
nucleophilically and substitute for the chlorine
leaving groups (equation 2). The two chlorine atoms
can be replaced leading to the cross linking dyefibre, thereby enhancing durability of the fibre
(Popoola, 2015)
In addition to polar forces, the normal non-polar
Vander Waals forces operate in dye molecule having
aromatic nuclei where the several π electrons
participate in the non-polar attraction. The polyesters
are easily susceptible to this type of attraction.
(Popoola, 2015). A combination of these forces and
physical enhancement due to compatibility promote
adhesion thereby improving fastness to light,
washing, bleaching, rubbing and perspiration. This in
the long-run leads to maintenance of fabric quality
and aesthetics.
10. Mordant Red Dye – Nylon 6 Fabric System
REFERENCE
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
Hydrogen bonding between the oxygen atom of the
dye and the H atom of the fabric is likely to enhance
adhesion between the two surfaces.
[6]
CONCLUSION
[9]
[7]
[8]
[10]
From the examples of dye adhesion on fabrics
discussed in this paper, it is evident that textile
materials posses polar groups in large quantities
which aid bonding. Some dyes adhere by chemical
reaction arising from the presence of anxochromes.
This is the case with reactive dyes where covalent
bonds are formed. The attraction of the dye for fibre
may therefore arise from the dipolar interaction of
these polar groups or in many cases the formation of
intermolecular hydrogen bonding,
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
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