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Cultural Transmission in Euphemism Translation
A Thesis
Submitted to the College of English Language and Literature in Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of Master ofArts
By Chen Kefang
Under the Supervision of
Professor Feng Qinghua
Shanghai International Studies University .
December 2003
Cultural Transmission in Euphemism Translation
Acknowledgements
Upon the completion of this thesis, I feel deeply indebted to my supervisor
Professor Feng Qinghua who, always so considerate and helpful, has gone over the
initial draft and offered a great deal of valuable advice.
My gratitude also goes to my husband, my three-year-old son and the other
members of my family, without whose support and sacrifice, this thesis would have
been impossible.
I also wish to express here my heartfelt thanks to all my teachers and friends
who have offered me good advice and inspiration.
Cultural Transmission in Euphemism Translation
ii
Abstract
Euphemism is a very important culture-loaded figure of speech that is often
employed in communication. This thesis tends to observe euphemism through a
cultural point of view, and to discuss how to maximize cultural transmission in its
translation.
Though
a
large number of euphemistic concepts
are common to
English-speaking and Chinese-speaking people, there do exist some gaps that need a
translator to narrow or to bridge so as to facilitate understanding or appreciation on
the part of the target language reader. In order to transfer the cultural connotations to
the TL reader, a comparative analysis of English and Chinese euphemisms, problems,
principles and methods in translation of euphemism should deserve our interest. The
author of this thesis hopes to shed some light on how to maximize cultural
transmission in translation of euphemism and other culture-bound words by way of
analyzing problems, summarizing principles, and suggesting methods with the help
of abundant illustrations.
Cultural Transmission
加Euphemism
Translation
III
中文摘要
委婉语是在交际中常用的文化负载厚重的一种修辞格。本文试图从文化的
视角来观察委婉语，并谈谈在翻译委婉语时如何尽可能多地进行文化传递。
虽然对讲英语和汉语的人们来说，有很多的委婉概念是相同的，但它们之
间确实存在着一些鸿沟，这就要求翻译者缩短鸿沟或搭建桥梁，以便使的语读
者能理解和欣赏。为了能把文化的内涵传递给的语读者，我们应该关注对英汉
委婉语的对比研究，委婉语翻译中的问题、原则和方法等。通过在委婉语翻译
过程中分析问题、总结原则、提议方法，并提供大量例证的方式，本文作者希
冀能为翻译委婉语及类似文化词语时如何尽可能多地进行文化传递提供一些思
路和方法。
Cultural Transmission in Euphemism Translation
iv
Contents
Acknowledgement
Abstract
tpJt.~
1. Introduction
2. General Analysis of Euphemism
I
2
2.1 Defmitions
2
2.2 Functions
3
2.2.1 Toavoid taboo
2.2.2 Toachieve politeness
2.2.3To avoidhurtingother people's feeling
2.2.4To lessenpeople's fear
2.2.5Toeliminate unfavorable association
2.2.6To cover up the cruel or disagreeable fact.
2.2.7Todefendoneself
2.2.8To achieve humorous effect
2.3 Dangers
7
2.3.1 The other side
2.3.2 Overuse of euphemisms
2.3.3 Misleading and misunderstanding
7
8
8
3. Euphemism and Culture
4. Contrastive Analysis of English and Chinese Euphemisms
4.1 Similarities
:
4.2.1 About"religion"and "class"
4.2.2About"old age"
4.2.3About"sex"
4.2.4About"wealth"
4.2.5About"humbleprofessions"
4.2.6About"unemployment"
4.2.7 Special euphemisms in English
4.2.8 Special euphemisms in Chinese
5. Problems in Euphemism Translation
5.2 Expressing
5.3 Corresponding
9
II
II
12
12
13
14
14
15
16
16
18
4.2 Differences
5.1 Understanding
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
6
20
20
:
,
20
2I
Cultural Transmission in Euphemism Translation
v
21
21
25
28
29
5.4 Gap-filling
5.4.1 Special euphemistic ways in English
·5.4.2 Special euphemistic ways in Chinese
5.5 Matching
5.6 Permanent vs temporary euphemisms
6. Principles in Euphemism Translation
30
31
31
31
31
32
33
34
34
36
36
36
37
6.1 Preservation of euphemistic sense
6.2 Application of existing euphemisms
;
6.2.1 Application of existing euphemisms in E-C translation
6.2.2 Application of existing euphemisms in C-E translation
6.3 Necessity of being euphemistic
6.4 Conformity to the five "W"s
6.5 Varieties of the same euphemistic idea
6.5.1 About "death"
6.5.2 About "excretion"
6.5.3 About "pregnancy"
6.5.4 Others
6.6 Replacement of old euphemisms by new ones
7. Methods in Euphemism Translation
39
39
7.1 Literal Translation
41
43
44
45
46
48
7.2 Liberal Translation
7.3 Application of existing euphemisms
7.4 Addition
7.50mission or replacement
7.6Transformation
7.7 Special handling of special euphemisms
8. Conclusion
Bibliography
:
49
51
Cultural Transmission in Euphemism Translation
1. Introduction
In English, there is a commonly-used figure of speech called "Euphemism". In
Chinese likewise, we have such figures of speech as "Wan Yan (!$i!2f)" and "Qu Yu
(atli.g.)". These two Chinese figures of speech combined mean almost the same as
"Euphemism" in English. Using euphemistic expressions in the stead of some
unpleasant or taboo topics is a general human tendency. It is acknowledged that in
every language there exist a certain number of euphemistic expressions. Euphemism
is an important and almost indispensable part of everyday speech. In our present
"polite society", the tendency of resorting to euphemism is even more obvious. As is
alleged, the biggest change in English language, especially in American English
since the 1970's is "Return to euphemism".
People usually would apply euphemism when they feel the need to avoid some
unpleasant topics, or to try to be more polite, or for other reasons. Almost ever since
Adam and Eve began to use "fig leaves" to cover up certain parts of their bodies,
euphemisms found themselves essential to human communication. Euphemisms are
what some linguists call "linguistic fig leaves". Many linguists, sociologists,
anthropologists, and rhetoricians have noted the crucial role that euphemisms play in
different aspects of real-world communication. A great quantity of research has been
done in this aspect. In English, we can find detailed description and study in
Neaman et al (1990), Enright (1985), Ayto (1993), Rawson (1981), Hartwell (1982),
and others. Some of them elaborate on the relationship between euphemisms and
taboos, some detail into the formation of euphemism, others probe into different
aspects of euphemism.
In Chinese likewise, a lot of research has been done so far concerning
euphemism and fields closely related to it. We here focus our attention mostly on
Cultural Transmission in Euphemism Translation
2
comparative analysis between English and Chinese euphemisms, which is already
quite plenty. The research of scholars such as
-f'-(2001),
~1j~~(2001)
*~f¥j(l999;
2001),
*~$(2000),:fi.:
and some others should deserve our interest.
In this thesis, the author tries to observe translation of euphemism through a
cultural perspective. Euphemism, as a culture-loaded figure of speech, should be
treated with great carefulness when it is rendered into another language. Usually it is
not the problem of grammatical accuracy, but rather the cultural gap that matters. So
in rendition of such cultural words and expressions, the translator should be highly
conscious of the risk and should try his hardest to avoid using words that would
cause "cultural shock", while at the same time carry as much information as possible
from the source language (the SL) into the target language (the TL). In the following
part of this thesis, a general analysis of euphemism and culture, a contrastive
analysis of English and Chinese euphemisms, problems, principles and methods in
euphemism translation will be presented and discussed.
2. General Analysis of Euphemism
2.1 Definitions
What is euphemism? By examining its etymology, we can find that it came
from Greek with "eu-" meaning "good, well" and "-pheme" meaning "speech or
saying" respectively. So in its first and most important sense, euphemism means "to
speak with good words or in
various definitions as follows:
a pleasant
manner". Different scholars have given
"Euphernizing is generally defined as substituting
an inoffensive or pleasant term for a more explicit, offensive one, thereby veneering
the truth by using kind words." (Neaman et al, 1990:1) Webster s Ninth New
Collegiate Dictionary (1984) offers this definition: the substitution of an agreeable
or inoffensive expression for one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant.
, Cultural Transmission in Euphemism Translation
3
Collins Dictionary of the English Language (1979) takes euphemism as "an
inoffensive word or phrase substituted for one considered offensive or hurtful, esp.
one concerned with religion, sex, death or excreta". Oxford Advanced Learner s
Dictionary ofCurrent English (New Edition) gives a detailed explanation: "(example
of the) use of other, usu. less exact but milder or less blunt, words or phrases in place
of words required by truth or accuracy: 'Pass away' is a euphemism for 'die'.
'Queer' is a modern euphemism for 'homosexual"'. Miller (2000:48) thinks that it
"refers to a word or phrase intended to soften reality, cover up something
embarrassing, or divert attention from the 'reality' of a situation." Ayto (1993:1)
beholds that "Euphemism is the set of communicative strategies we have evolved to
refer to a topic under a taboo, without actually contravening its terms."
lfJT~f*(2000
defines it as: "By Euphemism we speak, in gentle and favorable terms, of some
person, object, or event which is ordinarily seen in a less pleasing light." Briefly, a
quotation from a British author George Blunt might do: "Euphemism is a good or
favorable interpretation of a bad word."
2.2 Functions
"Almost all cultures seem to have certain notions or things that people try to
avoid mentioning directly, even when there is such a term in the language. When
such a notion or thing has to be referred to, the practice will be to substitute a
different term or phrase that sounds better. These roundabout expressions are
euphemisms:"
(XI3:9t~,1989:77)
So euphemisms basically are roundabout ways to
avoid taboo topics. In the Chinese folklore, there is a story "The view of plums
prevents you from being thirty"
(1fUl!tJt~),
which is equivalent in meaning to
"console oneself with false hopes". From this story, we can see things or views may
initiate physical or psychological response. Language also possesses this kind of
"magic power". Words or expressions concerning awesome or awful things will also
· Cultural Transmission in Euphemism Translation
4
initiate corresponding physical as well as psychological response. Euphemisms are
thus employed to avoid directly naming the stated things, to eliminate disagreeable
associations or images that might occur by direct mentioning of these things.
The basic functions of euphemism are as follows:
2.2.1 To avoid taboo
The first and most important function of euphemism undoubtedly is to avoid
taboos. Common taboos include: bodily functions, death, disease, sex, poverty, war
and so on. Taboo words or expressions usually are considered to be vulgar and
indecent, so people tend to use more decent and "clean" language: Do not piss
against this wall.-Commit no nuisance; I'll give you five minutes to shit and
piss.-I'll give you five minutes to do your business.
2.2.2 To achieve politeness
A function of euphemism
IS
to avoid impoliteness and incivility in
communication. When people are forced to mention unpleasant things, they would
choose inoffensive euphemistic expressions and save face for others instead of
directly telling the disagreeable fact and being rude. For instance, for politeness'
sake, we might say "He is soft in the head" when we mean "He is mad", and "1iERm.::r
1f BfciJl1I" when we mean
"ftl?~1'-ffii:T".
We may find the theoretical basis from
Geoffrey Leech's "Politeness Principle": Minimize (all things being equal) the
expression of impolite beliefs; Maximize (all things being equal) the expression of
polite beliefs. (Leech, 1983)
2.2.3 To avoid hurting other people's feeling
We use special mild terms to refer to certain people because we do not want to
hurt them. For instance, we use "the handicapped" to refer to "the crippled"; we say
"He is hard of hearing." when we mean "He is deaf."; we call an "ugly" girl a
"plain" girl; and teachers would tell parents that their son "is a bit slow for his age"
instead of "He is foolish."
Cultural Transmission in Euphemism Translation
2.2.4
5
To lessen people's fear
Euphemism can help to lessen people's fear of something. People usually
refrain from directly mentioning such deadly diseases like cancer, so they would
rather refer to it as "the Big C". "Death" is something almost everyone fears to
mention directly, so hundreds of roundabout ways are created to mean it. For the
same reason, dead people are referred to as "the departed", "the loved ones", "the no
longer living", etc.
2.2.5
To eliminate unfavorable association
People usually will have bad or awful association when they meet words about
excretion, sex, death and so on. So in public or on formal occasions, they will avoid
using words that will bring unfavorable associations or images, but instead find or
create more pleasant terms: vomit/puke(
Jl{g
Il± )-motion discomfort/upchuck,
constipation(1J!~)-irregularity,cancer(m;m:)-the
laxness(.@J~)-back-door
Big C/long illness/terminally ill,
trots(B.D.T.S.) Igastrointestnal troubles (GI.S), puseJJ'&)
-matter, graveyarde~:tt!!)-memorygarden.
2.2.6 To cover up the cruel or disagreeable fact
Another function of euphemism is to cover up the cruel or disagreeable fact.
Because of this function, euphemism becomes a special favorite of politicians and
businessmen. They often use such "1/2 true" terms to achieve their goal. Next are
some examples (the expressions before the dash are the original words while those
after the dash are their euphemisms):
economic crisis-recession
workers' strike-industrial dispute
attack-active defense
retreat-light and scattered action
poor people-negative saver
dismiss-give the walking ticket
depression-rolling adjustment
government-sponsored crimes-White House horrors
Cultural Transmission in Euphemism Translation
6
slum-substandard housing / inner city / central city
serious unemployment- underutilizationl human resources underdevelopment
steal/embezzle-misuse public funds
From the above list, we may conclude that a euphemism more often than not is
longer than the word that it replaces. It seems that the longer the word or phrase is,
(
the more euphemistic it would be. Businessmen and politicians use these
nice-sounding euphemistic words to mean things or objects that are not so pleasing
to the ear or eye of the public. Here the danger might be that common people might
lose the opportunity to learn the cruelness and ugliness of the reality concealed
behind a beautiful veil.
2.2.7 To defend oneself
At certain times, you feel it too self-humiliating to tell the fact in blunt words,
so you would want to use some euphemistic ways to "save face". So euphemisms
can help to defend yourself, and save you out of very "face-losing" situations. The
speaker usually would take his own social status into consideration in linguistic
communication: He would try his most to protect his own interest and maintain his
dignity by avoiding "vulgar" terms or expressions, but instead, using good or
euphemistic terms to describe himself or persons or groups related to himself: fat
people call themselves "weight watchers", practitioners of humble jobs would use
"uplifting words" about their professions, and politicians refer to "invasion" as
"rescue mission".
2.2.8 To achieve humorous effect
Euphemizing can sometimes achieve humorous effect. By euphemizing, you
can, under many circumstances, not only express yourself clearly, but also in a vivid
and humorous way.
Expressions like "the spinal column becomes extraordinarily flexible" as in the
sentence "After three days in Japan, the spinal column becomes extraordinarily
Cultural Transmission in Euphemism Translation
flexible."(ff B
7
**J: =*., ~~1J·~~~tijJJIJ~ffl jean humorously and euphemistically
0
describe the bowing habit of Japanese people, yet without the suspicion of offending
them.
Another such example can be found in the sentence "Mr. Brown was in charge
of the steering wheel but Mrs. Brown controlled the driving." The roundabout way
(
vividly depicts the hen-peckedness of the husband and the overbearingness of the
wife.
Euphemizing for humorous effect is also applicable to serious or formal articles
and speeches. For instance, a journalist once reported: "Speaking at last night's
Mansion House banquet in London, Owen said no one should be in any doubt about
the true nature of the Soviet and Cuba intervention in the Horn of Africa and why it
placed such a large question mark over the future of detente." In this sentence,
"placed such a large question mark over the future of detente" is a euphemistic way
of expressing the idea "gravely threatened the future of detente". By using this
euphemistic expression, the speaker not only clearly expressed his opinion, but also
in vivid and vivacious terms. The euphemism here adds a touch of humor to the
report that otherwise might be very serious and dull. In short, when it is possible to
use a humorous euphemism to achieve the same effect of telling something, people
would certainly prefer to use it.
2.3 Dangers
2.3.1 The other side
Euphemistic expressions are so useful that they are almost ubiquitous in
everyday speech. But as every coin has two sides, this tendency to favor euphemism
also has a dark side: at times people use euphemistic phrases to conceal the harsh
reality of what is being referred to. When they go too far, euphemism becomes
"Doublespeak". So the danger is inherent in euphemism-a "two-edged" sword. On
Cultural Transmission in Euphemism Translation
8
one hand, euphemism indeed plays an important role in avoid vulgarism in social
contacts; on the other (hand, it sometimes would lead to misunderstanding or
coverage of truth. The solution here lies. in proper use.
2.3.2
Overuse of euphemisms
Though euphemism is very useful, we should not overuse it. In this short
sentence, "The departed rests in his casket in a slumber room where friends may
visit with him before the grief therapist assists the dear one to his plot in a memoria
garden", altogether seven euphemisms are used! The result is that, instead of being
formal and euphemistic, the sentence appears to be so awkward and funny that it
looks like a word game. Of course, due respect to "the departed" is lost.
2.3.3 Misleading and misunderstanding
Euphemistic expressions can be highly misleading, and may lead to
misunderstanding. On occasions when you find that the listener is unlikely to
understand the euphemism properly,you had better "call a 'spade a spade". For
example, when you are at the home of a friend who is only a beginner of English
learning, you had better say "Would you please show me the lavatory?" instead of
"May I please wash my hands?" The rule here is: Do not keep people at a loss.
Just now, we have discussed the functions as well as dangers of euphemism
usage. "For better of worse, euphemism is an appropriate adjustment of the language
to different situations" (Pfaff, 1997:60) and "a language without euphemisms would
be a defective instrument of communication"(Ayto, 1993:1). By blanketing sensitive
topics, euphemism does help people to "tiptoe around.conversational danger areas",
and thus is indispensable to everyone.
Cultural Transmission in Euphemism Translation
9
3. Euphemism and Culture
Euphemism generally is an embodiment or reflection of. the culture it belongs
to. It is heavily culture-bound. Though the euphemistic need of all cultures is
basically the same, there are still certain aspects that are unique to this culture but
not to that one. "Which subjects and what portions of them were acceptable or
forbidden have varied both from culture to culture and from one historical period to
another within a single culture."(Neaman, 1983:3) The subjects that are to be
avoided in almost every culture include: death, sex, bodily functions, or anything
connected with the more private parts of the body, details of birth, details of
unpleasant illness, income or salary of friends, or prices of their possessions, etc.
Hugh Rawson noted that "Euphemisms are society's basic lingua non franca. As
such, they are outward and visible signs of our inward anxieties, conflicts, fears and
shames. They are like radio-active isotopes. By tracing them, it is possible to see
what has been and is going on in our language, minds and cultures."(Rawson, 1981)
"Western
Manners"(~JH.fl,
2002:253) points out that personal questions or
remarks, such as "How old are you?" "Why don't you get married?" "I should think
you would want to have some children." should be avoided, because "Some of these
are allowed in Chinese society, but they are all taboos in formal Western society." As
we 'all know, westerners put much emphasis on their "Privacy". They believe in
ideas such as "A man's home is his castle." and "Mind your own business." So
euphemisms about the private things are more numerous in English than in Chinese.
Euphemisms are closely related with the taboos in a certain culture. Taboos are
acts which are forbidden or which are to be avoided. Fromkin reckoned that "The
existence of taboo words or taboo ideas stimulates the creation of euphemism. A
euphemism is a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word, or that is used in the
attempt to avoid either
fearf~l
or unpleasant subjects."(xllHR, 1996:61) There are