POLISH POLAR RESEARCH
1
Marek KEJNA '
20
3
183-201
1999
2
Department of Climatology, Institute of Geography
Nicholas Copernicus University
Danielewskiego 6
87-100 Toruń, POLAND
e-mail: [email protected]
Department of Antarctic Biology
Polish Academy of Sciences
Ustrzycka 10
02-141 Warszawa, POLAND
Air temperature on King George Island,
South Shetland Islands, Antarctica
ABSTRACT: This paper presents the air temperature on the King George Island (South Shet­
land Islands, Antarctica) during the period of its instrumental measurement. In the region of
South Shetlands the air temperature is characterized by a high value of variability from year to
year. A distinct 5.3 years cyclicity can be found in the occurring temperatures. The mean annual
air temperature over the period 1944 -1996 (data from the Deception and Bellingshausen sta­
tions) was -2.8'C. Its value varied from 0.8"C in 1989 to -5.2"C in 1959. A statistically signifi­
cant (at 5% level) increasing trend in temperature can be observed (0.28°C / 1 0 years); during the
years 1944-1996 the temperature increased by 1.5'C. The highest temperatures on the King
George Island occur in the Admiralty Bay region - the mean air temperature at the Arctowski
Station is higher by about 0.7°C than on the Fildes Peninsula.
K e y w o r d s : Antarctica, King George Island, air temperature, climate changes.
Introduction
King George Island is located in the South Shetland Islands (Fig. 1). This ar­
chipelago spreads from south-west to north-east along the Antarctic Peninsula,
separated from it by the Bransfield Strait. These islands were formed as a result of
volcanism (Birkenmajer 1980).
King George Island is the largest island of South Shetlands, also named
Ostrow Waterloo or Isla 25 de Mayo. King George Island lays between 61°50'S
and 62°14'S and between 59°02'W and 5T3&W (Barsh et al. 1985). Its morpho-
184
Marek Kejna
logical axis runs from south-west to north-east. The extension of the island along
this axis is 75 km, while from NW to SE about 30 km. The coastal line is strongly
differentiated, especially in the southern part of the island, where bays were
formed as a consequence of tectonic predisposition and glacier activity (inland
ice): Venus Bay, Destruction Bay, King George Bay, Admiralty Bay, and Maxwell
Bay.
The surface of the island is about 1310 km and is 95% covered by glaciers.
There are ice-domes here: Arctowski Icefield with over 650 m elevation a.s.l.,
Warszawa Icefield (476 m a.s.l.) and Kraków Icefield (425 m a.s.l.), from them nu­
merous glacier tongues are going away (Birkenmajer 1980). The snow line runs at
a height estimated by different authors from 140 to 210 m a.s.l. (Noble 1958,
Piasecki 1984, Bryazgin and Govorukha 1986, Rachlewicz 1995). The maximum
of the ice thickness (over 300 m) occurs in the western and central part of the King
George Island ice cap (Orheim and Govorukha 1982, Macheret et al. 1997).
2
Ice free areas occur in the form of nunataks or inshore oases. The largest oases
occur on the southern part of the island, where the climatic conditions are more ad­
vantageous than on the north-western coast, which is covered completely by ice.
The largest oases are: Fildes Peninsula, Keller Peninsula, Point Thomas region,
Three Brother's Hills, and others. These oases have been formed as a result of
morphologic and dynamic conditions, e.g. on the peninsulas. The system of eleva­
tions protect the oases from glaciers flowing from ice tongues (Marsz and Rakusa-Suszczewski 1987).
Source materials
King George Island, discovered in 1819 by William Smith, has become one of
the best known Antarctic regions owing to its advantageous navigation conditions.
Many research stations belonging to different countries have been founded on the
island. Unfortunately they are all grouped only on the south-western part of the is­
land in the Admiralty Bay and Maxwell Bay regions. In the Admiralty Bay region
on the Keller Peninsula already in 1948 the British Base G (Admiralty Bay) began
to work and research work was carried out there until 1961 (the main building of
the British station was taken apart in 1966). In 1977 the Polish Antarctic Station
Henryk Arctowski was built (Rakusa-Suszczewski 1977) and in 1983 on the previ­
ous location of the British station on the Keller Peninsula the Brazilian Commandate Ferraz Station was erected.
In the region of Maxwell Bay as many as six stations operate. The oldest one is
the Argentine Jubany Station situated in the Potter Bay at the foot of the pictur­
esque Three Brother's Hill. This station has been active since 1953, with breaks.
The Russian Bellingshausen Station was built in 1968 on the Fildes Peninsula, and
one year later a few hundred meters away from the Russians the building of the
[185]
186
Marek Kejna
Table 1
Meteorological stations on King George Island (South Shetland Islands)
Latitude
Longitude
Elevation
m a.s.l.
Period of
measurement
Admiralty Bay
62°03'S
58 " 2 5 ^
7
1948-1960
Arctowski
62°10'S
58 " 2 8 ^
2
1977-1996
Artigas
62°11'S
58°51'W
12
1986-1996
Bellingshausen
62°12'S
58"54'W
14
1968-1996
Ferraz
62°03'S
58°25'W
20
1992-1994, 1996
Frei
62°12'S
58°54'W
20
1969-1996
Great Wall
62"13'S
58 " 5 7 ^
15
1985-1994,1996
Jubany
62°14'S
King Sejong
62°13'S
Ecology Glacier (LEI)
62°10'S
Ecology Glacier (LE2)
62°11'S
Warszawa Icefield (KW)
62°12'S
58 " 3 2 ^
Station
20
1994-1996
15
1988-1990, 1996
58 " 2 8 ^
70
1996
58 " 2 9 ^
170
1996
450
IX-X 1996
58 " 4 5 ^
Chilean Eduardo Frei Station was begun. In 1985 the next two stations appeared
also on the Fildes Peninsula: the Chinese Great Wall and the Uruguayan Artigas
(Bello et al. 1996). In 1988 in the region of Mariam Cove the Korean King Sejong
began to operate (Lee et al 1990). Besides the permanent stations there are sea­
sonal stations on the island: the American Pieter Lenie (also named Copacabana),
the Peruvian Machu Piechu, and the Ecuadorian Orion (Table 1; Fig. 1).
At each permanent station systematic meteorological measurements are carried
on. Their range and instruments are, unfortunately, different. Some stations have au­
tomatic instruments, at the others the measurements are made by standard thermom­
eters. The Russian Bellingshausen Station has the longest and most homogenous
measurement series. The initiation of automatic instruments in recent years (e.g.
Artigas, Ferraz, Frei, and King Sejong) influences the homogenity of the measure­
ment series at these stations. At the Frei Station the measurement point has been
changed, measurements at present are made on the airport tower at about 20 m a.s.l.
The results presented have been obtained directly from meteorological stations
on King George Island and from published yearbooks for the following stations:
Admiralty Bay (Spravocnik po klimatu Antarktidy, 1974 and 1977), Arctowski
(Roczniki Meteorologiczne ,Arctowski", 1978-1989, 1997), Artigas (Bello et al.
1996), Ferraz (Observacoes Meteorologicas Diarias, EACF 1992-1994) and Frei
(Anuario Meteorologico, 1978-1992) and from Bromwich and Stearns 1993.
On the glaciated areas, which cover 95% of the whole surface, no systematic
measurements were made until recently. During the XX Antarctic Expedition of
the Polish Academy of Sciences in 1996 the air temperature was measured
(thermograph) for the entire year on the Ecology Glacier (LEI, 70 m a.s.l. and LE2,
170 m a.s.l.) and in August and September 1996 on Warszawa Icefield (KW, 450
m a.s.l.) (Table 1; Fig. 1).
Air temperature on King George Island
187
Results and discussion
Air temperature on the King George Island during the period of
instrumental measurements
Systematic meteorological measurements at the King George Island were
started at the British Admiralty Bay Station (Base G) in 1948. They were finished
there in 1960. Only in 1968 were the observations taken up again in the region of
the Fildes Peninsula at the Russian Bellingshausen Station, where they have been
carried out without interruption until today. Since over the period 1961-1967 no
systematic measurements on the island were made, the missing data has been com­
piled from the nearby Deception Station working in the years 1944-1968. The
mean temperature difference between the stations Bellingshausen and Deception
is 0.3 °C. Taking into account this adjustment we have compiled a data series over
50-years long from the Deception and Bellingshausen stations for the period
1944 -1996 (Fig. 2).
10
PC]
-20
C O O O s l - ^ r C D C O O C M ^ C O C O O C N - ^ - C O O O O C N ^ C D C O O C N ^ C O
Fig. 2. Course of air temperature at Deception and Bellingshausen stations in the period 1944—1996.
The mean air temperature for the period 1944 -1996 is -2.8°C. Its value varied
from -0.8°C in 1989 to -5.2°C in 1959 (Table 2). Considerable negative tempera­
ture anomalies occurred in the second half of the 40-ties and at the end of 50-ties. In
the more recent period the years 1980,1991 and 1994 were frosty. Positive temper­
ature anomalies appeared in the years 1956-57, and intensified in the 80-ties and
90-ties. 1989 was an especially warm year (Morrison 1990).
In the annual course of the year the highest temperatures occur in January
(1.3°C) and February (1.2°C), while the lowest ones appear in July (-7.5°C) and
August (-7.2°C) (Table 3). The coldest months during the year may occur from
April to September, but most frequently the lowest mean monthly temperature is
noted in July (34.6%), August (29.8%) or June (24.0%). The warmest months are
noted from December to March, but the highest probability is in January (47.1%)
188
Marek Kejna
Table 2
Mean annual air temperature at Deception and Bellingshausen stations
in the period 1944 -1996.
Year
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
Mean
Tmean
-3,2
-4,3
-2,6
-4,1
-4,9
-3,9
-3,8
Year
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
Tmean
-2,1
-3,1
-3,5
-3,7
-1,5
-1,4
-2,9
-4,9
-5,2
-2,8
-3,1
Year
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
Tmean
-3,7
-1,3
-2,7
-3,3
-2,5
-3,4
-3,1
-2,2
-3,8
-2,6
-2,8
Year
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
Tmean
-2,0
-2,9
-2,9
-2,3
-3,3
-2,7
-2,7
-2,4
-1,8
-4,2
-2,7
Year
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
Tmean
-2,6
-1,8
-1,7
-1,8
-1,2
-3,3
-3,6
-2,7
-0,8
-2,3
-2,2
Year
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
Tmean
-3,4
-2,8
-1,6
-2,6
-3,4
-1,4
-2,5
and February (42.3%). The mean annual amplitude of the temperature reaches
8.8°C. It has fluctuated from 5.9"C (1956) to 17.0°C (1964). The winter cooling is
determinative of this value, because the summer months show less differentiation.
The counted indices of continentality according to:
Ewert (1997)
K = 100 [A - (3.81sin<p + 0.1)/(38.39sin<p + 7.47) = 12.86
Gorczyński (1918) K = [(1.7A/sin(p) - 20.4] = -3.49
and the index of oceanity according to:
Marsz (1995)
Oc = (0.731(p + 1.767)/A = 5.37
where: cp - latitude, A - annual temperature amplitude - show the strong oceanity
of the climate of King George Island. This is confirmed by the papers by Styszyńska (1988,1995). The oceanic influence causes the autumn months (DI-V) to be on
average 0.8°C warmer than the spring ones (IX-XI).
Only four months, from December to March, are characterized by positive
mean temperatures. The temperature cross the 0°C limit on the average on 9 De­
cember, and the end of the warm period is on 16 March. So the warm period lasts
97 days (26.6% of the year) while the cold period averages 268 days. The thermal
conditions are characterized by large variability from year to year. In 1949 and
1959 even in the warmest month the mean temperature was negative and equaled
-O.rC. The summer was exceptionally warm in 1945 (February 3.0°C) and 1955
(January and February 2,6°C) and in the 90-ties: 1990 (February 2.7°C), 1992 (Jan­
uary 2.4°C) and 1994 (January 2.3°C).
In winter the mean monthly temperatures may reach -15.5°C (August 1964);
very cold winters were also noted in 1945,1954,1958,1959,1987 and 1995. How­
ever, there also mild winters on the King George Island, when the mean monthly
temperatures of winter months do not fall down below -2.0°C; for example in June
1959 (-1.9°C), July 1985 (-2.1°C) and July 1989 (-1.0°C). The phenomenon of
coreless winter (kernlose effect) occurs here frequently, when after the very cold
189
Air temperature on King George Island
Table 3
Mean monthly values of air temperature in the period 1944 -1996 (Deception and Belling­
shausen stations) and maximum and minimum of air temperature at Bellingshausen in the
period 1968-1996.
Air temp.
Tmean
Tmax abs
Tmin abs
I
1.3
12.4
-5.7
II
m
IV
V
VI
vn
vm
IX
X
XI
1.2
0.1 -2.2 -4.5 -6.4 -7.5 -7.2 -4.7 -2.8 -1.3
5.0
5.8
4.7
3.6
5.0
3.2
7.9
8.1
5.6
9.3
-6.7 -16.0 -17.7 -24.0 -27.0 -28.3 -28.9 -25.8 -17.3 -15.0
XII
i-xn
0.3 -2.8
7.9 12.4
-7.8 -28.9
beginning of the winter a sudden and considerable warming comes (Marsz and
Rakusa-Suszczewski 1987, Rachlewicz 1997), which has also been observed in
other regions of Antarctica as well (Thompson 1969, Wendler and Kodama 1993).
The highest maximal value of the air temperature at the Bellingshausen (data
from the period 1968-1996) varies from 5.0°C (1969) to 12.4°C (1982), on the av­
erage it is in the range of 6-8°C. In each month of the year positive air temperatures
may occur and even in the coldest month, in July, the temperature may reach 5.0°C.
The lowest minimal temperatures vary from -14.0°C (1989) to -28.9°C (1991).
Considerable temperature falls were noticed also in 1994 (-28.3°C), 1987 (-27.4°C),
1995 (-27.0°C) and 1980 (-25.8°C). Temperatures below 0°C occur in each month
of the year (e.g. in January to -5.7°C). The absolute decreases and increases of the
air temperature might be heightened by local conditions; therefore they are
strongly differentiated spatially.
Trends in the air temperature
In the region of the entire Antarctic Peninsula a progressive warming trend can
be observed (Raper 1984, King 1994, Morris and Vaughan 1994, Ackley et al.
1996, Jacobs and Comiso 1997, and others). So also on King George Island a rise
in temperature has been observed during the most recent period (Martianov and
Rakusa-Suszczewski 1990, Rodriquez et al. 1996).
On the basis of data analysis from the Deception and Bellingshausen stations it
was found that over the period 1944 -1996 a statistically significant (at 5% level)
increasing air temperature trend has occurred (Fig. 3). On the average over each 10
years the air temperature rises by 0.28°C. Over the period 1944 -1996 the air tem­
perature grew by 1.5°C. The increasing tendency occurs in every season, but it is
the greatest in winter (0.51°C/10 years) - which means a 2.7°C temperature rise in
the last 50 years. According to Smith et al. 1996 (after Ackley et al. 1996) in the re­
gion of the entire Antarctic Peninsula the value of the temperature change in the
years 1941-1991 in winter reaches 5.5°C. The smallest temperature increases on
King George Island have occurred in the summer (0.16°C for 10 years), in spring
(0.2 rC) and in autumn (0.17°C).
Notwithstanding the increasing trend in temperature in recent years fluctua­
tions can also be observed. The spectral analysis showed a 5.3 years dominant cy-
190
5
Marek Kejna
t° ]
C
XII-II
0
Year
-5
VI-VIII
-10
-15
1940
1945
1950
1955
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
Fig. 3. Year-to-year course of the seasonal (summer and winter), and annual air temperatures and
their trends at Deception and Bellingshausen stations in the period 1944 -1996.
cle, there are also 3.8, 2.7 and 6.6 years cycles. The values are consistent with the
values published by Rodriquez et al. (1996) for the Arctowski. Climatic anomalies
occurring in the Antarctica show a connection with El Nino/Southern Oscillation
(ENSO) (Smith and Stearns 1993) and an Antarctic Circumpolar Wave (White and
Peterson 1996, Christoph et al. 1998).
A characteristic feature of the thermal conditions on the King George Island is
their large variability from year to year. The mean annual air temperature varies
from year to year on average by 1.0°C. In the course of the year the temperature
crosses 0°C very frequently. Sudden falls or rises in temperature are also character­
istic, reaching even 20°C during a few hours (Kowalski and Wielbińska 1989).
Maximal and minimal air temperatures occur frequently on the turn of the day, be­
cause the adjective temperature changes are greater than the natural diurnal course
of temperature conditioned by insulation and radiation (Kejna 1995).
Spatial distribution of air temperature on the King George Island
In spite of its small size the thermal conditions on the King George Island show
considerable spatial differentiation. This is the result of differing elevations above
sea level exposure with regard to the dominating western atmospheric circulation,
occurrence of the foehn phenomena, exposure to the Sun, and distance from the sea
and glaciers.
The stations included in this elaboration are situated in different morphological
situations. The Bellingshausen, Frei, Great Wall and partly the Artigas stations are
situated on the nonglaciated Fildes Peninsula. Because of its little local orography
this area is not protected against the inflowing air masses from west. The Jubany
and King Sejong stations are situated in small coves in the Maxwell Bay region.
From the north they are shielded by glacier cupola, while the inflow of air masses is
possible from west and south. The Arctowski and Ferraz / Admiralty Bay stations
191
Air temperature on King George Island
Table 4
Monthly air temperature at Arctowski (A), Bellingshausen (B) and Frei (F)
in the period 1977-1996.
Parameter Station I
2.4
A
Tmean
B
1.6
F
1.7
16.7
A
Tmax abs
B
12.4
A
-4.9
Tmin abs
B
-5.7
II
ni IV V VI vn vin IX X XI
2.4
l.i -1.3 -3.5 -5.3 -6.8 -5.6 -3.4 -2.1 -0.2
0.4 -2.0 -4.0 -5.5 -6.8 -6.2 -4.1 -2.9 -1.2
1.7
0.2 -1.5 -3.9 -5.4 -6.9 -6.2 -4.3 -2.8 -0.9
1.7
8.8 6.6 6.8 13.9 9.8
11.1 11.4 10.0 7.6 7.0
9.3 7.7 5.5 4.7 3.6 5.0 3.2 7.9 5.0 5.8
-5.4 -10.5 -18.7 -24.4 -27.3 -32.3 -30.0 -29.0 -16.4 -11.6
-4.7 -9.7 -17.7 -24.0 -27.0 -28.3 -28.9 -25.8 -17.3 -15.0
xn
1.5
0.4
0.7
13.1
7.9
-6.7
-7.8
I-XII
-1.7
-2.4
-2.3
16.7
12.4
-32.3
-28.9
are situated deep in the Admiralty Bay. From three sides they are surrounded by
glacial cupolas with elevations as high as 650 m a.s.l., so the inflow of air masses is
possible only from south along the Admiralty Bay.
The spatial differentiation of thermal conditions on the King George Island has
been analyzed on the basis of data from two periods: 1977-1996 (3 stations) and
1986-1995 (6 stations). Furthermore results for all of the stations taking measure­
ments in 1996 are shown.
The mean annual air temperatures over the period 1977-1996 varied from
-1.7°C at the Arctowski to -2.4°C at Bellingshausen. The thermal conditions at the
Frei are similar to the conditions at Bellingshausen, reflecting the small distance
between them (Table 4). The mean temperature for many years at Arctowski is
higher by about 0.7°C than on the Fildes Peninsula, so the region of Arctowski is
thermally privileged. In the course of the year the greatest temperature differences
between these stations occur in the summer, from 0.7°C in February to 1.0°C in No­
vember. In winter the thermal differences between these stations disappear, or in
some months lower temperatures may even appear at Arctowski, for example in
July 1978: -11.0°C (Bellingshausen) and -11.6°C (Arctowski).
Between the Bellingshausen and Arctowski stations there is a strong linear cor­
relation r = 0.992, and the equation of regression is t = 1.0684 t + 0.8158. The
connection between the absolute values is not as strong as between the mean tem­
peratures, which proves that local factors have a greater influence to those ele­
ments (Figs 4 and 5).
Comparing the absolute values we observe still greater temperature differ­
ences. The absolute maximum value of air temperature at Arctowski was 16.7°C
(January 1979) and at the same time the temperature at Bellingshausen was only
8.7°C (Table 4). The highest temperature at Bellingshausen was measured in Janu­
ary 1983 (12.4°C), at this time at Arctowski the temperature was 13.5°C. In winter
as well as in the warmer seasons the maximum temperature values are significantly
higher at Arctowski than at Bellingshausen.
The absolute minimum values of air temperature are similar, but in winter
months (July-September) greater decreases in temperature are noted at Arctowski.
H A
B
192
Marek Kejna
Mean
Maximum
m
y - l,0647x + 0,6509
1
R = 0,9365
Bellingshausen
Fig. 4. Relationship of monthly mean and monthly maximum and minimum air temperatures at
Arctowski and Bellingshausen stations in the period 1977-1996.
The lowest temperature at Arctowski occurred in July 1986 and equalled -32.3°C.
At the same time at Bellingshausen -22.2°C was noticed. In the very cold July 1995
the temperature fell down to -29.5°C at Arctowski and to -27.0°C at Belling­
shausen.
From the comparison of maximal and minimal values it follows that the ther­
mal privilege of Arctowski is the effect of considerable higher maximum tempera­
tures. This means, that in the region of Arctowski there are conditions advanta­
geous to the rise of temperature above the general thermal characteristics of the
inflowing air masses. Adiabatic processes are among the factors which bring about
a rise in air temperature. They are connected with the occurrence of the foehn phe­
nomena in the region of the Arctowski Station. The influence of adiabatic pro­
cesses in the Arctowski region causes the temperature to rise by 1.5-2.5°C in sum-
Air temperature on King George Island
193
-6
-8
10
-L
1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Fig. 5. Difference between mean monthly and monthly maximum and minimum air temperatures at
Arctowski to Bellingshausen stations in the period 1977-1996.
mer and 0.5-1.6°C in winter (Styszyńska 1990). Moreover, at Arctowski a greater
number of hours with sunshine is observed. The sunshine duration at the Arctowski
is 894.3 hours, while at Bellingshausen only 564 hours. In addition, Arctowski is
situated on a plain, which is surrounded by hills with slopes turned to the north,
which favours their warming up. In winter the temperature at Arctowski falls more
steeply than at Bellingshausen (Fig. 5). This phenomenon occurs only during very
cold winters, when the Admiralty Bay gets frozen. At that time frosty air masses
flow from the inside of the island and cold local stagnation forms over the bay.
During mild winters, when the Admiralty Bay does not freeze, the minimal tem­
peratures are similar at both stations.
Comparing other stations on the King George Island (data from the period
1986-1996) we find that the lowest mean values occur on the Fildes Peninsula: at
the Bellingshausen, Frei and Great Wall stations. Slightly higher temperatures are
194
Marek Kejna
Table 5
Monthly air temperature on King George Island in the period 1986-1995.
Station
I
ii
j in
|
rv
°°
Arctowski
Artigas
Bellingshausen
Frei
Great Wall
2.4
1.8
1.6
1.6
1.8
2.5
1.8
1.8
1.7
1.1
0.4
0.5
0.4
0.3
-2.0
-2.2
-2.5
-2.1
-2.1
Arctowski
Artigas
Bellingshausen
Frei
Great Wall
12.3
7.5
8.8
8.0
8.1
11.1
6.8
8.2
6.9
8.4
9.8
8.2
7.7
7.8
8.4
9.0
4.6
5.2
3.8
4.1
Arctowski
Artigas
Bellingshausen
Frei
Great Wall
-3.3
-5.2
-3.9
-3.2
-3.1
-5.4 -10.5 -18.7
-6.5 -15.5 -19.5
-4.7 -9.7 -17.7
-4.0 -9.9 -16.8
-5.5 -10.3 -17.2
V
vi
vni
DC
X
-7.6
-7.1
-7.0
-7.2
-7.1
-5.6
-5.6
-5.9
-5.8
-5.9 ,_
-3.6
-4.1
-4.1
-4.3
-4.1
-2.1
-2.7
-2.9
-2.8
-2.8
-0.1
-0.8
-1.1
-0.9
-0.9
1.5
0.7
0.4
0.6
0.5
-2.0
-2.3
-2.5
-2.5
-2.4
6.3
4.5
2.8
2.5
2.6
5.5
2.8
3.2
3.0
3.3
6.3
3.4
7.9
3.2
3.8
13.9
4.4
4.0
4.2
3.6
7.5
5.6
5.8
4.0
5.5
13.1
7.8
7.9
8.2
8.3
13.9
8.2
8.8
8.2
8.4
-32.3
-26.0
-28.3
-26.3
-26.6
-30.0
-27.2
-28.9
-28.7
-26.6
-23.2
-23.0
-24.8
-22.4
-23.5
-14.0
-13.0
-13.9
-14.0
-16.3
-11.6
-11.5
-15.0
-15.0
-12.4
-5.0
-6.7
-7.8
-5.3
-8.2
-32.3
-27.2
-28.9
-28.7
-26.6
| VII
Tmean
-4.3 -6.1
-4.3 -6.0
-4.7 -6.1
-4.6 -6.0
-4.5 -6.0
Tmax abs
7.3
5.1
5.3
4.0
4.7
3.4
4.4
1.8
6.8
5.7
Tmin abs
-24.4 -27.3
-22.6 -23.0
-24.0 -27.0
-24.0 -22.6
-24.0 -22.4
f XI
XII
ll-XII
observed at Jubany (-2.0°C) and Artigas (-2.3°C), and Arctowski is decidedly the
warmest (-1.8°C). The greatest spatial differentiation occurs in spring, e.g. in No­
vember from 0°C at Arctowski to -1.TC at Bellingshausen. In summer (Janu­
ary-February) the temperature at Arctowski is higher by 0.8°C than at the other sta­
tions. In winter (July) it is the coldest at Jubany (-7.4°C) (Table 5).
Comparison of the thermal conditions in 1996 at all of the stations working on
the island shows that at Ferraz (built in the former location of the British Base G)
the thermal conditions are similar to the ones at Arctowski. For example, in Febru­
ary the temperature at Arctowski was 3.4°C and at Ferraz 3.3°C, while at the sta­
tions on the Fildes Peninsula it varied from 2.3 to 2.6°C. Rather high temperatures
also occurred at Jubany (2.9°C) and King Sejong (2.7°C). During the winter in 1996
the spatial differentiation of the temperature was small - the mean temperatures in
July varied from -4.8°C at Arctowski to -5.3°C at Jubany.
The daily minimal air temperatures show considerable differences. In January
1996 the highest temperatures varied from 5.2°C at Bellingshausen to 8.6°C at
Ferraz and 8.9°C at Arctowski. In February the highest temperatures were regis­
tered at Ferraz (11 -7°C) and at Great Wall (10.3°C), while at the rest of the stations
the temperature oscillated between 8 and 9°C. From the comparison of this data it
follows that the occurrence of extreme values is the result of the advantageous cir­
culation and insulation situation, and therefore relations between the particular sta­
tions might be different. The absolute minimal temperatures in 1996 varied from
-14.7°C to -16.2°C.
195
Air temperature on King George Island
Na+c
NEa+c
NWa+c
Arctowski
Ca+Kaa
Cc+Bcc
Bellingshausen
-2,8°C
-3,6°C
-1,8°C
-2,0°C
Ea+c
Wa+c
Arctowski
Bellingshausen
SEa+c
SWa+c
Sa+c
Fig. 6. Air temperature at Arctowski and Bellingshausen stations according to advection direction in 1996.
The reasons for the spatial differentiation of the temperature on King George Is­
land should be sought in the atmospheric circulation - the transportation of air
masses crossing the elevation of King George Island and the Antarctic Peninsula re­
gion (Schwerdtfeger 1975, 1984). The analysis of mean temperature values for 259
days in 1996 for which synoptic maps were available showed that on the King
George Island at all of the stations the highest temperatures occur with advection
from northwest, where the average value for the joined cyclonic and anticyclonic
types (NWa+c) varies from 0.9°C (Arctowski) to -0.2°C (Bellingshausen). The low­
est temperatures occur with south-eastern advection (SEa+c) - their values vary
from -4.8°C (Artigas) to -5.9°C (Jubany). The thermal relations between the particu­
lar regions of the island change according to the advection direction (Fig. 6).
In the case of north-western advection (NWa+c) the thermal privilege of the
Admiralty Bay region (Arctowski and Ferraz) and the stations: Jubany, King
Sejong, Artigas and Great Wall takes place. In the case of NW advection the air
inflowing to the region of Admiralty Bay gets over the more than 650 m high cu­
pola of the Arctowski Icefield and is submitted to adiabatic processes, while over
the Fildes Peninsula the air from this direction flows without obstacle. The temper­
ature difference between Arctowski and Bellingshausen stations, on the average
1.1°C, is the measure of the adiabatic temperature rise while crossing Arctowski
Icefield. Advection from southwest (SWa+c) brings an opposite relation - the
highest temperatures are noticed on the Fildes Peninsula, while there is consider­
ably colder at the stations: Jubany, Arctowski, King Sejong and Ferraz. Frosty air
masses formed over the Weddell Sea, with intensive snow falls, reach to stations in
196
Marek Kejna
Table 6
Mean monthly air temperature at the Arctowski Station and on the Ecology Glacier and
Warszawa Icefield in 1996.
m
a.s.l.
Arctowski
2
Ecology Glacier 1 70
Ecology Glacier 2 170
Warszawa Icefield 450
Station
I
II
in
XII
i-xn
2.4
1.6
0.9
3.4
2.4
1.6
2.0 -1.1 -2.3 -4.9 -3.1 -3.4 -1.0 -0.9 0.3 1.7
1.1 -1.7 -3.1 -5.7 -3.8 -4.1 -1.8 -1.9 -0.5 1.0
0.4 -3.1 -4.2 -6.7 -4.8 -5.2 -2.7 -2.9 -1.5 -0.1
-7.3 -4.8
-0.6
-1.4
-2.4
IV
V
VI
vn vin
IX
X
-
XI
-
-
-
the Admiralty Bay region and the Jubany and King Sejong without obstacle (Lee et
al. 1991). The air reaches the Fildes Peninsula region by getting over the more than
450 high elevation of Warszawa Icefield. As a result the highest temperatures are
noted on the Fildes Peninsula, Artigas (-4.8°C), and the lowest ones at the stations
Jubany (-5.9°C) and Arctowski (-5.6°C). The most even thermal conditions on the
King George Island occur when this area is in the furrow of decreased pressure
(Be) and in cyclonic center (Cc).
The thermal conditions on the glaciated area of the King George Island have
not been examined until now. The one year's serial measurement carried out on the
Ecology Glacier and the two month's observations on the Warszawa Icefield
showed that in 1996 the mean annual air temperature on the Ecology Glacier was
-1.4°C (LEI, 70 m a.s.l.) and -2.4"C (LE2,170 m a.s.l.), while at the Arctowski Sta­
tion it was -0.6°C (Table 6).
The mean vertical gradient of temperature between Arctowski and Ecology Gla­
cier (70 m a.s.l.) is 1.14'C/IOO m (HA-LE1), 1.0°C between LE1-LE2 (70-170 m
a.s.l.) and 0.7°C in the upper part of Warszawa Icefield (LE2-KW). The greatest tem­
perature gradients occur at the contact of two environments: continental and glacial.
Accepting the above given values we can assume that in summer on the ice
domes above 260 m a.s.l. the mean air temperature values are negative in every
month. But this height changes from year to year and in especially warm months
this border may extend much higher. In February 1996 the temperature at Arc­
towski was 3.4°C, on the Ecology Glacier 2.4°C at 70 m a.s.l. and 1.6°C at 170 m
a.s.l. We may suppose that negative temperature values occurred only at an altitude
above 370 m a.s.l. This altitude corresponds to the snow line on the Warszawa Ice­
field at the end of summer 1995/96. Of course, on particular days, with the
advection of warm air masses positive air temperatures appear even at the highest
parts of glacial cupolas on the King George Island. This phenomenon occurs even
in winter, for example on 26 September 1996 on the Warszawa Icefield maximum
temperature was 3.4°C (at the Arctowski 6.8°C).
Under the snowy-glacial surfaces of ice caps considerable temperature decreases
occur, for example on 16 September 1996 the temperature on the Warszawa Icefield
fell down to -19.2°C, while at Arctowski it was -12.5°C, at Jubany -13.6°C.
Air temperature on King George Island
197
Conclusions
The thermal conditions on the King George Island depend on the types of
inflowing air masses. Advection from southeast brings frosty air masses from
above the icy Weddell Sea. Considerable warmer air masses flow from West and
North. On this area zonal atmospheric circulation dominates, connected with shift­
ing depressions from west to east. Cyclonic centers from the weather in this region
during 69.8% days of the year. Anticyclonic centers, connected with wedges of
high pressure from above the Weddell Sea and with subtropical highs developing
on the south, lead to blocking situations (frequency 27.4%), and are conducting to
a meridional exchange of air masses (Kejna 1993).
In consequence of the complicated synoptic situation in the region of South
Shetlands the air temperature is characterized by a high degree of variability from
year to year. A distinct 5.3 years cyclicity can be found in the occurring tempera­
tures. The mean annual air temperature over the period 1944-1996 (data from the
Deception and Bellingshausen stations) was -2.8°C. Its value varied from 0.8°C in
1989 to -5.2°C in 1959. A statistically significant (at level 3%) increasing trend in
temperature can be observed - during the years 1944-1996 the temperature in­
creased by 1.6°C.
In the course of the year from December to March positive temperatures occur.
The lowest temperatures occur in July. However, thawing takes place frequently,
which leads to the kernlose effect. The air temperature during the entire year oscil­
lates around 0°C.
The spatial differentiation of air temperature on the King George Island mainly
depends on the exposure of particular areas to inflowing air masses. Local conditions
also play an important role. In the case of north-western advection the Admiralty
Bay region is the warmest, while in the case of advection from the eastern sector the
highest temperatures can be observed on the Fildes Peninsula. The considerable glaciation of the island leads to the inflow of cold air to the coastal plain. Stations which
are situated directly at glacier's snout show temperature decreases with inflowing air
masses from directions consistent with the course of nearby glaciers.
The highest temperatures on the King George Island occur in the region of
Arctowski. This situation follows from the frequent and considerable rises of the
air temperature with advection from northwest and west, which leads to the occur­
rence of the foehn phenomena. The specification of circulation causes the degree
of cloudiness over Arctowski to be smaller than in the other regions of the island
and the sunshine duration is by 20-30% higher than on the Fildes Peninsula. In ad­
dition A rctowski is protected against the direct inflow of air masses from above the
glaciers by high hills, which surround Arctowski as an amphitheatre, and are con­
ducting to the warming up of the ground in this region. At Ferraz the thermal con­
ditions are similar to those at the Arctowski; higher temperatures in summer are
connected with the foehn phenomenon, which form crossing the Arctowski Ice-
198
Marek Kej na
field with north-western circulation. But the foehn phenomenon noted at Arctowski
with south-western circulation does not reach here, therefore temperatures for
these circulation types at Ferraz are lower by 0.4°C than at the Arctowski.
The Jubany and King Sejong stations are situated in small bays into which gla­
ciers get from the Warszawa Icefield. Air masses inflowing from west to this sta­
tions cross the lower part of Arctowski Icefield. Therefore while the increase of
temperature with this atmospheric circulation is noticeable, it is not as large as at
Arctowski and is higher by 0.6°C than at the stations on the Fildes Peninsula. In the
case of south-eastern advection frosty air flows to these stations from above the
Weddell Sea.
The Bellingshausen, Frei, Great Wall and Artigas stations lay not far from
each other on the nonglaciated Fildes Peninsula. They are characterized by the
lowest summer temperatures. Also in the transitional seasons like spring and au­
tumn the temperatures are considerably lower here than in the Admiralty Bay re­
gion. On the other hand the mean monthly temperatures in winter are higher than in
the region of Admiralty Bay.
The thermal conditions of the glaciated inner part of King George Island are
characterized by a decrease in temperature with a rise in altitude. The mean vertical
gradient of temperature varies from 1.14°C/100 m in the zones of glacial snouts, at
the contact of glaciers with nonglaciated areas to 0.7°C/100 m in the zone of glacial
cupolas. Over the snowy, glaciated surfaces of glacial cupolas considerable tem­
perature falls occur. Wind blowing along the glaciers cause temperature decreases
over the areas at the glacier's foreland.
Acknowledgments. — I would like to thank Kamil Laska (Masaryk University, Brno,
Czech Republic) for his help in the realisation of measurements at the Arctowski Station, on the
Ecology Glacier, and on the Warszawa Icefield in 1 9 9 6 . For making available the meteorologi­
cal data from the stations working on the King George Island I a m grateful to: Anatolij
Aleksandrov (Bellingshausen,
Russia), Alberto Setzer (Ferraz, Brasil); X u Cong (Great Wall,
China), Direccion Nacional d e Meteorologia del Uruguay (Artigas); Fuerza Area d e Chile,
Direccion Meteorologica de Chile (Frei); Fuerza Area Argentina, Servico Meteorologico
Nacional (Base Jubany).
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Air temperature on King George Island
201
Streszczenie
Na podstawie danych ze stacji działających na Wyspie Króla Jerzego (Szetlandy Płd., Antarkty­
ka) przeanalizowano zmienność czasową i przestrzenną temperatury powietrza w okresie pomiarów
instrumentalnych (tab. 1, rys. 1). Warunki termiczne na Wyspie Króla Jerzego zależą od rodzaju
napływających mas powietrza, adwekcja ze wschodu i południa przynosi mroźne powietrze znad
zlodzonego M. Weddella, znacznie cieplejsze masy powietrza napływają z zachodu i północy.
W rejonie Szetlandów Pd. dominuje strefowa cyrkulacja atmosferyczna związana z przemiesz­
czającymi się na wschód cyklonami w obrębie wokółantarktycznej bruzdy niskiego ciśnienia.
Ośrodki cyklonalne kształtują pogodę w tym rejonie przez 69,8% dni w roku. Ośrodki antycyklonalne (częstość 27,4%), związane z klinem wysokiego ciśnienia znad M. Weddella oraz
rozbudowującymi się na południe wyżami podzwrotnikowymi, prowadzą do sytuacji blokujących
i sprzyjają południkowej wymianie mas powietrza.
Temperatura powietrza na Wyspie Króla Jerzego charakteryzuje sie dużą zmiennością z roku na
rok (tab. 2, rys. 2). Zaznacza się 5,3 letnia periodyczność występujących temperatur. Średnia roczna
temperatura powietrza w okresie 1944-1996 (dane ze stacji Deception i Bellingshausen) wyniosła
-2,8°C. Jej wartość zmieniała się od -0,8°C w 1989 r. do -5,2°C w 1959 r. Zaznaczył się istotny
statystycznie (poziom ufności 95%) rosnący trend temperatury, w latach 1944-1996 średnia roczna
temperatura powietrza wzrosła o 1,6°C, a zimą (VI-VIII) średnio o 2,7°C (rys. 3). W przebiegu
rocznym od grudnia do marca występują dodatnie temperatury powietrza. Najniższe temperatury
występują w lipcu (tab. 3). Jednak często zdarzają się odwilże prowadzące do zjawiska zim bez
mroźnego jądra (kernlose efect). Temperatura powietrza w ciągu całego roku oscyluje wokół 0°C.
Zróżnicowanie przestrzenne temperatury powietrza na King George Island zależy od ekspozycji
względem napływających mas powietrza. Istotną rolę odgrywają także warunki lokalne. Przy
adwekcji z północnego-zachodu cieplejszy jest rejon Zatoki Admiralicji, natomiast przy adwekcji
z sektora wschodniego wyższe temperatury notuje się na Półwyspie Fildes (rys. 6). Najwyższe
temperatury na King George Island występują w rejonie Stacji im. H. Arctowskiego, gdzie tempera­
tura powietrza jest o 0,7°C wyższa niż na Półwyspie Fildes (tab. 4, 5 i rys. 4,5). Uprzywilejowanie to
wynika z występujących na Stacji im. H. Arctowskiego zjawisk fenowych (przy wiatrach z N i SW),
mniejszego zachmurzenia oraz większej insolacji (usłonecznienie jest o 20-30% wyższe). Zbliżone
warunki termiczne jak na Stacji im. H. Arctowskiego występują na Stacji Ferraz (założonej w miejs­
cu brytyjskiej stacji Admiralty Bay). Stacje Jubany i King Sejong, położone nad niewielkimi
zatokami, do których uchodzą lodowce z Warszawa Icefield, mają niższe temperatury niż w rejonie
Zatoki Admiralicji, natomiast najniższe temperatury występują na Półwyspie Fildes, do którego bez
przeszkód docierają masy powietrza z zachodu nie podlegając przy tym procesom fenizacji. Szcze­
gólnie duże różnice temperatury występują latem. W okresie zimowym, gdy często występuje
adwekcja z południowego wschodu najniższe temperatury występują w rejonie Zatoki Admiralicji,
gdzie nad zamarzniętą Zatoką Admiralicji może tworzyć się zastoisko chłodu. Znacznie cieplej jest
na Półwyspie Fildes, gdzie napływające z SE masy powietrza po drodze pokonują wysoką na 450 m
Kopułę Warszawy.
Warunki termiczne zlodowaconego wnętrza wyspy Króla Jerzego charakteryzują się spadkiem
temperatury wraz z wysokością. Średni roczny pionowy gradient temperatury w 1996 r. zmieniał się
od 1,14°C w strefie czołowej Lodowca Ekologii do 0,70*C na Kopule Warszawy (tab. 6).