ABCs of GMOs:
Frequently Asked Questions about Biotechnology
The Basics
What does GMO stand for? What does it mean?
GMO stands for genetically modified organism. Most often, “GMO” is used to
refer to a crop plant that has had its DNA (genes) changed in a lab to enhance
desirable traits. The term can also be used to refer to foods that contain genetically modified (GM) ingredients
(usually derived from engineered crop plants like soy and corn).
GM foods are often referred to as GMOs because the DNA used in the engineering process comes from another
organism like bacteria. You will see the terms used interchangeably here.
How are plants genetically engineered or modified?
Humans have used biotechnology to our advantage for a long time. Bread, cheese, and alcoholic beverages are
all products of biotechnology. In fermentation, for example, friendly microbes digest sugars and release carbon
dioxide (bubbles) and alcohol. Another example is the domestication of corn. The wild plant is not very
productive, so farmers selectively bred corn plants that produced more. Cross-breeding and hybridization
techniques have allowed us to create a wide variety of crops that might not have developed on their own.
Modern biotechnology allows scientists to identify and transfer a specific gene that creates a desired trait in a
plant. DNA (genetic material) works in the same way that software tells a computer what to do. We make
tweaks to the “software” so the program works a bit differently.
Example: Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) are a type of bacteria that make
proteins toxic to certain insects. Through genetic engineering, we
can snip out the DNA code for this protein and add it to the DNA
code of a corn plant. When it grows, the plant makes the protein.
When those insects try to eat the corn, they are poisoned by the
protein and die. Note that Bt protein has been used as a pesticide
spray for over 60 years in organic farming.
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United States Department of Agriculture  Local Extension Councils Cooperating
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Benefits of Biotechnology and Potential Applications
The world population has topped 6 billion people and is predicted to increase by 50% in the next 50 years.
Ensuring an adequate food supply for a booming population will be a major challenge in the years to come. GM
foods hold promise to meet this need in a number of ways:

Saves resources: With traditional crop breeding, it can take many generations to yield desired results.
Genetic modification is extremely specific and only targets the genes we want to change. Thus, we save
on energy, labor, and other resources during the development process.

Pest resistance: Crop losses from insect can be staggering, resulting in devastating financial loss for
farmers and starvation in developing countries. Growing GM foods that are resistant to insect damage
can improve crop yields and reduce pesticide application.

Disease resistance: Many viruses, fungi and bacteria cause plant diseases. Plant biologists are working
to create plants with genetically-engineered resistance to these diseases.

Herbicide tolerance: For many crops, it is not cost-effective nor environmentally friendly to remove
weeds by physical means such as tilling. Excessing tilling can leave topsoil vulnerable to the wind,
increasing soil and water erosion. Weeds can be controlled with herbicide sprays, but these sprays can
also kill the crop plant. We can engineer crops to be resistant to the herbicide spray, so that it only kills
the weeds. More resources are available to the crop plant, leading to bigger and better yields.

Drought tolerance/salinity tolerance: Creating plants that can withstand long periods of drought or high
salt content in soil and groundwater will help people to grow crops in
formerly inhospitable places.

Nutrition: Malnutrition is common in third world countries. Crops that are
staples in third world countries can be engineered to make nutrients that are
otherwise missing in the diet. Golden rice, for example, has higher levels of
vitamin A than regular rice and was developed to improve the health of third
world populations with severe or fatal vitamin A deficiencies.

Golden Rice
Pharmaceuticals: Medicines and vaccines can be costly to produce and sometimes require special
storage conditions not readily available in third world countries. Researchers are working to develop
edible vaccines in tomatoes and potatoes. These vaccines will be much easier to ship, store and
administer than traditional injectable vaccines.
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Development and Approval Process
What happens in the development of GMOs? How are they approved?
The development and approval process for GM crops is lengthy and rigorous. GM crops take 7-10 years to get
FDA approval and many questions must be answered during the process. Only after safety has been wellestablished could a GM food come on the market. After all is said and done, the entire process – development,
safety testing, approval, and finally marketing – takes 13 years on average. GM crops are continuously
monitored by the USDA and EPA after they become commercially
available.
To obtain FDA approval, developers must demonstrate substantial
equivalence. Through the testing process, they must prove that the crop
is not significantly different compared to a variety that is not genetically
modified. Note that this doesn’t mean there cannot be any differences.
If differences are found, the FDA must determine if they are biologically
meaningful. That is, whether such changes would negatively affect
growth, development, performance, and appearance of the crop. They also consider whether these changes
might affect human health, and/or quality of life in a negative way.
Which government agencies are involved in regulating GM foods and how?
All GM crops are reviewed extensively for potential safety risks by three U.S. regulatory agencies.

The USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) determines if a GM crop is
safe to grow. The USDA evaluates and monitors GM crop invasiveness, effects on
other crops and organisms, and whether the GM crop changes over time.

The FDA (Food & Drug Administration) determines if GM crops are safe to eat
and is responsible for approval of GM crops. The FDA also has the authority to
remove food products from the market.

The EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) determines if GM crops are safe for the
environment by evaluating pesticidal substances produced by the plant.
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United States Department of Agriculture  Local Extension Councils Cooperating
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Do other countries allow GM foods? If not, is it because they are unsafe?
According to the International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications (ISAAA), GM foods are
grown, imported, and/or used in field trial research in 70 countries (as of 2013). Each of these countries has its
own rigorous certification process. A single GM seed often goes through numerous regulatory reviews
in countries all over the world. The ISAAA offers access to information on approval processes and details of
safety testing from around the world.
Very few countries explicitly ban GMOs. It is more accurate to say that they have not yet approved these crops
for cultivation or human consumption. The European Union (EU) for example, does not formally ban GMO corn
or soy. It is legal in the EU to import several types of GM corn, soy, cotton, canola, and sugarbeets. Further, GM
corn and soy can be used as animal feed in Spain and other EU countries.
The EU does have mandatory GMO labeling, and many food companies have removed GM ingredients from
their products due to consumer concerns. This does not, however, mean that GMOs are unsafe.
It is also important to note that countries are often slow to adopt GM crops due to rigorous, time-consuming
approval processes. Also, rejection of GMO imports may be due to a number of reasons not limited safety, such
as foreign policy and trade issues.
Credit: International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications (ISAAA)
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences
United States Department of Agriculture  Local Extension Councils Cooperating
University of Illinois Extension provides equal opportunities in programs and employment.
Is it a conflict of interest for the biotech companies to be the ones to prove their products are
safe?
The burden of proof is on the company because development costs for GM crops can be very high – it is
estimated that the cost of bringing a new GM crop to market is $136 million.
Some people are concerned that biotech companies wanting to sell their product will only provide evidence of
its safety to the FDA. Typically, safety studies will be conducted by independent researchers through
randomized controlled trials. To minimize bias, these studies are blinded; the researchers do not know which
treatment is which until the end.
It is important to know that although safety studies may show favorable outcomes, that doesn’t mean the crop
will be approved. The individuals responsible for this oversight have years of training in scientific research and
the panel looks very critically at the evidence for validity and reliability. Studies must be strongly designed for
their results to be taken into account.
Recall that the FDA also retains the authority to remove a product from the market if concerns do arise concerns
about product safety. It is in the best interest of biotech companies and FDA to produce and approve safe
products. If a product is, in fact, unsafe, much more stands to be lost in terms of money and reputation.
Why must farmers buy new GM seed every year?
Some people believe that biotech companies sell sterile seeds to farmers to force them to purchase more each
year. However, if the seeds were sterile they would not grow at all.
In reality, farmers buy new GM seed every year because they are a patented product. At the time of purchase
farmers sign an agreement that they will only use the seed for a single commercial planting, so they are aware of
the provisions. There are benefits to this, as the
patented seeds have been tested over many
generations to produce high-quality plants. Thus, the
expected product is what they receive.
Although farmers may pay more for seed upfront,
adoption of GM crops over the past 20 years has
increased farmer profits by 68% on average.
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences
United States Department of Agriculture  Local Extension Councils Cooperating
University of Illinois Extension provides equal opportunities in programs and employment.
GMOs and the American Diet
Are GMOs in American foods now?
Yes. Current GM food crops that are commercially available in the U.S.
include soybeans, canola, alfalfa, sugarbeets, corn (field and sweet),
papaya, and squash.
What is our intake of GM foods like? If we eat many
processed foods that contain ingredients made from GM
crops (e.g., corn syrup, soybean oil), does that mean we
are eating a lot of GM ingredients?
Some argue that corn and soy are so ubiquitous in foods that we eat
GM ingredients constantly. However, our actual intake is minimal from
processed foods. High temperatures used in processing destroys DNA.
Also, syrups and oils are distilled, which removes proteins.
Do GM foods taste different?
There are no studies demonstrating that GM foods taste any different compared to their conventional or organic
counterparts. Taste is subjective and depends on individual food preferences, as well as taste sensitivity.
Are GM foods more nutritious? How does the nutrient content compare to conventional
foods and organic foods?
There is no significant difference in nutrient content between conventional (non-organic, may or may not be
genetically modified) and organic crops. For GM crops modified to have higher levels of specific nutrients, they
could be considered more nutritious than non-GM conventional crops or organic crops.
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences
United States Department of Agriculture  Local Extension Councils Cooperating
University of Illinois Extension provides equal opportunities in programs and employment.
Labeling
How do I know if GM ingredients are in food products?
At this time, the FDA does not require GMOs to be labeled unless the ingredient is a common food allergen,
such as soy. According to the FDA, "labeling is generally not necessary because the genetic modification does
not materially change the food." However, some companies are now voluntarily labeling their products as GMOfree. Consumers can also find GMO-free foods by purchasing organic products. As specified by the USDA’s
National Organic Program, GMOs are not allowed in foods bearing the green and white USDA Organic seal.
What is the status of mandatory GMO labeling legislation?
As of December 2014, measures have passed in Maine and Connecticut but have failed in California, Colorado,
Oregon, and Washington. Many other states have pending legislation; Vermont has passed legislation in but it
has not yet been signed into law by the governor.
On April 8, 2014, U.S. Representative Mike Pompeo (R-KS) introduced the “Safe and Accurate Food Labeling Act”
to disallow mandatory labeling of GMOs and prohibit voters from proposing state-level initiatives to label GMOs.
Companies labeling their products as “GMO-free” would not be affected, as this is a voluntary and unregulated
claim. The question of who should have authority over labeling – state governments or federal – is philosophical
in nature and not an easy one to answer.
Many people say they have the right to know what they are eating. What are the objections
to mandatory GMO labeling?
Farmers, scientists and food companies argue that if products are labeled, consumers will be less likely to buy
that food without understanding the environmental or economic benefits. Scientists believe that consumers are
skeptical because their labeling is not required, making them question the reassurances that GMOs are safe. At
the same time, labeling implies that there is something inherently different (and perhaps unsafe) about the
food.
Also, mandatory GMO labeling could have ramifications in terms of food prices. Companies would need to pay
for extensive testing. Such testing is expensive, and these costs would likely get passed on to the consumer
through higher food prices. This may pose a significant hardship to families who already struggle to stretch their
food dollars.
Note that while many biotechnology companies provide financial support for efforts opposing mandatory
labeling, many organic retailers and food companies provide financial support for efforts in favor of labeling.
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences
United States Department of Agriculture  Local Extension Councils Cooperating
University of Illinois Extension provides equal opportunities in programs and employment.
Controversy
Are GMOs a threat to human health?
At this time, there is no evidence showing that GM foods
are harmful to our health. GM foods are not causatively
linked to allergies, cancer, infertility, ADHD, or other
diseases. Here are the facts behind common concerns.

Nutrient content: Are GM foods less nutritious? Nutrient content of GM foods must be the same
compared to conventionally grown counterparts, unless improved nutrient content is a desired change.

Toxicity: If a protein made by a GM crop is toxic, isn't it harmful to humans and other organisms? The
answer, in short, is no. Scientists very carefully consider which genes to incorporate into the new crop
and look for those that will have little impact other than the desired change. The question of unintended
toxicity to other organisms is a major focus during development.

Allergies: If you were to incorporate a gene from a nut into a fruit crop, could this cause a reaction in
people with nut allergies? Although it is unlikely and has never been documented, this question must be
answered during the development process.

Disease: Behavioral disorders like autism and other diseases have jumped since GM foods entered the
market. Are GM foods the cause? No. Although two factors may be correlated, it doesn’t mean that one
caused the other. Only randomized controlled trials can prove that two factors are related. At this time,
no studies support these conclusions.
What happens to GM ingredients when we eat them?
When we eat protein of any kind, it is broken down into amino
acids in the process of digestion. DNA is digested in a similar
manner and is broken down to its building block components. This
begins with our stomach acid and continues
with enzymes in the small intestine.
Ingesting DNA has never been found to be
toxic. DNA is inherently part of all foods we
eat.
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences
United States Department of Agriculture  Local Extension Councils Cooperating
University of Illinois Extension provides equal opportunities in programs and employment.
Do GMOs harm the environment?

Pesticide and herbicide resistance: Pesticide and herbicide resistance in GM crops are concerning to
many. Note that this is not the same as a plant’s pest resistance. Pesticide resistance means that over
time, the pesticide becomes less effective at killing target insects because they evolve to be stronger
(“survival of the fittest”). Herbicide resistance means the herbicide is less effective at controlling weeds,
as they adapt and become “super weeds.” Emerging evidence does indicate that this is starting to
happen, but crop science experts believe this is likely due to problematic farming strategies and less
reliance on traditional techniques. Farmers must continue to rotate crops and alternate varieties;
following proper practice is critical. Resistance to pesticides and herbicides is a concern for all crops,
whether they are genetically modified or not.

Threats to other organisms, such as butterflies and bees: There have
been no documented impacts of GM crops on insect species like
butterflies and bees. Studies that have been conducted in a lab setting
have showed negative impacts. However, the doses of chemicals
received in these experiments are exponentially larger than doses
that might be encountered in the field. Such exposure is highly
unlikely in natural settings.

Possible effects on soil, water, air, larger ecosystem: These can
happen with introduction of any new crop. Monitoring by the USDA
and EPA after field trials helps document impact and indicate where
problems are occurring.
Is it true that GMOs have led to increased pesticide and herbicide usage?
Overall, pesticide usage has decreased significantly. A new meta-analysis of 147 studies indicates that in the past
20 years, pesticide applications worldwide have decreased by 37%. Overall herbicide usage has not increased,
but there has been an increase in glyphosate application. This has been the result of more farmers growing
herbicide tolerant crops, not because more herbicide is needed. Remember that pesticide and herbicide
resistance is common among all growing systems. Also, resistance can happen when farmers rely exclusively on
one control method. This can be prevented through better stewardship and use of several control methods.
For more questions about GMOs and biotechnology, please contact your local Extension office.
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences
United States Department of Agriculture  Local Extension Councils Cooperating
University of Illinois Extension provides equal opportunities in programs and employment.
Resources

Brookes, G & Barfoot, P. (2013). GM crops: global socio-economic and environmental impacts 1996-2011.
Available at: http://www.europabio.org/sites/default/files/report/2013globalimpactstudyfinalreport.pdf

Chassy, B (2010). Food safety risks and consumer health. New Biotechnology; 27: 534-544.

Gassmann AJ, Petzold-Maxwell JL, Keweshan RS, Dunbar MW (2011) Field-Evolved Resistance to Bt Maize by
Western Corn Rootworm. PLOS ONE 6(7): e22629. Available at
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3146474/pdf/pone.0022629.pdf

Gray ME, Sappington TW, Miller NJ, Moeser J, Bohn MO (2009). Adaptation and invasiveness of Western corn
rootworm: Intensifying research on a worsening pest. Annual Review of Entomology; 54: 303-321.

International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications (ISAAA), http://www.isaaa.org

Klumper, W & Qaim, Matin (2014). A meta-analysis of the impacts of genetically modified crops. PLOS ONE
9(11): e111629. Available at
http://www.plosone.org/article/fetchObject.action?uri=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0111629&r
epresentation=PDF

Oklahoma State University (2014). GMO Facts. Available at http://canola.okstate.edu/gmofacts

Owen M, Beckie HJ, Leeson JY, Norsworthy JK, Steckel LE (2014). Integrated pest management and weed
management in the United States and Canada. Pest Management Science; 71: 357-376.

Paarlberg, R (2010). GMO foods and crops: Africa’s choice. New Biotechnology; 27: 609-613.

National Research Council (2010). Impact of Genetically Engineered Crops on Farm Sustainability in the
United States. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

Parrott W, Chassy B, Ligon J, Meyer L, Petrick J, Zhou, J, Herman R, Delaney B, Levine M (2010). Application of
food and feed safety assessment principles to evaluate transgenic approaches to gene modulation in crops.
Food and Chemical Toxicology; 48: 1773-1790.

Tabashnik BE, Gassmann AJ, Crowder DW, Carriére Y (2008). Insect resistance to Bt crops: evidence versus
theory. Natural Biotechnology; 26: 199-202.
Developed by: Leia Kedem, MS, RD, Nutrition & Wellness Educator
With input from: Mekenzie Riley, MS, RD and Lisa Peterson, MS, Nutrition & Wellness Educators
Expert reviewer: Stephen Moose, PhD, Professor of Plant Functional Genomics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Peer reviewers: Caitlin Huth, MS, RD, and Mary Liz Wright, MS, Nutrition & Wellness Educators
Copyright 2015, University of Illinois Extension
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences
United States Department of Agriculture  Local Extension Councils Cooperating
University of Illinois Extension provides equal opportunities in programs and employment.