Terracotta Army
The Terracotta Army or the “Terracotta Warriors and
Horses”is a collection of terracotta sculptures depicting
the armies of Qin Shi Huang, the first Emperor of China.
It is a form of funerary art buried with the emperor in
210–209 BCE and whose purpose was to protect the emperor in his afterlife.
The figures, dating from approximately the late third century BCE,* [1] were discovered in 1974 by local farmers
in Lintong District, Xi'an, Shaanxi province. The figures
vary in height according to their roles, with the tallest being the generals. The figures include warriors, chariots
and horses. Estimates from 2007 were that the three pits
containing the Terracotta Army held more than 8,000
soldiers, 130 chariots with 520 horses and 150 cavalry
horses, the majority of which remained buried in the pits View of the Terracotta Army
nearby Qin Shi Huang's mausoleum.* [2] Other terracotta
non-military figures were found in other pits, including lennia following its construction, but archaeologists found
officials, acrobats, strongmen and musicians.
evidence of earlier disturbances at the site. During the
excavations near the Mount Li burial mound, archaeologists found several graves dating from the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries, where diggers had apparently struck
1 Background
terracotta fragments. These were discarded as worthless
and used along with soil to back fill the excavations.* [8]
The Terracotta Army was discovered on 29 March
1974* [3] to the east of Xi'an in Shaanxi province by
farmers digging a water well approximately 1.6 kilometres (0.99 mi) east of the Qin Emperor's tomb mound at 3 History
Mount Li (Lishan),* [4]* [5] a region riddled with underground springs and watercourses. For centuries, occa- According to the writings of historian Sima Qian (145–
sional reports mentioned pieces of terracotta figures and 90 BCE), work on the mausoleum began in 246 BCE
fragments of the Qin necropolis – roofing tiles, bricks and soon after Emperor Qin (then aged 13) ascended the
chunks of masonry.* [6] This discovery prompted Chi- throne. The project eventually involved 700,000 worknese archaeologists to investigate, revealing the largest ers.* [9] Geographer Li Daoyuan, writing six centuries afpottery figurine group ever found in China.
ter the First Emperor's death, recorded in Shui Jing Zhu
2
Necropolis
In addition to the warriors, an entire necropolis built for
the emperor was found surrounding the first emperor's
tomb mound. The earthen tomb mound is located at the
foot of Mount Li and built in a pyramidal shape with Qin
Shi Huang’s necropolis complex constructed as a microcosm of his imperial palace or compound.* [7]
It consists of several offices, halls, stables, and other
structures placed around the tomb mound, which is surrounded by two solidly built rammed earth walls with
gateway entrances. Up to 5 metres (16 ft) of reddish,
sandy soil had accumulated over the site in the two mil-
that Mount Li was a favoured location due to its auspicious geology, “famed for its jade mines, its northern
side was rich in gold, and its southern side rich in beautiful jade; the First Emperor, covetous of its fine reputation, therefore chose to be buried there”.* [10]* [11] Sima
Qian, in his most noted work, Shiji, finished a century
after the mausoleum's completion, wrote that the First
Emperor was buried with palaces, towers, officials, valuable artifacts and wondrous objects. According to this
account, 100 rivers had their flow simulated by mercury,
and above them the ceiling was decorated with heavenly bodies below which were the features of the land.
Some translations of this passage refer to “models”or
“imitations,”however those words were not used in the
original text, which makes no mention of the terracotta
army.* [9]* [12]
1
2
The mound where the tomb is located
5 EXCAVATION SITE
moulds were most likely used, with clay added after assembly to provide individual facial features.* [19] It is believed that the warriors' legs were made in much the same
way that terracotta drainage pipes were manufactured at
the time. This would classify the process as assembly
line production, with specific parts manufactured and assembled after being fired, as opposed to crafting one
solid piece and subsequently firing it. In those times of
tight imperial control, each workshop was required to inscribe its name on items produced to ensure quality control. This has aided modern historians in verifying which
workshops were commandeered to make tiles and other
mundane items for the terracotta army. Upon completion, the terracotta figures were placed in the pits in precise military formation according to rank and duty.
The terracotta figures are life-sized. They vary in height,
High levels of mercury were found in the soil of the tomb uniform, and hairstyle in accordance with rank. Most
mound, giving credence to Sima Qian's account.* [13]
originally held real weapons such as spears, swords, or
Later historical accounts suggested that the tomb had crossbows. Originally, the figures were also painted
pink, red,
been looted by Xiang Yu, a contender for the throne af- with bright pigments, variously coloured
*
*
green,
blue,
black,
brown,
white
and
lilac.
[20]
[21] The
*
*
*
ter the death of the first emperor, [14] [15] [16] howcoloured
lacquer
finish,
individual
facial
features,
and
ever, there are indications that the tomb may not have
weapons
used
in
producing
these
figures
increased
the
fig*
been plundered. [17]
ures' realism. Most of the original weapons were looted
shortly after the creation of the army, or have rotted away,
while the colour coating flaked off or greatly faded.
3.1 Construction
4 The tomb
The tomb appears to be a hermetically-sealed space
the size of a football pitch.* [22]* [23] The tomb remains unopened, given concerns about preserving its
artifacts.* [22] For example, after their excavation, the
painted surface present on some terracotta figures began
to flake and fade.* [24] The lacquer covering the paint can
curl in fifteen seconds once exposed to Xi'an's dry air and
can flake off in just four minutes.* [25] There is speculation of a possible Hellenistic link to these sculptures, due
to the lack of life-sized and realistic sculptures prior to
the Qin dynasty according to some scholars.* [26]* [27]
5 Excavation site
5.1 Pits
A terracotta soldier with his horse
The terracotta army figures were manufactured in workshops by government laborers and local craftsmen using local materials. Heads, arms, legs, and torsos were
created separately and then assembled.* [18] Eight face
Four main pits approximately 7 metres (23 ft) deep have
been excavated.* [28]* [29] These are located approximately 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) east of the burial mound.
The soldiers within were laid out as if to protect the tomb
from the east, where all the Qin Emperor's conquered
states lay.
5.2
Weaponry
3
Xiang Yu and the subsequent burning of the site, which
is thought to have caused the roof to collapse and crush
the army figures below. The terracotta figures currently
on display have been restored from the fragments.
Other pits that formed the necropolis also have been excavated.* [34] These pits lie within and outside the walls surrounding the tomb mound. They variously contain bronze
carriages, terracotta figures of entertainers such as acrobats and strongmen, officials, stone armour suits, burials sites of horses, rare animals and labourers, as well as
bronze cranes and ducks set in an underground park.* [35]
The museum complex containing the excavation sites
5.2 Weaponry
View of Pit 1, the largest excavation pit of the Terracotta Army
5.1.1
Pit one
Pit one, which is 230 metres (750 ft) long and 62 metres (203 ft) wide,* [30] contains the main army of more
than 6,000 figures.* [31] Pit one has 11 corridors, most of
which are more than 3 metres (9.8 ft) wide and paved
with small bricks with a wooden ceiling supported by
large beams and posts. This design was also used for the
tombs of nobles and would have resembled palace hallways when built. The wooden ceilings were covered with
reed mats and layers of clay for waterproofing, and then
mounded with more soil raising them about 2 to 3 metres
(6 ft 7 in to 9 ft 10 in) above the surrounding ground level
when completed.* [32]
Stone armor suit on display in the National Geographic
Museum, USA.
Weapons such as swords, spears, battle-axes, scimitars, shields, crossbows, and arrowheads were found in
the pits.* [28]* [36] Some of these weapons, such as the
swords are sharp and were coated with a 10–15 micrometre layer of chromium dioxide and kept the swords rustfree for 2,000 years.* [37]* [38]* [39] The swords contain
an alloy of copper, tin, and other elements including
nickel, magnesium, and cobalt.* [40] Some carry inscrip5.1.2 Others
tions that date manufacture between 245 and 228 BCE,
Pit two has cavalry and infantry units as well as war chari- indicating they were used as weapons before their buriots and is thought to represent a military guard. Pit three als.* [41]
is the command post, with high-ranking officers and a An important element of the army is the chariot, of which
war chariot. Pit four is empty, perhaps left unfinished by four types were found. In battle the fighting chariots form
its builders.
pairs at the head of a unit of infantry. The principal
Some of the figures in pit one and two show fire damage, while remains of burnt ceiling rafters have also been
found.* [33] These, together with the missing weapons,
have been taken as evidence of the reported looting by
weapon of the charioteers was the ge or dagger-axe, an
L-shaped bronze blade mounted on a long shaft used for
sweeping and hooking at the enemy. Infantrymen also
carried ge on shorter shafts, ji or halberds and spears and
4
7
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
Atlanta,* [50] National Geographic Society Museum in
Washington, D.C. and the Royal Ontario Museum in
Toronto.* [51] Subsequently the exhibition traveled to
Sweden and was hosted in the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities between 28 August 2010 and 20 January
2011.* [52]* [53] An exhibition entitled 'The First Emperor – China's Entombed Warriors', presenting 120 artifacts was hosted at the Art Gallery of New South Wales,
6 Exhibitions
between 2 December 2010 and 13 March 2011.* [54] An
exhibition entitled “L'Empereur guerrier de Chine et
son armée de terre cuite”(“The Warrior-Emperor of
China and his terracotta army”), featuring artifacts including statues from the mausoleum, was hosted by the
Montreal Museum of Fine Arts from 11 February 2011 to
26 June 2011.* [55] In Italy, from July 2008 to November
16, 2008, five of the warriors of the terracotta army were
exposed in Turin at the Museum of Antiquities,* [56] and
from 16 April 2010 to 5 September 2010 were exposed
nine warriors in Milan, at the Royal Palace, at the exhibition entitled “The Two Empires”.* [57] The group
consisted of a horse, a counselor, an archer and 6 Lancers.
The“Treasures of Ancient China”exhibition, showcasing
two terracotta soldiers and other artifacts, including the
Terracotta Warriors exhibition in San Francisco
Longmen Grottoes Buddhist statues, was held between 19
February 2011 and 7 November 2011 in four locations in
A collection of 120 objects from the mausoleum and India: National Museum of New Delhi, Prince of Wales
20 terracotta warriors were displayed at the British Mu- Museum in Mumbai, Salar Jung Museum in Hyderabad
seum in London as its special exhibition “The First and National Library of India in Kolkata.
Emperor: China's Terracotta Army”from 13 September 2007 to April 2008.* [42] This exhibition made 2008 Soldiers and related items were on display from March
17, 2013, at the Historical Muthe British Museum's most successful year and made the 15, 2013, to November
*
seum
of
Bern.
[58]
British Museum the United Kingdom's top cultural attraction between 2007 and 2008.* [43]* [44] The exhibition brought the most visitors to the museum since the
King Tutankhamun exhibition in 1972.* [43] It was re- 7 Scientific research
ported that the initial batch of tickets sold out so fast that
the museum extended its opening hours until midnight In 2007, scientists at Stanford University and the
on Thursdays to Sundays.* [45] According to The Times,
Advanced Light Source facility in Berkeley, California
many people had to be turned away, despite the extended reported that powder diffraction experiments combined
hours.* [46] During the day of events to mark the Chinese
with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and micro-XNew Year, the crush was so intense that the gates to the ray fluorescence analysis showed that the process of promuseum had to be shut.* [46] The Terracotta Army has
ducing Terracotta figures colored with Chinese purple dye
been described as the only other set of historic artifacts consisting of barium copper silicate was derived from the
(along with the remnants of wreck of the RMS Titanic)
knowledge gained by Taoist alchemists in their attempts
that can draw a crowd by the name alone.* [45]
to synthesize jade ornaments.* [59]* [60]
lances. For close fighting and defence, both charioteers
and infantrymen carried double-edged straight swords.
The archers carried crossbows, with sophisticated trigger mechanisms, capable of firing arrows farther than 800
metres (2,600 ft).* [41]
Warriors and other artifacts were exhibited to the public at the Forum de Barcelona in Barcelona between 9
May and 26 September 2004. It was their most successful
exhibition ever.* [47] The same exhibition was presented
at the Fundación Canal de Isabel II in Madrid between
October 2004 and January 2005, their most successful
ever.* [48] From December 2009 to May 2010 the exhibition was shown in the Centro Cultural La Moneda in
Santiago de Chile.* [49]
Since 2006, an international team of researchers at the
UCL Institute of Archaeology have been using analytical
chemistry techniques to uncover more details about the
production techniques employed in the creation of the
Terracotta Army. Using X-ray fluorescence spectrometry of 40,000 bronze arrowheads bundled in groups of
100, the researchers reported that the arrowheads within
a single bundle formed a relatively tight cluster that was
different from other bundles. In addition, the presence
The exhibition traveled to North America and visited or absence of metal impurities was consistent within bunmuseums such as the Asian Art Museum of San Fran- dles. Based on the arrows’chemical compositions, the
cisco, Bowers Museum in Santa Ana, California, Houston researchers concluded that a cellular manufacturing sysMuseum of Natural Science, High Museum of Art in tem similar to the one used in a modern Toyota factory,
5
as opposed to a continuous assembly line in the early days
of automobile industry, was employed.* [61]* [62]
Grinding and polishing marks visible under a scanning
electron microscope provide evidence for the earliest industrial use of lathes for polishing.* [61]
8
Gallery
• A rank of soldiers.
• Close-up on the head of an archer.
• Note how the faces of these two soldiers differ
from each other. Each statue was constructed to be
unique.
• A cavalryman and his mount.
• Ranks of terracotta infantrymen.
• The Terracotta Warriors were once painted. Today
only a handful of statues contain small amounts of
paint. Also notice the detail put into the soles of the
warrior's shoes.
• Bronze chariot for the emperor.
• Terracotta horse and two soldiers
• Sword from Emperor Qin's Mausoleum
• Close-up on an archer's head. Notice the details put
into the hair of the archer.
• Pigments used on the Terracotta Warriors
• Original coloring on the warriors
• Original coloring on the warriors
• Restored painted archer and high-ranking officer
9
See also
• List of World Heritage Sites in China
• Qin bronze chariot
10
Notes
[3] Agnew, Neville (2010-08-03). Conservation of Ancient
Sites on the Silk Road. Getty Publications. p. 214. ISBN
9781606060131. Retrieved 11 July 2012.
[4] O. Louis Mazzatenta.“Emperor Qin's Terracotta Army”
. National Geographic.
[5] The
precise
coordinates
are
34°23′5.71″N
109°16′23.19″E
/
34.3849194°N
34°23′5.71″N
109.2731083°ECoordinates:
109°16′23.19″E / 34.3849194°N 109.2731083°E)
[6] Clements 2007, pp. 155, 157, 158, 160–161, 166.
[7] 73 号 Qin Ling Bei Lu (1970-01-01). “Google maps”.
Maps.google.co.uk. Retrieved 2011-12-03.
[8] Clements 2007, p. 160.
[9] Sima Qian – Shiji Volume 6《史记·秦始皇本纪》Original text: 始皇初即位，穿治郦山，及并天下，天下
徒送诣七十余万人，穿三泉，下铜而致椁，宫观百官
奇器珍怪徙臧满之。令匠作机驽矢，有所穿近者辄
射之。以水银为百川江河大海，机相灌输，上具天
文，下具地理。以人鱼膏为烛，度不灭者久之。二
世曰：" 先帝后宫非有子者，出焉不宜。" 皆令从死，
死者甚众。葬既已下，或言工匠为机，臧皆知之，臧
重即泄。大事毕，已臧，闭中羡，下外羡门，尽闭
工匠臧者，无复出者。树草木以象山。 Translation:
When the First Emperor ascended the throne, the digging
and preparation at Mount Li began. After he unified his
empire, 700,000 men were sent there from all over his empire. They dug down deep to underground springs, pouring copper to place the outer casing of the coffin. Palaces
and viewing towers housing a hundred officials were built
and filled with treasures and rare artifacts. Workmen were
instructed to make automatic crossbows primed to shoot
at intruders. Mercury was used to simulate the hundred
rivers, the Yangtze and Yellow River, and the great sea,
and set to flow mechanically. Above, the heaven is depicted, below, the geographical features of the land. Candles were made of “mermaid"'s fat which is calculated
to burn and not extinguish for a long time. The Second
Emperor said: “It is inappropriate for the wives of the
late emperor who have no sons to be free”, ordered that
they should accompany the dead, and a great many died.
After the burial, it was suggested that it would be a serious breach if the craftsmen who constructed the tomb
and knew of its treasure were to divulge those secrets.
Therefore after the funeral ceremonies had completed, the
inner passages and doorways were blocked, and the exit
sealed, immediately trapping the workers and craftsmen
inside. None could escape. Trees and vegetation were
then planted on the tomb mound such that it resembled a
hill.
[1] Lu Yanchou, Zhang Jingzhao, Xie Jun; Jingzhao; Jun;
Xueli (1988). “TL dating of pottery sherds and
baked soil from the Xian Terracotta Army Site, Shaanxi
Province, China”. International Journal of Radiation Applications and Instrumentation. Part D. Nuclear
Tracks and Radiation Measurements 14 (1–2): 283–286.
doi:10.1016/1359-0189(88)90077-5.
[10] Clements 2007, p. 158.
[2] Portal 2007, p. 167.
[13] Portal 2007, p. 202.
[11] Shui Jing Zhu Chapter 19《水经注·渭水》Original text:
秦始皇大兴厚葬，营建冢圹于骊戎之山，一名蓝田，
其阴多金，其阳多美玉，始皇贪其美名，因而葬焉。
[12] Portal 2007, p. 17.
6
10 NOTES
[14] Shui Jing Zhu Chapter 19《水经注·渭水》Original text:
项羽入关，发之，以三十万人，三十日运物不能穷。
关东盗贼，销椁取铜。牧人寻羊，烧之，火延九十
日，不能灭。Translation: Xiang Yu entered the gate,
sent forth 300,000 men, but they could not finish carrying
away his loot in 30 days. Thieves from northeast melted
the coffin and took its copper. A shepherd looking for his
lost sheep burned the place, the fire lasted 90 days and
could not be extinguished.
[15] Sima Qian – Shiji Volume 8《史记·高祖本纪》Original
text: 项羽烧秦宫室，掘始皇帝冢，私收其财物 Translation: Xiang Yu burned the Qin palaces, dug up the First
Emperor's tomb, and expropriated his possessions.
[16] Han Shu《汉书·楚元王传》：Original text: " 项籍焚
其宫室营宇，往者咸见发掘，其后牧儿亡羊，羊入其
凿，牧者持火照球羊，失火烧其藏椁。" Translation:
Xiang burned the palaces and buildings. Later observers
witnessed the excavated site. Afterward a shepherd lost
his sheep which went into the dug tunnel; the shepherd
held a torch to look for his sheep, and accidentally set fire
to the place and burned the coffin.
[17] “Royal Chinese treasure discovered”. BBC News. 200510-20. Retrieved 2011-12-03.
[18] “A Magic Army for the Emperor”. Upf.edu. 1979-1001. Retrieved 2011-12-03.
[19] Portal 2007, p. 170.
[20] John Simpson, Greg Hurst 3 December 2011 12:01 am.
“Terracotta soldier – in full colour”. The Times. UK.
Retrieved 2011-12-03.
[21]“Terracotta army emerges in its true colors”. China Daily.
Retrieved 2011-12-03.
[22] “The First Emperor”. Channel4.com. Retrieved 201112-03.
[23] “Application of geographical methods to explore the underground palace of the Emperor Qin Shi Huang Mausoleum” (PDF). Google. Retrieved 2011-12-03.
[24] Nature. “Terracotta Army saved from crack up”. Nature.com. Retrieved 2011-12-03.
[31] “The Mausoleum of the First Emperor of the Qin Dynasty and Terracotta Warriors and Horses”. China.org.cn.
2003-09-12. Retrieved 2011-12-03.
[32] Portal 2007.
[33] “China unearths 114 new Terracotta Warriors”. BBC
News. 2010-05-12. Retrieved 2011-12-03.
[34] “Terracotta Accessory Pits”. Travelchinaguide.com.
2009-10-10. Retrieved 2011-12-03.
[35] “Decoding the Mausoleum of Emperor Qin Shihuang”.
China Daily. 2010-05-13. Retrieved 2011-12-03.
[36] “Exquisite Weaponry of Terra Cotta Army”. Travelchinaguide.com. Retrieved 2011-12-03.
[37] Bronze Weapons “Terracotta Warriors (Terracotta
Army)". China Tour Guide. Retrieved 2011-07-28.
[38] Cotterell, Maurice. (2004). The Terracotta Warriors: The
Secret Codes of the Emperor's Army. Rochester: Bear and
Company. ISBN 1-59143-033-X. Page 102.
[39] Zhewen Luo (1993). China's imperial tombs and mausoleums. Foreign Languages Press. p. 44. ISBN 7-11901619-9. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
[40] “Terracotta Warriors” (PDF). National Geographic.
2009. Retrieved 2011-07-28.
[41]“The First Emperor - China's Terracotta Army - Teacher's
Resource Pack” (PDF). British Museum.
[42] The First Emperor: China's Terracotta Army. The British
Museum
[43] Higgins, Charlotte (2008-07-02). “Terracotta army
makes British Museum favourite attraction”. The
Guardian (London). Retrieved 2010-05-25.
[44] “British Museum sees its most successful year ever”.
Best Western. 2008-07-03. Archived from the original on
2012-02-16.
[45] “The First Emperor: China’s Terracotta Army (British
Museum)". Great Exhibitions. 2008-02-09. Archived
from the original on 2008-06-22.
[25] Larmer, Brook. “Terra-Cotta Warriors in Color.”National Geographic June 2012: 86. Print
[46] Whitworth, Damian (2008-07-09). “Is the British Museum the greatest museum on earth?". The Times (London). Retrieved 2010-05-25.
[26] Early links with West likely inspiration for Terracotta
Warriors, argues SOAS scholar, School of Oriental and
African Studies (SOAS), University of London
[47] DesarrolloWeb (2007-04-19).“Los guerreros de Xian, en
el Forum de Barcelona”. Guiarte.com. Retrieved 201112-03.
[27] Lukas Nickel, The First Emperor and sculpture in China,
SOAS, University of London, Cambridge University
Press, 2013
[48] “Guerreros de Xian”. Futuropasado.com. Retrieved
2011-12-03.
[28] “The Necropolis of First Emperor of Qin”.
tory.ucsb.edu. Retrieved 2011-12-03.
His-
[49] “Llegan a Chile los legendarios Guerreros de Terracota
de China”. Latercera.com. Retrieved 2011-12-03.
[29] A Magic Army for the Emperor Lothar Ledderose
[50] “Record-Breaking Terracotta Army Exhibition at Atlanta
museum”. Retrieved 16 January 2010.
[30] Ledderose 1998, pp. 51–73 A Magic Army for the Emperor
[51] “ROM's terracotta warriors show a blockbuster”. CBC.
6 January 2011.
7
[52]“China's Terracotta Army, Stockholm, Sweden, Reviews”
. Retrieved 20 January 2010.
[53] “World Famous Terracotta Army Arrives in Stockholm
for Exhibition at Ostasiatiska Museum”. Retrieved 20
January 2010.
[54] “Terracotta warriors, Picassos heading to Sydney”. ABC
News. 14 October 2010. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
[55] “Empereur Guerrier De Chine Et Son Armee De Terre
Cuite”. Mbam.qc.ca. Retrieved 2011-12-03.
[56] http://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/SoleOnLine4/
Tempo%20libero%20e%20Cultura/
2008/07/celeste-impero.shtml?uuid=
04e02b30-53d3-11dd-b517-978c7de2eb40&type=
Libero
• Portal, Jane (2007). The First Emperor: China's Terracotta Army. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780-674-02697-1.
• Ledderose, Lothar (2000). “A Magic Army for
the Emperor”. Ten Thousand Things: Module and
Mass Production in Chinese Art. The A.W. Mellon
Lectures in the Fine Arts. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-00957-5.
• Perkins, Dorothy (1999). Encyclopedia of China:
The Essential Reference to China, Its History and
Culture. New York: Facts on File. ISBN 978-08160-4374-3.
12 External links
[57] http://viaggi.nanopress.it/news/
esercito-di-terracotta-dalla-cina-a-palazzo-reale-di-milano/
P18267/
• UNESCO description of the Mausoleum of the First
Qin Emperor
[58]“Die Terrakotta-Krieger sind da”. Der Bund. 22 February
2013. Retrieved 21 June 2015.
[59] Bertrand, Loïc; Robinet, Laurianne; Thoury, Mathieu; Janssens, Koen; Cohen, Serge X.; Schöder, Sebastian (26 November 2011). “Cultural heritage and archaeology materials studied by synchrotron spectroscopy
and imaging”. Applied Physics A 106 (2): 377–396.
doi:10.1007/s00339-011-6686-4.
[60] Liu, Z.; Mehta, A.; Tamura, N.; Pickard, D.; Rong,
B.; Zhou, T.; Pianetta, P. (November 2007).
“Influence of Taoism on the invention of the purple pigment used on the Qin terracotta warriors”.
Journal of Archaeological Science 34 (11): 1878–1883.
doi:10.1016/j.jas.2007.01.005.
[61] Rees, Simon (6 March 2014). “Chemistry unearths the
secrets of the Terracotta Army”. Royal Society of Chemistry. Retrieved 29 March 2014.
[62] Martinón-Torres, Marcos; Li, Xiuzhen Janice; Bevan,
Andrew; Xia, Yin; Zhao, Kun; Rehren, Thilo (20 October 2012). “Forty Thousand Arms for a Single Emperor:
From Chemical Data to the Labor Organization Behind
the Bronze Arrows of the Terracotta Army”. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 21 (3): 534.
doi:10.1007/s10816-012-9158-z.
11
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• Official Website of the Museum of the Terracotta
Warriors and Horses of Qin Shihuang
• People's Daily article on the Terracotta Army
• Microsoft Photosynth Experience of the Terra Cotta
Warriors
• OSGFilms Video Article : Terracotta Warriors at
Discovery Times Square
• The Necropolis of the First Emperor of Qin Excerpt
from lecture
• China's Terracotta Warriors Documentary produced
by the PBS Series Secrets of the Dead
8
13
13
13.1
TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
Text
• Terracotta Army Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terracotta_Army?oldid=678635537 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Tarquin,
Rmhermen, Caltrop, Olivier, Nevilley, Infrogmation, D, Menchi, Wwwwolf, Ixfd64, Zanimum, Skysmith, Ahoerstemeier, Darkwind, Bogdangiusca, Agtx, WhisperToMe, Tpbradbury, IppikiOokami, Robbot, Paranoid, Tomchiukc, Adebaumann, JB82, Tom harrison, Lupin, Rj,
Koyn~enwiki, Bradeos Graphon, Peruvianllama, Everyking, NeoJustin, Henry Flower, MingMecca, Per Honor et Gloria, AlistairMcMillan,
Gzornenplatz, Python eggs, Jackol, Confuzion, Yath, Antandrus, MarkSweep, G3pro, Lynda Finn, DragonflySixtyseven, Karl-Henner, Ukexpat, Hardouin, Frankieroberto, Jimaginator, Jkiang, Mike Rosoft, D6, Beirne, Richardelainechambers, Discospinster, Florian Blaschke,
Alistair1978, MasterRegal, Kaisershatner, Aranel, El C, Lankiveil, Kwamikagami, Davorg, Kross, Shanes, Zebs, Bobo192, Longhair,
Viriditas, Giraffedata, Pschemp, MPerel, Sam Korn, Irishpunktom, Nsaa, Foxandpotatoes, Supersexyspacemonkey, LegolasGreenleaf,
Ranveig, Alansohn, Datrio, Alfanje~enwiki, Paleorthid, Lectonar, Calton, Bart133, DreamGuy, Snowolf, Ross Burgess, Mcferran, Wtmitchell, Liimes, Rebroad, Tony Sidaway, Dirac1933, TheAznSensation, LFaraone, Kznf, Dismas, Tariqabjotu, Richard Arthur Norton
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UsagiM, RCRC, Pumeleon, Nivix, RexNL, Gurch, Ayla, Acallus, OrbitOne, David H Braun (1964), Benjwong, Narvalo, DaveHolland,
Chobot, Vmenkov, Daduzi, YurikBot, Quentin X, RobotE, Eraserhead1, MET920, Petiatil, Koffieyahoo, Briaboru, GusF, Chensiyuan,
Manop, Ksyrie, NawlinWiki, Thunderforge, Astral, Grafen, Julian Grybowski, Holycharly, ONEder Boy, Howcheng, Psuhellcat, Sitearm,
Brandon, Jpbowen, Muu-karhu, Tony1, Dbfirs, Codenamecuckoo, Tux the penguin, Black Falcon, JakkoWesterbeke, Mail2amitabha,
Urger48400, Encephalon, Josh3580, Tvarnoe~enwiki, Nae'blis, Curpsbot-unicodify, Extreme Unction, Katieh5584, Bdve, KNHaw, DVD
R W, CIreland, Luk, SmackBot, Moeron, Bobet, Tarret, Hydrogen Iodide, Melchoir, Bjelleklang, Amatire, Pgk, C.Fred, Blue520, Mercifull, Delldot, Heesung, Kintetsubuffalo, Wittylama, Gilliam, Skizzik, GwydionM, GoneAwayNowAndRetired, Chris the speller, Thumperward, Miquonranger03, SchfiftyThree, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, RayAYang, Dragonchat20, Gutworth, TheLeopard, Prisoner627, DHN-bot~enwiki, Wisden17, Darth Panda, Eusebeus, Esprix, Meitme, Zsinj, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Shalom Yechiel,
Viperphantom, TCL, Jacob Poon, Addshore, Dharmabum420, Multivariable, Piusaeneas, Underbar dk, Pissant, Golfman, Dave-ros, Drake
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Mr Stephen, Waggers, Michael Greiner, Manymegs, Heavy1974, P199, Hkoala, Mohamed Abdel Mageed, Xionbox, Robin Chen, KJS77,
Hu12, BananaFiend, CzarB, Polymerbringer, Slammer111, Nubzor, Saturday, HongQiGong, CapitalR, Shippwreck, Courcelles, Tawkerbot2, JForget, Joey80, Da fatman, Alex Shih, Woudloper, Baiji, Bigwiver, GHe, FlyingToaster, Moreschi, Casper2k3, Anitaegebrg,
Karenjc, Nilfanion, Cydebot, Honk squeak, Samuell, JessBr, Mato, Gogo Dodo, Flowerpotman, ST47, A Softer Answer, Chasingsol,
Scooteristi, Clovis Sangrail, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, Asenine, Ghostexorcist, Sharonlees, Mike1942f, Gimmetrow, Aldis90, Click23,
Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Mercury~enwiki, Wikid77, Sry85, Voracious reader, Mojo Hand, Norville, Mmcknight4, James086, Cota~enwiki,
Yettie0711, Ian Chattan, Dfrg.msc, Kaaveh Ahangar~enwiki, Klausness, Haha169, Mentifisto, Hamiltonpruim, AntiVandalBot, Majorly,
Luna Santin, Seaphoto, Wild ste, Eltanin, Jj137, Fayenatic london, Modernist, Sunilrajguru, Ian Shi, Ozgod, AxiomShell, Pixelface, Lfstevens, EmTheTrooper, Myanw, Omishark, Crazygirluk, Res2216firestar, JAnDbot, Leuko, Husond, Aurora sword, MER-C, Vicsar,
Andrepalis, Sknute, Hut 8.5, TAnthony, PhilKnight, The Real Grego, JustinMN, .anacondabot, Acroterion, SusanLai, VoABot II, RBBrittain, Jllm06, Ling.Nut, Glennimoss, Steven Walling, Nyttend, Yu210148, Catgut, Animum, Binary2, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, LorenzoB,
Frotz, Chris G, DerHexer, Philg88, Lijnema, RayS NY, MartinBot, Tang Zu-Ming, Juansidious, Fconaway, Pomte, Msreal, J.delanoy,
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King Toadsworth, Dorftrottel, Useight, DrSavta, Halmstad, Johnlaws2005, Chaos forge5, Hugo999, ByeLi, CWii, ABF, Macedonian, Jeff
G., Holme053, Nburden, Gseletko, Ryan032, Barneca, Philip Trueman, Kr-val, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, DUBJAY04, RLM1961, Dxdydz,
GroveGuy, Ietsov, Anonymous Dissident, Qxz, Someguy1221, Anna Lincoln, Sintaku, Brunton, Jackfork, Mossgiantkiller, Ilyushka88, Jack
Naven Rulez, Utaku030, Mazarin07, Brokenwit, Madhero88, Linz lo, BigDunc, Andy Dingley, Jmhullot, Scruffydoggirl, Crazyeyes0313,
Master of the Oríchalcos, Insanity Incarnate, Chenzw, AlleborgoBot, LuigiManiac, Kobalt64, Fernandogonz, PericlesofAthens, CloutierFan02, SieBot, TJRC, Tresiden, WereSpielChequers, BotMultichill, Caltas, RJaguar3, Triwbe, Psychomn1, Yintan, Keilana, Happysailor,
Quest for Truth, Tiptoety, Qst, HannibalofCarthage, Hzh, Moonmask, Oxymoron83, Faradayplank, T24G, PalaceGuard008, Alex.muller,
Taggard, Fuddle, StaticGull, Myominane, Npearson100, AcidBomber, Dust Filter, WikiLaurent, Dabomb87, Pinkadelica, Mikehayes19,
TheCatalyst31, Steve, Idinic, WikipedianMarlith, Martarius, ClueBot, Fyyer, Foxj, The Thing That Should Not Be, Icarusgeek, Mattgirling, Swedish fusilier, Podzemnik, Hookemanagain, Ndenison, Wysprgr2005, Ahsley.bell, Drmies, Sevilledade, Mild Bill Hiccup,
DanielDeibler, Polyamorph, Mr Rocking, Jonathangao, Blanchardb, No 2 Hinoh, Rhndevu02, Szkterboy, Grunty Thraveswain, DragonBot,
Noob1370071, Excirial, Pumpmeup, Quercus basaseachicensis, Jusdafax, Westonhe, Monobi, Mindcry, Gtstricky, Gwguffey, Muenda,
Vivio Testarossa, Estirabot, Technobadger, NuclearWarfare, L.tak, Techfast50, Wangarific, LeinSora, Razorflame, Mikaey, Evepash, Muro
Bot, Manojkhurana, Thingg, Aitias, 7, Versus22, Newberg 2014, Dusenbury, Belasd, Bowers Public Relations, Chapsticktap, XLinkBot,
Swedengirl, Paulhh8, Fun guy 3, SwirlBoy39, Stickee, Rror, Little Mountain 5, WikHead, SilvonenBot, NellieBly, Badgernet, Noctibus,
ZooFari, Smileywebmonkey, Cee Yee, RyanCross, Salvadorhealth, Dantealii, Addbot, Xp54321, Proofreader77, ConCompS, Some jerk
on the Internet, Tcncv, Thomas888b, Smileyhedgehog, Binary TSO, Jdtapaboc, Elishabet, Iceblock, Ronhjones, TutterMouse, DPantenburg, 15JGraves, CanadianLinuxUser, Leszek Jańczuk, BabelStone, Chamal N, Egadsss, Glane23, Greyhawthorn, Bassbonerocks, AndersBot, Favonian, ChenzwBot, LinkFA-Bot, Kinamand, Zacmoody, Berkunt, Sanawon, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Christiaan.brockhurst,
HARDASNAILS, Tristanscool, Gail, Krenakarore, Life Adventure, Blitzkreig119, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Senator Palpatine, Rulz97, Victoriaearle, MarcoAurelio, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, WDFUNK, AmeliorationBot, LLTimes, IW.HG, Tsagilistic,
Hi mr t, AnomieBOT, Paulcowles, Kristen Eriksen, Rjanag, Killiondude, IRP, Kipiko, Dwayne, Piano non troppo, Yotcmdr, Kingpin13,
Ulric1313, Rental Brain, Materialscientist, Jonathan.du, 90 Auto, Citation bot, Veltlord, Frankenpuppy, ArthurBot, Bencmq, Madalibi,
Xqbot, Niatia, Night w, Drewnipples, Capricorn42, Estlandia~enwiki, Hillkaylan, AndrejD, Jeffrey Mall, DSisyphBot, Teamjenn, Keepinitalive95, Uchiha.sakura357, Catwho, Belmontian37, Louis331, GrouchoBot, Riotrocket8676, AlecStewart, Frankie0607, Jamesrnorwood,
Jeremypkc, All roads lead to home, Lukalde, Shadowjams, Astatine-210, E0steven, Erik9, Food64, Dougofborg, Thewikipopo, MultiPoly, GT5162, Wikipe-tan, Sanpitch, D'ohBot, Aryoerg, ShinyTool, Weetoddid, Rkr1991, Ben rox, Mitchell prentice97, Serenafiona,
Tetraedycal, Robo37, Chinawes, Chrisning2000, Cannolis, Foxx63, Pinethicket, Highest Heights, DiscreteIllusion, Calmer Waters, Longtimeno, Haddenranga, RedBot, Pikiwyn, MondalorBot, SpaceFlight89, Σ, Honey150, Jujutacular, Barras, Pristino, Reconsider the static,
MongolGurkha, Kgrad, Elekhh, January, Capt. James T. Kirk, ZhBot, Josh.murray5, DJTrickyM, Reach Out to the Truth, DARTH SIDI-
13.2
Images
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OUS 2, Geekatron, Difu Wu, RjwilmsiBot, LarryHookins, Kinkose, Noommos, Matthewt97, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot,
Chloelollm, Immunize, Ndkl, Osiriscorleone, Jerretc4, Pducks32, Syncategoremata, RA0808, RenamedUser01302013, Littkebro47, Runner1234565, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, Uberdude98, Yinghuo 1, DaAwesome1, Bongoramsey, Fæ, Nitendo64, Confession0791, Wayne
Slam, Labnoor, Joshua Doubek, Brandmeister, Wikiwriter80132, Senjuto, Johnloveday, Evaristé93, Xiaoyu of Yuxi, Puffin, Blitzer Van
Susterwolf, ChuispastonBot, DASHBotAV, ClueBot NG, LauraJaneButcher, Ronakshah1990, Noahlo06, Macarenses, Movses-bot, Etertingt, JesseW900, Olivia99lee, Tourdechinacn, Adwiii, Helpful Pixie Bot, GeoffreySuchart, MonkeyTop, Xluke333, Gmcbjames, ElphiBot,
Davidiad, Cold Season, Earth Wikipedian, CitationCleanerBot, Harizotoh9, Hamish59, A1candidate, R3venans, Guanaco55, OSGondar,
Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, Leon petrosyan, Shgür Datsügen, LPS.1, Giovannigiulio, Milicevic01, Mr. Lama, Mandruss, Monkbot, Cartakes, CharlieOQ and Anonymous: 1456
13.2
Images
• File:China_edcp_relief_location_map.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/China_edcp_relief_
location_map.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Uwe Dedering
• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
• File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Red_pog.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/0c/Red_pog.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
• File:Soldier_Horse.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Soldier_Horse.JPG License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Subdivisions_of_Xi'an-China.png Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Subdivisions_of_Xi%
27an-China.png License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: ASDFGHJ (talk)
• File:Terra_Cotta_Warriors,_Guardians_of_China’s_First_Emperor.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/7/72/Terra_Cotta_Warriors%2C_Guardians_of_China%E2%80%99s_First_Emperor.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors:
http://www.flickr.com/photos/drbeachvacation/4116010987/in/photostream/ Original artist: (cc) Shashi Bellamkonda www.shashi.name
• File:Terra_Cotta_Warriors,_Guardians_of_China’s_First_Emperor_1.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/b/bc/Terra_Cotta_Warriors%2C_Guardians_of_China%E2%80%99s_First_Emperor_1.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors:
http://www.flickr.com/photos/drbeachvacation/4116011035/ Original artist: (cc) Shashi Bellamkonda www.shashi.name
• File:Terracotta_Army,_View_of_Pit_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Terracotta_Army%2C_
View_of_Pit_1.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jmhullot
• File:Terracotta_Army-China2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Terracotta_Army-China2.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: my father-in-law took the picture and let me upload it to commons.wikimedia.org under GFDL Original
artist: see source
• File:Terracotta_Army_Pit_1_-_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Terracotta_Army_Pit_1_-_2.
jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Maros M r a z (Maros)
• File:Terracotta_Warriors_Exhibition_San_Francisco_2013.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/
Terracotta_Warriors_Exhibition_San_Francisco_2013.jpg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: LPS.1
• File:Terracotta_warriors_museum.JPG Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Terracotta_warriors_
museum.JPG License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Charlie
• File:Tomb_of_Emperor_Qin_Shi_Huang.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Tomb_of_Emperor_
Qin_Shi_Huang.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/-wit-/239198883/ Original artist: wit
• File: 世界遗产中文标识.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E9%81%
97%E4%BA%A7%E4%B8%AD%E6%96%87%E6%A0%87%E8%AF%86.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: UNESCO; Designer: Michel Olyff. Uploaded by Siyuwj
13.3
Content license
• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0