AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: GEOGRAPHY......................................................................................................... 1
Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 1
Geographic Divisions .............................................................................................................. 1
Topographic Features .............................................................................................................. 2
Climate..................................................................................................................................... 3
Bodies of Water ....................................................................................................................... 4
Rivers and Lakes .............................................................................................................. 4
The Caspian Sea ............................................................................................................... 4
Population and Cities ............................................................................................................... 5
Baku .................................................................................................................................. 5
Gäncä (Ganja) ................................................................................................................... 6
Sumqayit ........................................................................................................................... 7
Mingäçevir ........................................................................................................................ 8
Naxçivan City ................................................................................................................... 8
Environmental Concerns ......................................................................................................... 9
Natural Hazards ..................................................................................................................... 10
Chapter 1 Assessment ............................................................................................................ 12
CHAPTER 2: HISTORY .............................................................................................................. 13
Introduction............................................................................................................................ 13
Prehistory ............................................................................................................................... 14
Early History.......................................................................................................................... 14
Islam, the Seljuk Dynasty, and the Mongols ......................................................................... 15
15th Century–Early 20th Century.......................................................................................... 16
The Russian Empire ............................................................................................................... 16
The Azerbaijan Democratic Republic ................................................................................... 17
Soviet Dominance .................................................................................................................. 18
Ethnic Tensions ..................................................................................................................... 19
The Nagorno-Karabakh War ................................................................................................. 19
Political Chaos ....................................................................................................................... 20
The Aliyev Era ....................................................................................................................... 21
Azerbaijan Today................................................................................................................... 22
Chapter 2 Assessment ............................................................................................................ 24
CHAPTER 3: ECONOMY ........................................................................................................... 25
Introduction............................................................................................................................ 25
Agriculture ............................................................................................................................. 26
Industry and Manufacturing .................................................................................................. 27
Energy and Mineral Resources .............................................................................................. 28
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Energy............................................................................................................................. 28
Minerals .......................................................................................................................... 29
Trade and Investment ............................................................................................................ 30
Transportation ........................................................................................................................ 31
Tourism .................................................................................................................................. 31
Banking and Finance ............................................................................................................. 32
Standard of Living and Employment ..................................................................................... 33
Economic Outlook ................................................................................................................. 34
Chapter 3 Assessment ............................................................................................................ 36
CHAPTER 4: SOCIETY .............................................................................................................. 37
Introduction............................................................................................................................ 37
Ethnic Groups and Language................................................................................................. 38
Azeris .............................................................................................................................. 38
Kurds .............................................................................................................................. 38
Lezgins (Dagestani) ........................................................................................................ 39
Russians and Armenians................................................................................................. 39
Tats ................................................................................................................................. 40
Talysh ............................................................................................................................. 40
Religion.................................................................................................................................. 41
Islam ............................................................................................................................... 41
Christianity ..................................................................................................................... 42
Judaism ........................................................................................................................... 43
Cuisine ................................................................................................................................... 43
Traditional Dress ................................................................................................................... 44
Gender Issues ......................................................................................................................... 45
Literature ........................................................................................................................ 46
Music .............................................................................................................................. 47
Folk Culture and Folklore ...................................................................................................... 48
Sports and Recreation ............................................................................................................ 49
Chapter 4 Assessment ............................................................................................................ 51
CHAPTER 5: SECURITY............................................................................................................ 52
Introduction............................................................................................................................ 52
U.S.-Azerbaijani Relations .................................................................................................... 53
Relations with Neighboring Countries .................................................................................. 54
Armenia .......................................................................................................................... 54
Georgia ........................................................................................................................... 54
Iran .................................................................................................................................. 55
Russia ............................................................................................................................. 56
Turkey............................................................................................................................. 58
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Military .................................................................................................................................. 59
Police ..................................................................................................................................... 60
Terrorist Groups..................................................................................................................... 60
Issues Affecting Security ....................................................................................................... 62
Nagorno-Karabakh ......................................................................................................... 62
Democratic and Business Reforms ................................................................................. 62
Outlook .................................................................................................................................. 64
Chapter 5 Assessment ............................................................................................................ 66
FINAL ASSESSMENT ................................................................................................................ 67
FURTHER READING ................................................................................................................. 69
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
CHAPTER 1: GEOGRAPHY
Introduction
Azerbaijan lies on the eastern side of the South Caucasus,
which is part of the mountainous region that separates the
Black Sea and Caspian Sea. The country is bordered by the
Caspian Sea to the east, Iran to the south, Armenia to the
west, and Georgia and Russia to the north. 1 Azerbaijan also
holds a number of exclaves (regions separated from the main
portion of the country). The largest and most significant of
these exclaves is Naxçivan, which is separated from the rest
of Azerbaijan by the rugged mountains of southern Armenia. Iran lies to the south of Naxçivan,
with the Aras River separating the two regions. At the far western edge of Naxçivan lies a short
stretch of border with Turkey, where the Aras River again is the boundary. 2, 3
Geographic Divisions
Although Azerbaijan is smaller than the state of Maine, it is
nonetheless a nation of diverse terrain. 4 Approximately half of the
nation is covered by mountains. To the north lie the mountains of the
Greater Caucasus; the Lesser Caucasus Range lies to the south and
west. The slopes of the mountains are a mixture of forest and
pastureland, except for in the extreme northeast near the Caspian Sea.
Here, the soil is less fertile and the mountains slope into an arid
plain. 5, 6 These mountain ranges are separated by a central lowland
region that serves as the drainage area for the Aras and Kura rivers.
Much of the eastern portion of the Aras-Kura Lowlands lies beneath
sea level. 7, 8
1
Central Intelligence Agency, “Azerbaijan: Geography,” in The World Factbook, 24 August 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/aj.html
2
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Azerbaijan,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/46781/Azerbaijan
3
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Naxçivan,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/402081/Naxcivan
4
David C. King, Azerbaijan: Cultures of the World (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2006), 5.
5
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Azerbaijan: Relief, Drainage, and Soils,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/46781/Azerbaijan
6
David C. King, Azerbaijan: Cultures of the World (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2006), 7–8.
7
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Azerbaijan: Relief, Drainage, and Soils,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/46781/Azerbaijan
8
Your-Vector-Maps.com, “Azerbaijan,” n.d., http://www.your-vector-maps.com/countries/-azerbaijan/?imagelist=lazer
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
At the far southeastern corner of Azerbaijan are the northernmost reaches of the Talysh
Mountains, which run roughly parallel to the Caspian Sea coast and extend southeast into Iran. 9,
10
Between the Talysh Mountains and the Caspian Sea is a coastal region known as the Länkäran
Lowlands, which merge into the Aras-Kura Lowlands to the north. 11
Just east of the high peaks of the Greater Caucasus Mountains lies the Abşeron Peninsula, which
extends 60 km (37 mi) into the Caspian Sea. 12 The narrow marine plain of the Abşeron Peninsula
contains both Baku, Azerbaijan’s capital and largest city, and Sumqayit, the nation’s third-largest
city and one of the world’s most polluted cities. 13
To Azerbaijan’s far northeast is a coastal lowlands area lying between the northern slopes of the
Greater Caucasus Mountains and the Caspian Sea. By the most common definition of continental
landmasses, this northeastern section of Azerbaijan is the only part of the country that lies within
Europe. 14
Topographic Features
The Greater Caucasus Mountains dominate the northern
region of Azerbaijan, where the country’s highest points are
found. Bazardüzüdağ, whose peak lies on the RussianAzerbaijani border, is the nation’s highest point at 4,485 m
(14,715 ft). 15 Nearby, and only slightly lower in elevation,
are the peaks of Shahdağ at 4,243 m (13,921 ft) and Tufandağ
at 4,197 m (13,770 ft). 16, 17
To the southwest, many of the highest peaks of the Lesser
Caucasus Mountains are either within the Azerbaijani region occupied by Armenia (NagornoKarabakh and adjacent areas to the west and south) or near the cease-fire line. Straddling the
Naxçivan-Armenia border region, the southeastern end of the Lesser Caucasus Mountains
includes the Zangezur Range. The highest point of this range is Kaputjukh at 3,904 m (12,808
9
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Azerbaijan: Relief, Drainage, and Soils,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/46781/Azerbaijan
10
David C. King, Azerbaijan: Cultures of the World (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2006), 7–8.
11
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Azerbaijan: Relief, Drainage, and Soils,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/46781/Azerbaijan
12
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Abşeron Peninsula,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1724/Abseron-Peninsula#
13
Bryan Walsh, “The World’s Most Polluted Places: Sumgayit, Azerbaijan,” Time, 12 September 2007,
http://www.time.com/time/specials/2007/article/0,28804,1661031_1661028_1661024,00.html
14
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Europe: Introduction,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/195686/Europe#
15
Central Intelligence Agency, “Field Listing: Elevation Extremes,” in The World Factbook, 24 August 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2020.html
16
Geographic Names, “Tufandağ: Azerbaijan,” 2 February 1999,
http://geographic.org/geographic_names/name.php?uni=537932&fid=271&c=azerbaijan
17
GeoNames, “Azerbaijan: Highest Mountains,” n.d., http://www.geonames.org/AZ/highest-mountains-inazerbaijan.html
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ft), a peak that lies astride the border. Nearby is Gamigaya, which rises 3,726 m (12,224 ft), a
remote mountain peak known for the ancient rock drawings on its cliffs. 18, 19, 20
Climate
Most of eastern and central Azerbaijan has a dry subtropical climate,
with mild winters and hot, mostly dry summers that may last for 4–5
months. 21, 22 Average summer temperatures in this region are 27˚C
(80.6˚F); highs above 37.8˚C (100˚F) are not uncommon. 23, 24 The
regions near the Caspian Sea tend to be the driest, with annual rainfall
totals averaging between 20.3 and 30.5 cm (8 and 12 in). 25 But to the
far southeast, this precipitation trend changes dramatically in the
Länkäran Lowlands. Here, rainfall averages between 120 and 140 cm
(47 and 55 in), producing climatic conditions suitable for the
cultivation of crops such as tea and cotton. 26, 27
Inland regions experience colder winters than the coastal regions. 28 In
the Greater and Lesser Caucasus ranges, winter snowfalls can keep mountain passes closed for
several months per year. 29 At elevations above 3,048 m (10,000 ft), the climate in these high
mountain regions is similar to that of tundra. Annual precipitation in the foothills of the mountain
areas is higher than in the adjacent central and eastern lowlands, with the highest rainfall totals
occurring in a strip of foothills running southeast from the Georgian-Russian border into
Azerbaijan. 30
18
Embassy of the Republic of Azerbaijan in Jordan, “Geography,” 2012,
http://www.azembassyjo.org/ConentPages/Contents.aspx?menuid=6&entryid=6
19
GeoNames, “Azerbaijan: Highest Mountains,” n.d., http://www.geonames.org/AZ/highest-mountains-inazerbaijan.html
20
Gemiqaya, “Topography of Gamigaya Drawings and a Legend of Nuh,” 2004,
http://gemiqaya.nakhchivan.az/gemienglish/efsane.html
21
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Azerbaijan: The Land: Climate,” 2012
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/46781/Azerbaijan#
22
David C. King, Azerbaijan: Cultures of the World (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2006), 11.
23
David C. King, Azerbaijan: Cultures of the World (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2006), 11–12.
24
Embassy of the Republic of Azerbaijan in Jordan, “Geography,” 2012,
http://www.azembassyjo.org/ConentPages/Contents.aspx?menuid=6&entryid=6
25
David C. King, Azerbaijan: Cultures of the World (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2006), 11.
26
David C. King, Azerbaijan: Cultures of the World (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2006), 11.
27
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Azerbaijan: The Land: Climate,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/46781/Azerbaijan#
28
Embassy of the Republic of Azerbaijan in Jordan, “Geography,” 2012,
http://www.azembassyjo.org/ConentPages/Contents.aspx?menuid=6&entryid=6
29
David C. King, Azerbaijan: Cultures of the World (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2006), 12.
30
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Azerbaijan: The Land: Climate,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/46781/Azerbaijan#
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Bodies of Water
Rivers and Lakes
Azerbaijan has more than 1,000 rivers, but two in particular—
the Kura and the Aras—dominate the nation’s landscape and
support large-scale irrigation. The longest river is the Kura,
which flows 1,364 km (848 mi) from its headwaters in
northeastern Turkey to its mouth in the Caspian Sea. 31 The
river enters Azerbaijan near the point where the Armenian,
Georgian, and Azerbaijani borders meet and thereafter flows
southeastward toward the Caspian Sea. Near the middle of its
passage through Azerbaijan, the Kura fills the Mingäçevir Reservoir behind a large hydroelectric
dam built in 1953. Numerous reservoirs have been built on the river to manage irrigation, control
floods, and provide hydroelectric power. 32
The Aras River forms the border between Armenia and Azerbaijan. Near the town of Sabirabad
in the eastern lowlands and about 121 km (75 mi) from the Caspian Sea, the Aras River flows
into the Kura River. 33 Well before this junction, the two rivers are connected by the Upper
Kabarakh irrigation canal, which is fed with water from the Mingäçevir Reservoir. 34 Like the
Kura, the Aras River originates in the eastern Turkish highlands, marking the boundary between
Naxçivan and Armenia. 35
There are approximately 250 natural lakes in Azerbaijan, but none of them is significant,
especially when compared with the country’s large reservoirs. Lake Hajikabul, located near the
eastern lowland city of Āli Bayramlı, is the nation’s largest lake, with an area of 15.5 sq km (6 sq
mi). 36
The Caspian Sea
The Caspian Sea, the world’s largest inland body of water, is a
vast salt lake that forms 713 km (443 mi) of Azerbaijan’s
border along the Abşeron Peninsula. 37, 38 The lake is an
31
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Kura River,” 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/325135/KuraRiver#
32
Farda A. Imanov, “Water Infrastructure of Kura River Basin Within Azerbaijan” (paper, International Congress
on River Basin Management, 2007), 99–101, http://www2.dsi.gov.tr/english/congress2007/chapter_1/08.pdf
33
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Aras River,” 2012, http://p2.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/32145/ArasRiver
34
Aquastat, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, “Azerbaijan,” 2009,
http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions/AZE/index.stm
35
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Aras River,” 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/32145/ArasRiver
36
David C. King, Azerbaijan: Cultures of the World (Tarrytown, N.Y: Marshall Cavendish, 2006), 9.
37
Central Intelligence Agency, “Azerbaijan: Geography,” in The World Factbook, 24 August 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/aj.html
38
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Caspian Sea,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/98044/Caspian-Sea
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important economic resource, providing nearly 80% of the world’s sturgeon catch and its highly
valued caviar. Oil and natural gas are also significant resources in the Caspian Sea region. For
the capital of Baku, the Caspian provides an important transportation route for the region’s
products. Many products are ferried from several port cities along the Caspian coast before being
loaded onto railway cars for transit through the nation. 39
Population and Cities
City
Population Estimate 2011 40
Baku
2,122,300
Gäncä (Ganja)
321,100
Sumqayit
318,700
Mingäçevir
(Mingechevir)
98,800
Naxçivan City
86,400
Baku
Baku, Azerbaijan’s capital city, is the largest city in the Caucasus region. 41 Its population of
more than 2 million people overshadows that of all other Azerbaijani cities. Although Baku has
long been settled and is located on a natural harbor of the Caspian Sea, its explosive population
growth came during the late 19th century when it became the center of one of the world’s first oil
rushes. 42
Baku has been associated with oil since ancient times when caravans from around the world
came to Baku to trade for oil. 43, 44 In 1806, Baku and the Abşeron Peninsula became (once again)
part of the Russian Empire, and 40 years later, the first modern oil well was drilled near Baku. 45,
39
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Caspian Sea,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/98044/Caspian-Sea
40
The State Statistical Committee of the Republic of Azerbaijan, “Demographic Indicators: Economic and
Administrative Regions and Towns: Size of Population by Sex by Economic and Administrative Regions, Towns
Urban Settlements at the Beginning of 2011,” 2012, http://www.azstat.org/statinfo/demoqraphic/en/index.shtml#
41
Richard Plunkett and Tom Masters, Lonely Planet: Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan, 2d ed. (Footscray, Victoria,
Australia: Lonely Planet Publications, 2004), 198.
42
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Baku,” 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/49640/Baku
43
Faig Nasibov, “History of the City of Baku: Part I,” Window to Baku, 15 October 2004,
http://www.window2baku.com/eng/9001history_1.htm
44
Lonely Planet, “Baku: History,” 2012, http://www.lonelyplanet.com/azerbaijan/baku-baki/history
45
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Baku,” 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/49640/Baku
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
46
During the 1870s, the Russian government began auctioning Baku oil reserves to private
parties, thus triggering an oil rush that brought in representatives from oil firms throughout
Europe and Russia. 47 By the turn of the century, half of the world’s oil came from wells around
Baku. 48, 49
Because of the influx of foreigners and outsiders and the huge
disparity of wealth among its residents—demonstrated by the
contrast between the slum dwellings of oil field workers and
the grand mansions of the oil barons—Baku became a hotbed
of ethnic conflict and labor unrest in the early 20th century.
The Bolshevik wing of the Russian Social Democratic Labor
Party, which later transformed into the Communist Party of the
Soviet Union, was very active in the city during this time. Yet
control of the city was wrested from the Bolsheviks in September 1918, and Baku became the
capital of the short-lived Azerbaijan Democratic Republic. In April 1920, the Red Army
marched into the city, launching Azerbaijan’s Soviet era. 50, 51
Baku’s importance as an oil center declined during the second half of the 20th century as the
Soviet Union pursued new oil ventures in Siberia. But since Azerbaijan regained its
independence in 1991, Baku’s economy has recovered because of large amounts of foreign
investment in the area’s onshore and offshore oil resources. 52
Gäncä (Ganja)
Azerbaijan’s second-largest city is Gäncä, which is located in
the western region of the country on a tributary of the Kura
River. Known as Kirovabad during the Soviet era, Gäncä lies
at the center of a rich agricultural region that supplies cotton
for the city’s textile factories and food crops for its processing
plants. The city, which became a semi-industrial center during
the Soviet era, has one of Azerbaijan’s two aluminum industry
plants. 53
46
Mir Yusif Mir-Babayev, “Azerbaijan’s Oil History: A Chronology Leading Up to the Soviet Era,” Azerbaijan
International 10, no. 2 (Summer 2002),
http://www.azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai102_folder/102_articles/102_oil_chronology.html
47
Faig Nasibov, “History of the City of Baku: Part III,” Window to Baku, 15 October 2004,
http://www.window2baku.com/eng/9001history_3.htm
48
Faig Nasibov, “Baku and Oil: The Period of Industrial Oil Extraction,” Window to Baku, 15 October 2004,
http://www.window2baku.com/eng/9oil2.htm
49
Lonely Planet, “Baku: History,” 2012, http://www.lonelyplanet.com/azerbaijan/baku-baki/history
50
Mark Elliott, Azerbaijan, with Excursions to Georgia, 2nd ed. (Hindhead, Surrey, UK: Trailblazer Publications,
2001), 42–43.
51
Lonely Planet, “Baku: History,” 2012, http://www.lonelyplanet.com/azerbaijan/baku-baki/history
52
Lonely Planet, “Baku: History,” 2012, http://www.lonelyplanet.com/azerbaijan/baku-baki/history
53
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Gäncä,” 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/225148/Ganca
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Gäncä’s long history includes several incidents in which the city was leveled by various forces,
either human (invading Persians, Arabs, and Mongols) or natural (an earthquake in 1139 C.E.). 54
For a brief period in 1918, the city was the capital of the newly created Azerbaijan Democratic
Republic, until Baku was wrested from Bolshevik control by a combined force of Ottoman Turks
and Azerbaijani volunteers. 55 The city’s most famous local writers are the12th-century poets
Nizami Gänjävi and Mehsati Gänjävi. 56, 57
Sumqayit
Sumqayit is located on the northern coast of the Abşeron
Peninsula, roughly 30 km (18.6 mi) from Baku. The city was
founded in 1944 as an industrial hub for the Soviet war effort,
and, fueled by the oil and natural gas fields around Baku, it
quickly grew into a major chemical and metallurgical industrial
center. 58 During the height of the industrial development of
Sumqayit, environmental safeguards were minimized for the
sake of production quotas, and the city subsequently suffered
the effects of rampant pollution. Birth defects and first-year deaths of children in Sumqayit have
long exceeded average levels, and at one point, the city had the world’s highest infant mortality
rate. 59, 60 Cancer rates in the area continue to be 22%–51% higher than those in other regions of
Azerbaijan, a phenomenon that contributes to the city’s frequent inclusion on lists of the world’s
most polluted places. 61, 62 Even upbeat tourism guides today describe the city as a “dystopian
industrial nightmare” and “environmental wasteland.” 63, 64
Many of the worst-polluting industries in Sumqayit closed down during the nation’s post-Soviet
recession. But despite such closures, the city’s population has continued to grow, in part because
many internally displaced Azerbaijanis from Nagorno-Karabakh and surrounding regions under
Armenian control have relocated to the area. In 1988, a pogrom (an organized ethnic attack)
directed against Armenians in Sumqayit violently escalated the mounting political crisis over the
54
Mark Elliott, Azerbaijan, with Excursions to Georgia, 2nd ed. (Hindhead, Surrey, UK: Trailblazer Publications,
2001), 232–33.
55
Mark Elliott, Azerbaijan, with Excursions to Georgia, 2nd ed. (Hindhead, Surrey, UK: Trailblazer Publications,
2001), 232.
56
Fuad Akhundov, “Literary Monuments of Baku: Tribute to a City of Poetry Lovers,” Azerbaijan International 4,
no. 1 (Spring 1996), http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/41_folder/41_articles/41_litymonuments.html
57
M. Saadat Noury, “Some Remarkable Moments with Mahsati Ganjavi,” Iranian.com, 29 August 2010,
http://www.iranian.com/main/blog/m-saadat-noury/some-remarkable-moments-mahsati-ganjavi
58
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Sumqayıt,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/573472/Sumqayit
59
Mark Elliott, Azerbaijan, with Excursions to Georgia, 2nd ed. (Hindhead, Surrey, UK: Trailblazer Publications,
2001), 150.
60
Azerb.com, “Sumgait (Sumqayit),” n.d., http://www.azerb.com/az-sumgait.html
61
David Biello, “World’s Top 10 Most Polluted Places,” Scientific American, 13 September 2007,
http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=worlds-top-10-most-polluted-places
62
Green Buzz, “8 of the World’s Most Polluted Places,” 19 August 2011, http://green-buzz.net/environment/8-ofthe-worlds-most-polluted-places/
63
Richard Plunkett and Tom Masters, Lonely Planet: Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan, 2d ed. (Footscray, Victoria,
Australia: Lonely Planet Publications, 2004), 215.
64
Azerb.com, “Sumgait (Sumqayit),” n.d., http://www.azerb.com/az-sumgait.html
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status of Nagorno-Karabakh. 65 It has been estimated that about 593,000 persons are internally
displaced in Azerbaijan. 66
Mingäçevir
The Mingäçevir region has been inhabited for at least 5,000 years. 67 The construction of
Azerbaijan’s largest dam and hydroelectric plant provides the foundation for the current city of
Mingäçevir. Thousands of people came to the area in the late 1940s to build the dam, and the city
of Mingäçevir formed downstream from the dam site on the Kura River. The dam was completed
in 1953, and since then, the city’s light industry (textiles, consumer goods, household items) has
used the abundant hydroelectric power to help spur the local economy. 68, 69 The dam is especially
important for flood control and irrigation management, along with the production of
hydroelectric power. The city’s dam is the most extensive in the nation. 70, 71, 72
Naxçivan City
As the capital of the Naxçivan Autonomous Republic, an
exclave of Azerbaijan, Naxçivan City is the most isolated of
the country’s large cities. Besides its geographical separation,
the region is further isolated from the rest of Azerbaijan by
travel restrictions through Armenia or Armenian-controlled
areas of Azerbaijan. 73 Thus, Naxçivan City residents have
access to only two land border crossings: one to the northwest
on the Turkish border and another to the southeast into Iran.
During the late 1980s and early 1990s, when Naxçivan was briefly threatened by Armenian
forces, the exclave was led by Naxçivan native Heydar Aliyev, who later served as president of
Azerbaijan for more than a decade. 74, 75
65
Thomas de Waal, “The Nagorny Karabakh Conflict: Origins, Dynamics and Misperceptions,” Conciliation
Resources, 2005, http://www.c-r.org/our-work/accord/nagorny-karabakh/origins-dynamics-misperceptions.php
66
Central Intelligence Agency, “Azerbaijan: Transnational Issues,” in The World Factbook, 24 August 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/aj.html
67
Maps of World, “Facts About Mingechivir,” 2012, http://travel.mapsofworld.com/azerbaijan/mingechivirtravel/facts-about-mingechivir.html
68
Azerb.com, “Mingechaur (Mingachavir/Mingecevir),” n.d., http://www.azerb.com/az-mingechaur.html
69
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Mingäçevir,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/383919/Mingacevir
70
Speedy Look, “Mingacevir,” 2008, http://www.myetymology.com/encyclopedia/Mingacevir.html
71
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Mingäçevir,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/383919/Mingacevir
72
Aquastat, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, “Azerbaijan,” 2008,
http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions/azerbaijan/index.stm
73
NationMaster.com, “Government Statistics: Azerbaijan,” 2012,
http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/gov_tra_iss_dis_int-government-transnational-issues-disputes-international
74
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Heydar Aliyev,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/15431/Heydar-Aliyev
75
TimeRime, “Heydar Aliyev: National Leader of Azerbaijani People,” 2010,
http://timerime.com/en/timeline/948230/HEYDAR+ALIYEV++NATIONAL+LEADER+OF+AZERBAIJANI+PEOPLE/
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
Naxçivan City lies on a plateau adjoining the Aras River near the Araz Su Reservoir, created by
a large hydroelectric dam. Grain, tobacco, cotton, and fruit are cultivated on nearby irrigated
lands. 76 Naxçivan City has suffered economic decline since Azerbaijani independence, largely
because of the Armenian-enforced blockade between it and the rest of the nation. The city has a
limited light industrial base consisting of mining, food processing, cotton ginning, and the
production of furniture and silk textiles. 77, 78
Environmental Concerns
Like other former republics of the Soviet Union, Azerbaijan
has no shortage of environmental problems. The nation’s
tainted environmental legacy largely stems from the poor
condition of the Abşeron Peninsula, where years of quick and
cheap exploitation of oil reserves have left pools of oil and
sludge on land and oil slicks that wash onto the beaches. 79
Labeled the most ecologically devastated area in the world,
the peninsula suffers from air, water, and soil pollution. Air
pollution arises largely from oil plants and refineries, engine exhaust, and the burning of waste
and garbage. Untreated waste from many of the nation’s factories is dumped directly into rivers
and the rising salinity of the Caspian Sea has seeped into water tables. Oil spills, DDT, and toxic
defoliants used in the nation’s cotton industry are largely responsible for toxic soil levels and
pollution.80, 81
Efforts have been made to clean up lingering soil and water pollutants and to mitigate the
dangers caused by hazardous wastes that continue to be generated by working factories. But
economic considerations have often worked against the cleanup effort. For example, the World
Bank worked with the Azerbaijani government to fund a disposal site near Sumqayit for
mercury-laden industrial waste. But there have been several reports that some factories are not
using it because they cannot afford the site’s usage fees. 82, 83
76
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Nakhichevan,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/402081/Nakhichevan#
77
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Nakhichevan,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/402081/Nakhichevan#
78
Azerb.com, “Nakhchivan City (Naxcivan),” n.d., http://www.azerb.com/az-nakhchivan-city.html
79
David C. King, Azerbaijan: Cultures of the World (Tarrytown, N.Y: Marshall Cavendish, 2006), 45.
80
Central Intelligence Agency, “Azerbaijan: Geography,” in The World Factbook, 24 August 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/aj.html
81
“Overview: Major Environmental Issues in Azerbaijan,” Azerbaijan International 2, no. 3 (Autumn 1994),
http://www.azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/23_folder/23_articles/23_overview.html
82
Kieran Cooke, “Azerbaijan’s Post-Industrial Hangover,” BBC News, 1 May 2005,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4498319.stm
83
Khadija Ismayilova, “Sumgayit Journal: With More Jobs, More Smog,” EurasiaNet.org, 25 October 2007,
http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav102607.shtml#
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
The country is working toward improving its environment. Laws are now in place to protect the
environment, and monitoring efforts have increased. But budgetary constraints indicate that the
nation is likely to make little progress in the near future. 84
Natural Hazards
Azerbaijan lies in an active seismic zone and has frequently
been struck by earthquakes. In November 2000, Baku was
rocked by two successive jolts registering 5.9 and 6.3 on the
Richter scale. As a result of the quake, 26 Baku residents died
and 412 others required medical attention. 85 Nineteen
earthquakes struck the country in 2011, most of which were in
the north along the nation’s border with Russia. On 7 May
2012, the country saw its largest earthquake of the year
(magnitude 5.6) near Zaqatala. 86
The most seismically active zone, where most earthquakes have occurred, is along the Caucasus
Mountains from the Black to the Caspian seas. Two major faults lie there. Increased buildup of
tension in the country’s central region could lead to a devastating earthquake similar to the one in
1859, which destroyed much of the region. Data show that the city of Baku, the oil reserves, and
the Caspian Sea could be threatened. 87
The country is also afflicted with other types of natural disasters, including floods and
landslides. 88 Floods are the most common natural hazard in the nation followed by earthquakes.
In May 2003, several cities in northern Azerbaijan suffered landslides after intensive rainstorms;
at the same time, thousands of homes in cities along the Kura River were flooded. 89, 90 In 2010,
the nation experienced several weeks of intense flooding in the central region. 91 Avalanches in
the Greater Caucasus and in the Naxçivan Autonomous Republic are not uncommon. 92
84
UN Economic Commission for Europe, “Azerbaijan: Second Review” (Environmental Performance Reviews
Series No. 31, 2010), 17, http://aoa.ew.eea.europa.eu/tools/virtual_library/bibliography-details-eachassessment/answer_1963809823/w_assessment-upload/index_html?as_attachment:int=1
85
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, “Azerbaijan: Earthquake” (Emergency Appeal
No. 35/00, 6 December 2000), http://www.ifrc.org/docs/appeals/00/3500.pdf
86
Earthquake Track, “Recent Earthquakes near Azerbaijan,” 2012, http://earthquaketrack.com/p/azerbaijan/recent
87
Jennifer Chu, “Researchers Find Building Seismic Strain in Azerbaijan,” MIT News, 14 June 2012,
http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2012/caspian-quake-threat-0614.html
88
PPRD East, “Risk Types by Partner Countries: Azerbaijan,” 2011, http://euroeastcp.eu/en/risk-types-by-partnercountries.html
89
Commission of the European Communities, “Commission Decision of Financing of on [sic] the Financing of
Humanitarian Actions in South Caucasus from the General Budget of the European Communities (Disaster Risk
Reduction/DIPECHO Action Plan)” (report, Brussels, 2009), 4–6
http://ec.europa.eu/echo/files/funding/opportunities/decision_dipecho_southcaucasus.pdf
90
Earth Observatory, “Flooding in Azerbaijan,” 5 May 2003,
http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/NaturalHazards/view.php?id=11490
91
PPRD East, “Risk Types by Partner Countries: Azerbaijan,” 2011, http://euroeastcp.eu/en/risk-types-by-partnercountries.html
92
PPRD East, “Risk Types by Partner Countries: Azerbaijan,” 2011, http://euroeastcp.eu/en/risk-types-by-partnercountries.html
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
Risk analysis studies reveal that both the frequency and the intensity of natural disasters are
increasing. Heavy winter snows melt during the spring, sometimes causing flash floods and
mudslides, particularly in the southern and northeastern slopes of the Greater Caucasus and the
southwest and northeastern slopes of the Lesser Caucasus. As the country continues to undergo
climate change, mudflows in the mountainous regions are likely to increase. 93
93
PPRD East, “Risk Types by Partner Countries: Azerbaijan,” 2011, http://euroeastcp.eu/en/risk-types-by-partnercountries.html
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
Chapter 1 Assessment
1. Azerbaijan has a number of exclaves, or territories that are separated from the main
portion of the country.
True
The largest and most important of these exclaves is the Naxçivan Autonomous Republic,
which is separated from the rest of Azerbaijan by the mountains of southern Armenia.
2. Most of eastern and central Azerbaijan has a cool and rainy climate.
False
Although southeastern Azerbaijan experiences significant precipitation, most of the
eastern and central regions of the country have a dry subtropical climate with mild
winters and hot, arid summers.
3. Of Azerbaijan’s many rivers, the Kura and the Aras are the most important in terms of
water supply and energy production.
True
The Kura and Aras rivers support the country’s large-scale irrigation projects; they fill
massive reservoirs contained by hydroelectric dams.
4. The Azerbaijani city of Baku has only recently developed its oil industry.
False
Baku has a long history of oil production. It was one of the major hubs of the world’s oil
industry in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
5. The city of Gäncä is located in an important agricultural region of western Azerbaijan.
True
The rich agricultural area surrounding Gäncä supplies cotton and produce for the city’s
textile and food processing plants.
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
CHAPTER 2: HISTORY
Introduction
Azerbaijan’s history is marked by conflict and political strife.
Located near overland routes that once linked Anatolia and the
Middle East with Central and Eastern Asia, the region has
experienced few prolonged periods of stability. 94 Its history
and culture reflect the influences of the many dynasties that
ruled the region. For centuries, the area of modern-day
Azerbaijan was linked with its namesake, a province in Iran.
Many historians believe that the name Azerbaijan derives from
the ancient Persian word for this region. 95 For stretches of its early history, Azerbaijan was
known by the name Albania, even though Azerbaijanis have no cultural or linguistic connections
with the Balkan nation. 96, 97 Turkish invaders also had a major influence on Azerbaijani culture,
with the Seljuks and Ottoman Turks ruling at various times. 98, 99, 100 The Soviets controlled
Azerbaijan from the early 18th century until the late 20th century, except for a brief period
(1918–1920) when Azerbaijan was an independent nation. The Red Army reconquered
Azerbaijan in 1920 and incorporated it into the Soviet Union. The nation regained its
independence in 1991 when the Soviet Union collapsed. 101
Thus, the Azerbaijani national identity developed late and is, in many ways, inconsistent. For
example, the modern Azerbaijani language is Turkish based, but the legendary poets of
Azerbaijan’s golden age wrote in Persian. Today, such disharmony continues. Some Azerbaijanis
wish to emphasize the Turkish elements of their national identity, while others favor a more
inclusive approach that acknowledges the region’s many cultural and ethnic influences. 102
94
Shireen T. Hunter, “The Evolution of the Foreign Policy of the Transcaucasian States,” in Crossroads and
Conflict: Security and Foreign Policy in the Caucasus and Central Asia, eds. Gary K. Bertsch et al. (New York:
Routledge, 2000), 37–38.
95
Tadeusz Swietochowski and Brian C. Collins, Historical Dictionary of Azerbaijan (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow
Press, 1999), 2.
96
Peace Corps, “The Peace Corps Welcomes You to Azerbaijan” (publication for new volunteers, 2012), 13,
http://files.peacecorps.gov/manuals/welcomebooks/azwb314.pdf
97
Gerald Robbins, Azerbaijan: The Growth and Influence of Islam in the Nations of Asia and Central Asia
(Philadelphia: Mason Crest Publishers, 2005), 29–30.
98
Tadeusz Swietochowski and Brian C. Collins, Historical Dictionary of Azerbaijan (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow
Press, 1999), 3–4.
99
Peace Corps, “The Peace Corps Welcomes You to Azerbaijan” (publication for new volunteers, 2012), 14,
http://files.peacecorps.gov/manuals/welcomebooks/azwb314.pdf
100
Gerald Robbins, Azerbaijan: The Growth and Influence of Islam in the Nations of Asia and Central Asia
(Philadelphia: Mason Crest Publishers, 2005), 31–32.
101
Jim Nichol, “Azerbaijan: Recent Developments and U.S. Interests” (report, Congressional Research Service, 29
June 2012), 1, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/97-522.pdf
102
Shireen T. Hunter, “The Evolution of the Foreign Policy of the Transcaucasian States,” in Crossroads and
Conflict: Security and Foreign Policy in the Caucasus and Central Asia, eds. Gary K. Bertsch et al. (New York:
Routledge, 2000), 37–38.
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
Prehistory
The Caucasus region is one of the cradles of human
civilization. In Azerbaijan, there are several sites of ancient
rock carvings that have been traced to the Stone Age through
Iron Age periods. Perhaps the best known of these sites is
Qobustan (located south of Baku on the Caspian coast), which
is famous for its petroglyphs of hunting scenes, animals,
constellations, boats, and other subjects. Some of these
carvings have been estimated to be 40,000 years old. In 2007,
the Qobustan Rock Art Cultural Landscape was designated a World Heritage Site, one of only
two such sites in Azerbaijan. (The other is the ancient Walled City of Baku.) 103
Early History
Very little is known about the societies that occupied the
region of modern-day Azerbaijan before the first millennium
B.C.E. According to ancient historical sources, the kingdom of
Media emerged during the 7th century B.C.E. when Cyaxares
united the tribes of ancient Iran and defeated the armies of
Assyria. Ultimately, the Median Empire extended into the
southernmost areas of modern Azerbaijan, most notably the
Naxçivan region. 104
The Median Empire quickly faded in the 6th century B.C.E. as another Iranian empire—the
Achaemenian Dynasty centered in Persis—usurped the power of their former Median overlords.
Led by Cyrus II (Cyrus the Great), the Persians forged a vast empire that included all of presentday Azerbaijan. 105, 106 The Persians imported the Zoroastrian religion, bridging ancient
polytheistic (multiple gods) religions and later monotheistic religions represented by Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam. 107
Around 330 B.C.E, the forces of Alexander the Great conquered the Achaemenian Empire and
destroyed its fabled capital, Persepolis. Before Alexander continued his conquests, he installed
loyal Persian satraps (governors) to oversee the former Achaemenian regions. One such ruler
was the Persian general Atropates, whose area of control was later named for him
(Atropatene). 108 This region constitutes the northern portion of modern Iran that was formerly
103
UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), “World Heritage List: Azerbaijan, 2012,
http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/
104
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Media,” 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/372125/Media
105
Gerald Robbins, Azerbaijan: The Growth and Influence of Islam in the Nations of Asia and Central Asia
(Philadelphia: Mason Crest Publishers, 2005), 28–29.
106 David C. King,
Azerbaijan: Cultures of the World (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2005), 18–19.
107
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Zoroastrianism,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/658081/Zoroastrianism#
108
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Azerbaijan,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/46770/Azerbaijan#
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
included in Azerbaijan. Many historians believe that the name Azerbaijan derives from the
Middle Persian word Aturpatakan, a form of the Greek word Atropatene. 109
To the north of Atropatene, a group of tribes called Albanians began to slowly unify under a
single ruler. 110, 111 But even as the tribes coalesced, external powers continued to exert influence
over the area. Among these powers were the Seleucid Greeks, the weakened successors to
Alexander’s empire, and, later, the Parthians, another dynasty from Iran. The Romans arrived in
the 1st century B.C.E. and made several incursions into the region. 112 In the 3rd century C.E., the
Albanian region was annexed by the Sassanids, the last of the pre-Islam Persian dynasties. 113, 114
Islam, the Seljuk Dynasty, and the Mongols
Arab invaders entered the Transcaucasus in the 7th century, bringing
their Islamic faith, which eventually replaced both Christianity and
Zoroastrianism. Although Islam became the predominant religion in
Azerbaijan, it was not universally accepted. In the 9th century, the nonMuslim Khorramites, led by Babek, began a popular uprising. For two
decades, both peasants and gentry rose in opposition to Arab rule, but
they were eventually defeated and Babek executed. 115, 116
The Arabs continued to rule the area of modern-day Azerbaijan until
the 11th century when the Seljuk Turks replaced them, ruling until the
13th century. During this time, the Azerbaijani language was created.
Its literary tradition grew to rival those of Persia and the rest of the
Muslim world. In the 13th century the Mongols poured into the region. In the late 14th century,
the Mongol leader Timur (Tamarlane) led a particularly bloody and vicious campaign,
destroying much of Azerbaijan and its infrastructure. 117
109
Encyclopædia Iranica, “Azerbaijan: Pre-Islamic History,” 18 August 2011,
http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/azerbaijan-iii
110
Encyclopædia Iranica, “Albania,” 18 August 2011, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/albania-iranian-aranarm
111
Gerald Robbins, Azerbaijan: The Growth and Influence of Islam in the Nations of Asia and Central Asia
(Philadelphia: Mason Crest Publishers, 2005), 29.
112
Encyclopædia Iranica, “Albania,” 18 August 2011, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/albania-iranian-aranarm
113
Encyclopædia Iranica, “Albania,” 18 August 2011, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/albania-iranian-aranarm
114
Gerald Robbins, Azerbaijan: The Growth and Influence of Islam in the Nations of Asia and Central Asia
(Philadelphia: Mason Crest Publishers, 2005), 30.
115
Gerald Robbins, Azerbaijan: The Growth and Influence of Islam in the Nations of Asia and Central Asia
(Philadelphia: Mason Crest Publishers, 2005), 30–31.
116
Tadeusz Swietochowski and Brian C. Collins, Historical Dictionary of Azerbaijan (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow
Press, 1999), 29–30.
117
Gerald Robbins, Azerbaijan: The Growth and Influence of Islam in the Nations of Asia and Central Asia
(Philadelphia: Mason Crest Publishers, 2005), 31–33.
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
15th Century–Early 20th Century
After Tamarlane died, a series of city-states, or khanates,
developed in the region. Often feuding among themselves,
these city-states remained fragmented. The Safavids, a Sufi
group originating in Persia, eventually defeated the khanates in
the 16th century. But the Ottoman Turks posed a serious threat
to the Safavids, and from 1580 to the early 1600s Ottoman
armies frequently seized control of areas of Azerbaijan. By
1612, the Safavids reclaimed the region. 118 These persistent
battles, as well as infighting among the Safavid elite, weakened the dynasty. 119 In 1722, invaders
from Afghanistan defeated the Safavids, ending their rule. 120
Taking advantage of the power vacuum, the forces of Peter the Great of Russia swept down from
the north, and in 1723 occupied the areas of Azerbaijan adjacent to the Caspian Sea. Twelve
years later, the Persian leader Nādir Shah expelled the Russians and began a brutal reign over the
region. 121, 122 After Nādir Shah’s assassination in 1747, Azerbaijan once again divided into
several khanates and sultanates that jockeyed for supremacy among each other throughout the
remainder of the 18th century. 123
The Russian Empire
In 1795, Russian troops captured the Shirkan khanate capital of Shamakha, but were quickly
forced out by Persian troops. The first Russo-Persian War (1804–1813) left the Russians in
control of all of modern-day Azerbaijan, with the exception of Naxçivan, which came under their
control during the second Russo-Persian War in the 1820s. The 1828 peace treaty split greater
Azerbaijan between the two empires. Today, this division continues to mark the border between
Iran to the south and Azerbaijan and Armenia to the north. 124 One effect of the Russian
annexation of these regions was an increase in the migration of ethnic Armenians from Persianand Ottoman-ruled areas to the Russian-controlled areas of Nagorno-Karabakh and modern-day
Armenia, where they felt safer. 125, 126, 127
118
Mark Elliot, Azerbaijan, with Excursions to Georgia, 2nd ed. (Hindhead, Surrey, UK: Trailblazer Publications,
2001), 41.
119
Gerald Robbins, Azerbaijan: The Growth and Influence of Islam in the Nations of Asia and Central Asia
(Philadelphia: Mason Crest Publishers, 2005), 33–35.
120
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Safavid Dynasty,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/516019/Safavid-dynasty#
121
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Nādir Shah,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/401451/Nadir-Shah#
122
Mark Elliot, Azerbaijan, with Excursions to Georgia, 2nd ed. (Hindhead, Surrey, UK: Trailblazer Publications,
2001), 41.
123
Mark Elliot, Azerbaijan, with Excursions to Georgia, 2nd ed. (Hindhead, Surrey, UK: Trailblazer Publications,
2001), 41.
124
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Azerbaijan: History: Russian Suzerainty,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/46781/Azerbaijan#
125
Stuart J. Kaufman, Modern Hatreds: The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press,
2001), 50.
126
Mark Elliot, Azerbaijan, with Excursions to Georgia, 2nd ed. (Hindhead, Surrey, UK: Trailblazer Publications,
2001), 42.
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
This division became significant as development in the north and south diverged. In the Russian
north, industrialization was rapid and Baku, the capital, became the center of an oil boom. The
oil boom in Baku, beginning in 1872, opened a new chapter in Azerbaijani history. Although the
Tsarist government in Moscow originally saw the region as only a remote outpost suitable for
political exiles, Azerbaijan suddenly became the major source of oil for all of Russia.
Azerbaijanis were quickly outnumbered and soon constituted less than half of the population of
Baku as ethnic Armenians flooded in to take advantage of jobs and the new oil wealth. 128, 129, 130,
131
During this period, the concept of an Azerbaijani identity began to take hold among urban
nationalists in Baku. Because the region had long been broken up into a number of local
kingdoms that were often subservient to larger empires, the native population saw themselves
first and foremost as Muslims rather than as any particular ethnic group. (At the time, the
Russians incorrectly referred to the native Muslims as Tatars.) As a political and economic
pecking order developed in Baku (placing Europeans on the top, Russians and Armenians in the
middle, and Azerbaijani Muslims at the bottom), ethnic divisions arose and ultimately erupted
into interethnic bloodshed between Armenians and Azerbaijanis in 1905 and in 1918. 132, 133
The Azerbaijan Democratic Republic
In the wake of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the removal of
Russian troops from the Caucasus region, Georgia, Armenia, and
Azerbaijan formed the Transcaucasian Federation. But the alliance fell
apart within a matter of months. Azerbaijan declared itself an
independent republic in May 1918, although the Bolsheviks continued
to control Baku, the economic heart of the country. 134
The battle for control of Baku is remembered today for the vicious
ethnic violence it unleashed. The Bolsheviks, allied with Armenian
soldiers, staged a massacre of thousands of Baku Muslims during their
capture of Baku in March 1918. In September of the same year, the
127
Gerald Robbins, Azerbaijan: The Growth and Influence of Islam in the Nations of Asia and Central Asia
(Philadelphia: Mason Crest Publishers, 2005), 34–35.
128 David C. King,
Azerbaijan:Cultures of the World (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2005), 20–21.
129
Gerald Robbins, Azerbaijan: The Growth and Influence of Islam in the Nations of Asia and Central Asia
(Philadelphia: Mason Crest Publishers, 2005), 34–35.
130
Mark Elliot, Azerbaijan, with Excursions to Georgia, 2nd ed. (Hindhead, Surrey, UK: Trailblazer Publications,
2001), 42.
131
Stuart J. Kaufman, Modern Hatreds: The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press,
2001), 50.
132
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Azerbaijan: History: Russian Suzerainty,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/46781/Azerbaijan#
133
Cynthia Brown and Farhad Karim, eds., “Armenia-Azerbaijan,” in Playing the “Communal Card”: Communal
Violence and Human Rights (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1995), 142–47.
134
Cynthia Brown and Farhad Karim, eds., “Armenia-Azerbaijan,” in Playing the “Communal Card”: Communal
Violence and Human Rights (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1995), 147.
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
Ottoman Army, with the assistance of local Azerbaijani forces, carried out a reciprocal massacre
of Armenians when recapturing Baku from the Bolsheviks. 135
Shortly after capturing Baku, the Ottoman Turks, having suffered a crushing defeat at the hands
of British troops in Palestine, were forced to sign an armistice, thus ending their participation in
World War I. As the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic attempted to gain traction in the postwar
period, it earned de facto recognition from the Allied leaders. Nonetheless, Bolshevik troops
entering Baku in April 1920 met with limited opposition. 136
Soviet Dominance
For the first 15 years of the Soviet era, Azerbaijan was part of the
Transcaucasian Soviet Federative Republic. In 1936, the republic
dissolved into the Soviet Socialist Republics of Georgia, Armenia, and
Azerbaijan. Because of its oil resources, large amounts of economic
and industrial investment poured into Azerbaijan during the early years
of the U.S.S.R., particularly on the Abşeron Peninsula. 137
Baku’s oil resources made the city a key target for the German Army
during World War II, but German advances into the region were halted
during the Battle of Stalingrad in 1942–43. 138 During the war, Soviet
forces occupied the southern portion of Azerbaijan that was part of
Persia (Iran). This occupation briefly spurred a Pan-Azerbaijan nationalist movement. But after
the war ended, other Western Allies insisted that the U.S.S.R. withdraw from the region. 139
Baku’s geographic vulnerability to attack and the declining supply of easily drilled onshore oil
resources prompted the Soviet Union to invest heavily in Siberian oil fields after World War II.
Baku’s share of Soviet oil production declined from 70% to 2% between 1940 and 1970. 140 But
despite the declining investment in oil, the Soviets continued to target areas of Azerbaijan for
industrial development during the post-WWII period. The metallurgical-chemical complex at
Sumqayit represented the centerpiece of this investment. Canning and textile industries were also
expanded to take advantage of Azerbaijan’s agricultural output. 141
135
Cynthia Brown and Farhad Karim, eds., “Armenia-Azerbaijan,” in Playing the “Communal Card”: Communal
Violence and Human Rights (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1995), 147.
136
Cynthia Brown and Farhad Karim, eds., “Armenia-Azerbaijan,” in Playing the “Communal Card”: Communal
Violence and Human Rights (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1995), 147.
137
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Azerbaijan: History: The Soviet and Post-Soviet Periods,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/46781/Azerbaijan#
138
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Battle of Stalingrad,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/562720/Battle-of-Stalingrad#
139
David C. King, Azerbaijan: Cultures of the World (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2005), 25–26.
140
Mark Elliot, Azerbaijan, with Excursions to Georgia, 2nd ed. (Hindhead, Surrey, UK: Trailblazer Publications,
2001), 45.
141
James Nichol, “Chapter 2: Azerbaijan,” in Azerbaijan: A Country Study, ed. Glenn E. Curtis (Washington, DC:
GPO for the Library of Congress, 1995), http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/aztoc.html
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
Religious practice, particularly that of Islam, suffered under Soviet rule. The Soviets closed most
mosques, banned religious education, and imprisoned many Muslim clerics. 142 Before the
Soviets came to power, an estimated 2,000 mosques were actively operating in Azerbaijan, but
by the 1980s the number had fallen to fewer than 20. 143
Ethnic Tensions
As the Soviet empire began to unravel during the late 1980s,
Azerbaijan found itself in the midst of an escalating ethnic conflict.
Violence began in February 1988 when 32 people, mostly Armenians,
were killed in an ethnic riot in Sumqayit. The riot occurred after
Nagorno-Karabakh Armenians demanded a merger with the Armenian
Soviet Socialist Republic. In 1989, the Supreme Soviet of Armenia
passed a resolution unifying Nagorno-Karabakh with Armenia. With
ethnic conflicts mounting, Azerbaijanis fled from Armenia and
Armenians left Azerbaijan. 144
Baku soon became the central stage for the next act in the escalating
crisis. Although most Armenians had left Baku by the end of 1989, strong anti-Armenian
feelings simmered in the city. Such emotions were further stoked by a faction of the antigovernment opposition group, the Popular Front of Azerbaijan (PFA). Pogroms against the city’s
Armenians began on 13 January 1990 and continued for several days. During this time, the
Soviet Ministry of Interior forces did little to intervene against the ethnic violence. 145, 146 Six
days later, after the pogroms had largely subsided, Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev finally
declared a state of emergency in Baku. Ministry of Interior forces in Baku immediately clamped
down on anti-communist and anti-Soviet protests led by the PFA. At least 130 citizens died in
this crackdown, known by Azerbaijanis as Black January. Five years later, Gorbachev described
his decision to send troops into Baku as “the biggest mistake in my political life.” 147
The Nagorno-Karabakh War
During the spring and summer of 1991, in the waning days of
the Soviet Union, Soviet Army and Ministry of Interior troops
joined forces with Azerbaijani militias to carry out Operation
Ring, a mission intended to disarm Armenian guerilla groups
operating in the provinces of Azerbaijan that lie immediately
north of Nagorno-Karabakh. The forced relocation of many
142
David C. King, Azerbaijan: Cultures of the World (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2005), 24.
James Nichol, “Chapter 2: Azerbaijan,” in Azerbaijan: A Country Study, ed. Glenn E. Curtis (Washington, DC:
GPO for the Library of Congress, 1995), http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/aztoc.html
144
Cynthia Brown and Farhad Karim, eds., “Armenia-Azerbaijan,” in Playing the “Communal Card”: Communal
Violence and Human Rights (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1995), 148–51.
145
Cynthia Brown and Farhad Karim, eds., “Armenia-Azerbaijan,” in Playing the “Communal Card”: Communal
Violence and Human Rights (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1995), 148–51.
146
Thomas de Waal, Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan Through Peace and War (New York: New York
University Press, 2003), 87–91.
147
Rufat Ahmedov, “Notes from Baku: Black January,” EurasiaNet.org, 15 February 2003,
http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/rights/articles/pp021603.shtml
143
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
Armenians to Armenia sparked a new wave of violence as Armenian irregular forces fought to
reclaim the villages. By the spring of 1992, full-scale fighting had broken out between NagornoKarabakh Armenians and Azerbaijanis. By that time the Soviet Union had officially dissolved,
and Armenia and Azerbaijan had become independent nations. Nagorno-Karabakh had also
declared its independence. 148
The Armenia-Azerbaijan-Nagorno-Karabakh war continued until May 1994, devastating
numerous villages in the region. Agdam, a city of 100,000 populated mostly by Azerbaijanis, had
become a ghost town by the end of the war. 149, 150 The remains of its buildings were salvaged to
rebuild the Nagorno-Karabakh capital of Xankāndi (Stepanakert). To this day, hundreds of
thousands of Azerbaijani and Armenian refugees remain distant from their prewar homelands.
Enemy forces killed some residents of Nagorno-Karabakh—most notably the villagers of
Khojaly—before they could reach a friendly border. 151
Political Chaos
The Nagorno-Karabakh War created political instability in
Azerbaijan during the nation’s first years as a post-Soviet
independent state. The country’s first leader, Ayaz Mutalibov, a
former head of the Azerbaijani Communist Party, won the
nation’s presidential election in September 1991. He remained in
power only until May 1992, when the People’s Front party
overthrew the government. A month later, Abulfaz Elchibey, the
People’s Front candidate for president, became Azerbaijan’s
first democratically elected non-communist leader. 152, 153
Elchibey’s presidency lasted only slightly longer than that of Mutalibov. After an Azerbaijani
counteroffensive in Nagorno-Karabakh sputtered, a paramilitary rebellion led by Suret
Huseynov, a former Azerbaijani troop commander, compelled Elchibey to flee to his native
province of Naxçivan in June 1993. He did not resign, however. 154 Naxçivan parliamentary
leader, Heydar Aliyev, became the new chairman of the Azerbaijani legislature and the country’s
acting president. 155 Aliyev defused the rebellion by bringing Huseynov into the government. One
month later, he solidified his hold on power by organizing a national referendum that resulted in
148
Cynthia Brown and Farhad Karim, eds., “Armenia-Azerbaijan,” in Playing the “Communal Card”: Communal
Violence and Human Rights (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1995), 151–53.
149
Cynthia Brown and Farhad Karim, eds., “Armenia-Azerbaijan,” in Playing the “Communal Card”: Communal
Violence and Human Rights (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1995), 151–53.
150
Richard Plunkett and Tom Masters, Lonely Planet: Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan, 2nd ed. (Footscray,
Victoria, Australia: Lonely Planet Publications, 2004), 186.
151
Human Rights Watch, “Human Rights Watch World Report 1993: The Former Soviet Union,” 1993,
http://www.hrw.org/reports/1993/WR93/Hsw-07.htm
152
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Azerbaijan: History: The Soviet and Post-Soviet Periods,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/46781/Azerbaijan#
153
James Nichol, “Chapter 2: Azerbaijan,” in Azerbaijan: A Country Study, ed. Glenn E. Curtis (Washington, DC:
GPO for the Library of Congress, 1995), http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/aztoc.html
154
David C. King, Azerbaijan: Cultures of the World (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2005), 29.
155
James Nichol, “Chapter 2: Azerbaijan,” in Azerbaijan: A Country Study, ed. Glenn E. Curtis (Washington, DC:
GPO for the Library of Congress, 1995), http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/aztoc.html
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
an overwhelming vote of no confidence in the Elchibey government. 156 In October 1993, Aliyev
was elected to a 5-year term as president, winning 99% of the vote in a contest that many
international observers criticized as biased. 157
Aliyev was much more than a provincial authority figure. During the 1970s and 1980s, he had
been one of the most powerful men in the Soviet Union and the only Azerbaijani to have been
appointed to the Soviet Politburo. He suffered a serious reversal of fortune during the Gorbachev
regime when he was removed from the Politburo and placed into forced retirement. But as the
Soviet Union began to crumble in 1990, Aliyev returned to his native Naxçivan and reinvented
himself as a fierce Azerbaijani nationalist, resigning from the Communist Party shortly after the
Black January events.
The Aliyev Era
In May 1994, Azerbaijan agreed to a Russian-brokered ceasefire with Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh. The agreement
remains in place because both countries have rejected several
subsequent proposals aimed at resolving the conflict. In
Azerbaijan, great frustration remains because nearly oneseventh of the country’s territory is under Armenian control.
Both the Azerbaijani and Armenian sides invested heavily and
suffered greatly over the course of the Nagorno-Karabakh
dispute. Therefore, both sides have been unable to take the first step during repeated attempts to
negotiate a settlement. 158
In 1994, active hostilities with Nagorno-Karabakh subsided and the Aliyev government sought to
improve Azerbaijan’s moribund economy. In September 1994, the country signed a Production
Sharing Agreement with an international oil consortium, the Azerbaijan International Operating
Company (AIOC). The agreement, frequently referred to as the “deal of the century,” addressed
developing three offshore oil fields in the Caspian Sea. Offshore oil production increased slowly,
but by 2007 production in the AIOC fields made Azerbaijan the largest contributing nation to
non-OPEC oil supply growth that year. The resurgent oil industry has played a major role in the
country’s improving economy. 159
In 1995, Azerbaijan held its first parliamentary election since independence, with Aliyev’s New
Azerbaijan Party winning a majority of seats. In 1998, Aliyev was reelected president, although
once again the election suffered from voting irregularities. During his decade in power, Aliyev’s
156
James Nichol, “Chapter 2: Azerbaijan,” in Azerbaijan: A Country Study, ed. Glenn E. Curtis (Washington, DC:
GPO for the Library of Congress, 1995), http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/aztoc.html
157
James Nichol, “Chapter 2: Azerbaijan,” in Azerbaijan: A Country Study, ed. Glenn E. Curtis (Washington, DC:
GPO for the Library of Congress, 1995), http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/list.html
158
Lionel Beehner, “Nagorno-Karabakh: The Crisis in the Caucasus,” Council on Foreign Relations, 3 November
2005, http://www.cfr.org/armenia/nagorno-karabakh-crisis-caucasus/p9148
159
Aitor Ciarreta and Shahriyar Nasirov, “Impact of Azerbaijan’s Energy Policy on the Development of the Oil
Sector” (paper, International Association for Energy Economics, 2010), 43–44,
http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&ved=0CC0QFjAB&url=http%3A%2F%2
Fiaee.org%2Fen%2Fpublications%2Fnewsletterdl.aspx%3Fid%3D118&ei=YVJOUOuCDK7cigKor4DQDw&usg=
AFQjCNFswPQJ3vTDYRW-nPcd0SX5emMERg&sig2=9lz2hERBFTsrsqcgqzVQgQ
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
government strongly suppressed all forms of dissent, which may partially explain why
Azerbaijan has not developed domestic Islamic militant groups. 160
Azerbaijan Today
By 2003, Aliyev’s health had begun to deteriorate, and he
cancelled his plans to run for another term. (About two months
after the October 2003 election, Heydar Aliyev died in a
Cleveland hospital.) His son Ilham, groomed for several years
to succeed his father, was appointed prime minister and
became the New Azerbaijan Party candidate for president. Not
surprisingly, he won the election in a landslide. But his victory
was not a convincing one for everyone: some believed that he
would only be a transitional figure because he lacked his father’s charisma and political skills. 161
Five years later, in April 2008, serious fighting again broke out in Nagorno-Karabakh, with
Armenia and Azerbaijan accusing each other of starting the worst conflict in years. Still, in
October 2008, the younger Aliyev won reelection to the presidency and a month later the two
sides signed an agreement seeking an end to hostilities. By November 2009, no significant
progress on the agreement to end the fighting had been reached. 162 The violence along the border
continues today. In June 2012, several incidents between Azerbaijani and Armenian forces left
three Armenian and five Azerbaijani troops dead. The area remains one of the most militarized in
Eurasia and experts fear an escalation. 163
Tensions with Iran worsened in February 2012 when Iran accused Azerbaijan of providing a safe
haven for Israeli agents crossing into Iran. In March, Azerbaijan arrested what it claimed were
two dozen Iranian-trained agents planning to launch attacks against Israel and U.S. embassies.
Both countries traded allegations and arrested alleged participants in various plots until Iran
recalled its ambassador in May 2012, although he returned to Baku in late June. 164
Protests by opposition groups are increasing. These groups are demanding, among other things,
political reforms and the resignation of the president, who appears poised to win a third term in
October 2013. Opposition activities and threatened boycotts of the upcoming election have done
little to reduce Aliyev’s chances of reelection. 165, 166, 167
160
Asbed Kotchikian, “Secular Nationalism Versus Political Islam in Azerbaijan,” Jamestown Foundation, 9
February 2005, http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews[tt_news]=27525
161
Stephen Mulvey, “Profile: Ilham Aliyev,” BBC News, 16 October 2003,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3194422.stm
162
BBC News, “Timeline: Azerbaijan,” 8 November 2011,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/1235740.stm
163 J
oshua Kucera, “Serious Escalation in Armenia-Azerbaijan Violence Greets Clinton,” EurasiaNet.org, 5 June
2012, http://www.eurasianet.org/node/65501
164
Jim Nichol, “Azerbaijan: Recent Developments and U.S. Interests” (report, Congressional Research Service, 29
June 2012), 15–16, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/97-522.pdf
165
The Sentinel Project for Genocide Prevention, “Azerbaijan,” 20 August 2012,
http://thesentinelproject.org/situations-of-concern-2/azerbaijan/
166
Liz Fuller, “Azerbaijani Opposition Plans New Wave of Protests,” Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty, 30 July
2012, http://www.rferl.org/content/azerbaijani-opposition-plans-new-wave-of-protest/24661517.html
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
167
Karina Gould, “Opposition in Azerbaijan Still Unsure if It Will Contest Presidential Elections in 2013,” Caucasus
Elections Watch, 6 August 2012, http://electionswatch.org/2012/08/06/opposition-in-azerbaijan-still-unsure-if-itwill-contest-presidential-elections-in-2013/
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
Chapter 2 Assessment
1. After its incorporation into the U.S.S.R., Azerbaijan received little investment or
development opportunities from the Soviet state.
False
Azerbaijan’s rich oil resources compelled the Soviet government to heavily invest in the
region, and the country ultimately became an important industrial center for the U.S.S.R.
2. The Azerbaijani sense of national identity began to develop shortly after independence in
1991.
False
The 1872 oil boom in Baku opened a new chapter. During this period, the concept of an
Azerbaijani identity began to take hold. Before that time, people saw themselves as
Muslims rather than as any particular ethnic or political group.
3. Azerbaijan’s first few years of post-Soviet independence were stable and relatively
prosperous.
False
During this time, the conflict with Nagorno-Karabakh contributed to the country’s
political instability. In addition, coups and power transfers transformed the Azerbaijani
government.
4. Tensions between Armenia and Azerbaijan have significantly lessened in recent years.
False
The conflict between the two countries continues. The border area remains one of the
most militarized in Eurasia and experts fear an escalation. In June 2012, deadly violence
erupted between Azerbaijani and Armenian soldiers.
5. Azerbaijan became an independent state for a brief period between 1918 and 1920.
True
In 1918, after the Russian Revolution, Azerbaijan designated itself as an independent
republic. But two years later the country was invaded by the Bolshevik Red Army.
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
CHAPTER 3: ECONOMY
Introduction
The collapse of the Soviet Union led to the decline of the
Azerbaijani economy. The economy stagnated, leaving the
country with inefficient factories, serious pollution, and a lack
of infrastructure. 168, 169 As Azerbaijan transitioned to a market
economy, the nation experienced rapid economic growth, often
in the double digits. But the global financial crisis slowed
growth to 3–4%, resulting in layoffs and rising
unemployment. 170 Over the last few years, Azerbaijan has
worked to integrate itself more fully into the global economy and to reduce its dependence on oil
by diversifying its economy. Nonenergy sector growth has far outpaced the energy sector since
2011. The government’s successful economic transformation earned it a top ten ranking as a
global reformer by the World Bank in 2009.
Although agriculture and heavy industry have been the chief economic drivers, the economy is
now shifting toward light industry and engineering. 171 But the industrial sector remains the main
economic engine, accounting for 62% of GDP (gross domestic product) followed by agriculture
(5.5%) and services (32%). 172 Despite being the least developed of the Transcaucasian republics,
the nation’s economic outlook is bright even with its challenges. 173 Azerbaijan’s tremendous oil
and gas reserves represent a double-edged sword. On the one hand, economic reliance on oil
makes the nation susceptible to global demand and price fluctuations. Ongoing disputes and
tensions over the ownership of the Caspian Sea fields could escalate tensions with Turkmenistan,
Iran, and other countries. 174, 175, 176 On the other hand, future investments in the sector are poised
168
Paul B. Henze, “Conflict in the Caucasus: Background, Problems, and Prospects for Mitigation,” Circassian
World, 2012, http://www.circassianworld.com/new/north-caucasus/1182-conflict-in-the-caucasus-phenze.html
169
European Commission, “European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument: Azerbaijan” (Country Strategy
Paper 2007–2013), 2006, 12, http://ec.europa.eu/world/enp/pdf/country/enpi_csp_azerbaijan_en.pdf
170
Bertelsmann Stiftung, “BTI 2012: Azerbaijan Country Report” (Bertelsmann Stiftung Transformation Index,
Gütersloh, Germany, 2012), 2, 11, http://www.btiproject.de/fileadmin/Inhalte/reports/2012/pdf/BTI%202012%20Azerbaijan.pdf
171
Encyclopӕdia Britannica Online, “Azerbaijan: Economy,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/46781/Azerbaijan
172
Central Intelligence Agency, “Azerbaijan: Economy,” in The World Factbook, 4 September 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/aj.html
173
Gerald Robbins, Azerbaijan: The Growth and Influence of Islam in the Nations of Asia and Central Asia
(Philadelphia: Mason Crest Publishers, 2005), 61.
174
Shahin Abbasov, “Caspian Sea Oil Dispute Flairs Up Again Between Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan,”
OilPrice.com ,12 July 2012, http://oilprice.com/Energy/Crude-Oil/Caspian-Sea-Oil-Dispute-Flairs-Up-AgainBetween-Azerbaijan-Turkmenistan.html
175
Walter Russell Mead, “The Caspian Powderkeg: Oil Plus Boundary Disputes Does [sic] Not Equal Joy,”
American Interest, 30 June 2012, http://blogs.the-american-interest.com/wrm/2012/06/30/iranian-beachfrontproperties-threatened-by-caspian-naval-buildup/
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
to increase both production and revenues. 177 Other challenges for Azerbaijan include
modernizing its industries, improving its business environment, addressing serious
environmental threats, and securing international investment. Bureaucratic barriers and
corruption need to be reduced and the legal system requires strengthening. 178, 179
Agriculture
Despite its many mountains and semiarid regions near the
Caspian Sea coast, Azerbaijan is a surprisingly rich agricultural
region. Roughly 40–50% of the nation’s land is suitable for
agriculture, and nearly 50% of arable land is currently under
cultivation. 180, 181 The agricultural sector employs about 38%
of the nation’s labor force. 182 Much of the farming is done in
the Länkäran region in southern Azerbaijan, the Quba-Xaçmaz
region north of Abşeron, and the Gäncä-Qazax region along
the borders with Armenia and Georgia. The Shirvan Plain and the Mugano-Salyan area in the
Mili and Mugan plains are other important agricultural centers. 183
Significant changes in agriculture occurred following the collapse of the Soviet Union. Nearly
100% of farms are privately owned and most produce is consumed domestically, changes from
the Soviet economy. 184, 185 The nation’s primary agricultural products include grains, walnuts,
hazelnuts, tobacco, and fruit and vegetables. Although production of cotton has decreased
significantly since the 1970s and 1980s, when about one million tons were produced annually,
176
Petroleum Iran, “Caspian Sea Region: Regional Conflicts,” 2012,
http://www.petroleumiran.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=87:caspian-sea-region-regionalconflicts&catid=32:caspian-sea-region&Itemid=37
177
European Parliament, “Annual Action Programme Covered by the Programming Document National Indicative
Programme 2011–2013 for the ENPI in Favour of Azerbaijan for 2012: Part 1” (memorandum to the ENPI
Committee, 2011), 1,
http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/docs_autres_institutions/commission_europeenne/comitologie/ros/2012/D0
21862-02/COM-AC_DR%282012%29D021862-02_EN.pdf
178
Mortara Center for International Studies, “Azerbaijan’s Economic Modernization and the Post-Crisis Era”
(lecture by Elman Rustamov, Chairman of the Central Bank of Azerbaijan, Georgetown University, Washington,
DC, 16 March 2011), http://mortara.georgetown.edu/168522.html
179
European Commission, “European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument: Azerbaijan” (Country Strategy
Paper 2007–2013), 2006, 12–13, http://ec.europa.eu/world/enp/pdf/country/enpi_csp_azerbaijan_en.pdf
180
David C. King, Azerbaijan: Cultures of the World (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2006), 40.
181
Encyclopӕdia Britannica Online, “Azerbaijan: Agriculture,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/46781/Azerbaijan
182
Central Intelligence Agency, “Azerbaijan: Economy,” in The World Factbook, 4 September 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/aj.html
183
Encyclopӕdia Britannica Online, “Azerbaijan: Agriculture,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/46781/Azerbaijan
184
Heydar Aliyev Foundation, “Azerbaijan: Economics: General Information,” n.d.,
http://www.azerbaijan.az/_Economy/_Agriculture/_agriculture_e.html
185
Embassy of the Republic of Azerbaijan to the United States of America, “Agriculture,” 2011,
http://www.azembassy.us/4/43.html
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
cotton remains an important cash crop. 186, 187, 188 Wine grapes are an increasingly important crop
although most of the wine is exported. 189, 190
The agriculture sector has been plagued by low productivity, a lack of modern technology,
proper land use, and a lack of coordination between producers and processors. Still, new
government initiatives designed to increase productivity have fueled rapid growth in the
sector. 191
While most agricultural activities involve growing food crops, approximately 39% of the sector
is devoted to livestock production. Yet the industry is able to meet only half of domestic demand
for meat, dairy products, and poultry. Much of the livestock ranching is concentrated in more
mountainous regions, particularly in the Nagorno Shirvan and Kelbecer-Lachin regions. Cows
constitute most of the livestock, but there are also a significant number of buffalo, sheep, and
poultry. 192
Industry and Manufacturing
Although the industrial sector employs only 12% of the
nation’s labor force, industry accounts for the bulk of GDP. 193
The Abşeron Peninsula, which is home to Baku and Sumqayit,
is the nation’s center of industrial activity, followed by the
cities of Gäncä, Āli Bayramlı (Şirvan), and Mingäçevir. 194 Oil
and natural gas extraction form the largest and most significant
component of the Azerbaijani industrial sector. Oil production
provides nearly 50% of the country’s GDP revenues and
186
Arzu Aghayeva, “Seeds of Change: Transition in Azerbaijan’s Agriculture,” Azerbaijan International 8, no. 3
(Autumn 2000), http://www.azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/83_folder/83_articles/83_agriculture.html
187
Kamran Shikhaliyev, Ogtay Ismayilzada, and Samir Khalilov, “Agricultural Sector of Azerbaijan: Overview and
Analysis” (paper, International School of Economics, Tbilisi State University, Georgia, n.d.),
http://www.iset.ge/files/kamran_shikhaliyev__oktay_ismailzada__samir_khalilov.pdf
188
Azerbaijan, “Agro-Industrial Complex (AIC) in Azerbaijan,” 2011,
http://www.azerbaijans.com/content_718_en.html
189
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Azerbaijan: The Economy: Agriculture,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/46781/Azerbaijan#
190
Kamran Shikhaliyev, Ogtay Ismayilzada, and Samir Khalilov, “Agricultural Sector of Azerbaijan: Overview and
Analysis” (paper, International School of Economics, Tbilisi State University, Georgia, n.d.),
http://www.iset.ge/files/kamran_shikhaliyev__oktay_ismailzada__samir_khalilov.pdf
191
Kamran Shikhaliyev, Ogtay Ismayilzada, and Samir Khalilov, “Agricultural Sector of Azerbaijan: Overview and
Analysis” (paper, International School of Economics, Tbilisi State University, Georgia, n.d.),
http://www.iset.ge/files/kamran_shikhaliyev__oktay_ismailzada__samir_khalilov.pdf
192
Azerbaijan, “Agro-Industrial Complex (AIC) in Azerbaijan,” 2011,
http://www.azerbaijans.com/content_718_en.html
193
Central Intelligence Agency, “Azerbaijan: Economy,” in The World Factbook, 4 September 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/aj.html
194
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Azerbaijan: Settlement Patterns,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/46781/Azerbaijan/44282/Settlement-patterns
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
sustains a number of other important industrial sectors, such as petroleum refining, oilfield
equipment manufacturing, and petrochemical processing. 195
Outside the oil and gas industry and its related sectors, the most important areas of the industrial
economy are mining and manufacturing. Food processing, power production and distribution,
light industries (including textiles), chemical products, and metallurgy are all key subsectors. 196,
197, 198
Since 2004, construction has been one of the fastest-growing areas, expanding by 37%.
Much of this expansion is centered near the capital of Baku, but infrastructure and housing
projects are ongoing throughout the country. 199
Energy and Mineral Resources
Energy
It is hard to overstate the importance of Azerbaijan’s oil and
natural gas resources to its overall economy. Since 1999, the
country’s oil revenues have been flowing into a State Oil
Fund (SOFAZ), which has been used to invest in areas such
as education, poverty reduction, and the improvement of
rural living standards. 200
Relatively little of Azerbaijan’s oil comes from land-based
drilling. The majority of the oil production comes from the Azeri-Chirag-Guneshli (ACG) field
in the Caspian Sea, which is operated by a consortium known as the Azerbaijan International
Operating Company (AIOC). Recent estimates place Azerbaijan’s oil reserves at 7 billion
barrels, the ninth largest among non-OPEC-member countries. 201, 202 Several older fields in the
Caspian are managed by the government-owned State Oil Company of Azerbaijan Republic
(SOCAR), but production from these fields is in decline. 203
Azerbaijan’s significant natural gas reserves have made the country a net exporter of natural gas.
Most of the gas is produced offshore at the ACG complex and the Shah Deniz fields. Oil for
195
Black Sea Trade and Development Bank, “Key Documents: Country Strategy 2011–2014 Azerbaijan” (paper,
Thessaloniki, Greece, June 2011), http://www.bstdb.org/about-us/key-documents/Country_Strategy_2011–
2014_Azerbaijan.pdf
196
State Statistical Committee of the Republic of Azerbaijan, “Sectoral Structure of Industrial Production,” 2011,
http://www.azstat.org/publications/azfigures/2012/en/012en.shtml
197
Azpromo, “Where to Invest: Food Processing,” 2012, http://www.azpromo.az/InvestSectorsFood.html
198
Bakumach, “Industry Report: Azerbaijan-Baku,” n.d., http://www.bakumach.com/download/AzerbaijanIndustry-Report.pdf
199
UK Trade and Investment, “Construction Sector in Azerbaijan,” 27 January 2012,
http://www.ukti.gov.uk/export/sectors/construction/sectorbriefing/252020.html
200
Sovereign Wealth Fund (SWF) Institute, “State Oil Fund of Azerbaijan,” 2012,
http://www.swfinstitute.org/swfs/state-oil-fund-of-azerbaijan/
201
Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of Energy, “Azerbaijan: Analysis,” 9 January 2012,
http://www.eia.gov/cabs/azerbaijan/pdf.pdf
202
Central Intelligence Agency, “Country Comparison: Oil—Proved Reserves,” in The World Factbook, 4
September 2012, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications//the-world-factbook/rankorder/2178rank.html
203
Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of Energy, “Country Analysis Briefs: Azerbaijan,” 9
January 2012, 1, http://www.eia.gov/cabs/azerbaijan/pdf.pdf
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
export is transported primarily through the South Caucasus Pipeline. Gas is also transported to
Russia via the Gazi-Magomed-Mozdok pipeline, and a relatively small amount is piped to Iran
through the Baku-Astara line. 204
Most of Azerbaijan’s electricity needs are generated by oil- and gas-powered plants. 205, 206 Stateowned Azerenergy controls electricity generation and operates eight thermal power plants, six
hydropower plants, and seven module-type power plants. Production is insufficient to meet
domestic demands, especially in the winter, when blackouts are common. Some parts of the
country have electricity for only a few hours a day. 207
Minerals
Although Azerbaijan maintains some natural resource wealth
beyond its oil and gas reserves, the country’s mineral
extraction industries have been overshadowed by the energy
sector. In 2012, however, more than three-quarters of
industrial production was in the mining sector. 208 Azerbaijan’s
metal deposits are mostly located in the Lesser Caucasus
Mountains in the western part of the country. A factory in
Gäncä produces alumina using nearby alunite deposits, and
some of this alumina is subsequently shipped to Sumqayit to be processed into aluminum. 209, 210
Azerbaijan’s iron ore deposits are also located in the mountainous regions near Gäncä. Recently,
these mines were auctioned by the government, and the purchasing company has announced
plans to upgrade and expand the mining operations. 211 Azerbaijan’s steel production facilities
have historically been located on the Abşeron Peninsula, but construction has begun on a large
steel-making facility in Gäncä, which will use iron ore condensates from local mines. 212, 213
204
Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of Energy, “Country Analysis Briefs: Azerbaijan,” 9
January 2012, 1, http://www.eia.gov/cabs/azerbaijan/pdf.pdf
205
E. Ismayilov, “Azerbaijan Ups Electricity Generation,” Trend, 10 September 2012,
http://en.trend.az/capital/energy/2063584.html
206
Aitor Ciarreta and Shahriyar Nasirov, “Analysis of Azerbaijan Oil and Gas Sector” (paper, U.S. Association of
Energy Economics, 2011), 8, http://www.usaee.org/usaee2011/submissions/OnlineProceedings/Ciarreta_NasirovArticle1.pdf
207
Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership, “Policy DB Details: Azerbaijan (2012),” 2012,
http://www.reeep.org/index.php?id=9353&special=viewitem&cid=175
208
Nijat Mustafayev, “78% of Industrial Production Belongs to Mining Sector in Azerbaijan,” Entrepreneurship
Development Foundation (EDF), 23 April 2012, http://edf.az/ts_general/eng/aktual_e/a-495.htm
209
New Europe, “Azerbaijan Aluminum to Double Output by 2008,” 22 April 2006,
http://www.neurope.eu/node/55833
210
Elena Safirova, “The Mineral Industry of Azerbaijan,” in 2010 Minerals Yearbook, U.S. Geological Survey, U.S.
Department of the Interior, September 2012, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2010/myb3-2010-aj.pdf
211
Trend, “Det.AL Limited Won Investment Competition for Sale of Shares of Dashkesen Ore Mining and
Processing Enterprises,” 11 October 2006, http://en.trend.az/capital/business/863855.html
212
Abc.az, “Azerbaijan Investment Company Acquires 25% Equity Stake in a Metallurgical Plant to Be Largest in
Azerbaijan,” 25 June 2008, http://abc.az/eng/news/25369.html
213
Richard M. Levine, “The Mineral Industry of Azerbaijan,” in 2010 Minerals Yearbook, U.S. Geological Survey,
U.S. Department of the Interior, August 2011, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2009/myb3-2009aj.pdf
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
Trade and Investment
In 2011, Azerbaijan had a positive balance of trade equaling more than USD 17 billion, due
mainly to its oil and natural gas exports. 214, 215 Its main export partners are Italy, France, the
United States, Russia, Indonesia, and Ukraine. 216 More than 90% of Azerbaijan’s exports involve
oil and gas while machinery, cotton, and foodstuffs make up the rest. 217, 218, 219 The country
imports machinery and equipment, oil products, foodstuffs, metals, and chemicals from its
primary import partners, which include Russia, Turkey, Germany, the United States, China,
France, and Ukraine. 220, 221, 222
In spite of its trade surplus, several issues constrain trade with Azerbaijan. In a 2012 World
Economic Forum report, the nation ranked 57th in market access, 123rd in import-export
procedures, 69th in infrastructure, and 59th in business environment out of 132 countries
assessed. 223 Other serious obstacles, particularly to foreign direct investment (FDI), include
corruption, cronyism, and insider monopolies. 224 International companies have invested huge
sums in the country’s oil and gas industry to develop drilling and transportation infrastructure.
Since 2007, FDI has fallen off because of concerns about corruption, inadequate legal
protections, and bureaucratic barriers. 225, 226, 227 The largest investments have come from the
United Kingdom, the United States, and Turkey, with significant but smaller investments by
214
Alexandra Iov, “Balance of Payments and Trade Imbalances in Azerbaijan and Georgia,” International Experts,
18 May 2012, http://www.internationalexperts.com/index.php/research/item/balance-of-payments-and-tradeimbalances-in-azerbaijan-and-georgia
215
Abc.az, “Surplus of Current Account of Azerbaijan’s Balance of Payments Exceeded $17.1 bn and Reserve
Assets $12.3 bn in 2011,” 27 March 2012, http://abc.az/eng/news/63404.html
216
State Statistical Committee of the Republic of Azerbaijan, “Main Trade Partners of Azerbaijan in 2011,” 2012,
http://www.azstat.org/publications/azfigures/2012/en/018en.shtml
217
Ashwin Matabadal, “Country Report: Azerbaijan” (report, Rabobank, Economic Research Department, January
2012), 2, http://www.rabobank.com/content/images/Azerbaijan-201201_tcm43-105872.pdf
218
State Statistical Committee of the Republic of Azerbaijan, “Foreign Trade Turnover by Commodity Groups in
2011,” 2012, http://www.azstat.org/publications/azfigures/2012/en/018en.shtml
219
Central Intelligence Agency, “Azerbaijan: Economy,” in The World Factbook, 4 September 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/aj.html
220
State Statistical Committee of the Republic of Azerbaijan, “Main Trade Partners of Azerbaijan in 2011,” 2012,
http://www.azstat.org/publications/azfigures/2012/en/018en.shtml
221
Central Intelligence Agency, “Azerbaijan: Economy,” in The World Factbook, 4 September 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/aj.html
222
State Statistical Committee of the Republic of Azerbaijan, “Foreign Trade Turnover by Commodity Groups in
2011,” 2012, http://www.azstat.org/publications/azfigures/2012/en/018en.shtml
223
Robert Z. Lawrence, Margareta Drzeniek Hanouz, and Sean Doherty, eds., “The Global Enabling Trade Report
2012: Reducing Supply Chain Barriers” (Insight Report, World Economic Forum, 2012), 116,
http://www3.weforum.org/docs/GETR/2012/GlobalEnablingTrade_Report.pdf
224
Bureau of Economic, Energy and Business Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “2011 Investment Climate
Statement—Azerbaijan,” March 2011, http://www.state.gov/e/eb/rls/othr/ics/2011/157236.htm
225
UN Conference on Trade and Development, “World Investment Report 2007: Country Fact Sheet: Azerbaijan,”
16 October 2007, http://www.unctad.org/sections/dite_dir/docs/wir07_fs_az_en.pdf
226
UN Conference on Trade and Development, “World Investment Report 2012: Country Fact Sheet: Azerbaijan,” 5
July 2012, http://unctad.org/sections/dite_dir/docs/wir12_fs_az_en.pdf
227
Bureau of Economic, Energy and Business Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “2011 Investment Climate
Statement—Azerbaijan,” March 2011, http://www.state.gov/e/eb/rls/othr/ics/2011/157236.htm
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
Germany and the United Arab Emirates. 228 Beyond the energy sector, smaller amounts of FDI
have gone primarily to breweries, soft-drink companies, telecommunications, and the hotel
industry. 229 In 2011, about 18% of all FDI went to Azerbaijan’s construction industry. 230
Transportation
Azerbaijan has a relatively functional transportation network,
with most major cities connected to Baku by both road and
railway. But significant portions of the road system are in need
of repair or upgrades. A major highway runs roughly parallel
to the Caspian coast, extending from the Russian border in the
north to the Iranian border in the south, with Baku serving as
the central hub. Another highway runs east-west and connects
Baku to the Georgian capital of Tbilisi and, ultimately, to the
Black Sea. 231 Both routes are also followed by the rail system. Much of the rail system is in
disrepair, but several major projects are underway to improve the transportation system. 232, 233, 234
Azerbaijan’s international airport is Baku Heydar Aliyev international Airport in the capital city.
Many airlines operate out of the airport, providing good local and international access. 235
Smaller airports exist throughout the nation. 236 Although Azerbaijan is technically a landlocked
nation, it maintains the largest port of the Caspian Sea at Baku. 237
Tourism
Azerbaijan ranks 83rd out of 139 countries on The Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index
for 2011, rating a score of 3.8/7.0. 238 Slightly fewer than 1.5 million international tourists arrived
228
Bureau of Economic, Energy and Business Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “2011 Investment Climate
Statement—Azerbaijan,” March 2011, http://www.state.gov/e/eb/rls/othr/ics/2011/157236.htm
229
Bureau of Economic, Energy and Business Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “2011 Investment Climate
Statement—Azerbaijan,” March 2011, http://www.state.gov/e/eb/rls/othr/ics/2011/157236.htm
230
UK Trade and Investment, “Construction Sector in Azerbaijan,” 27 January 2012,
http://www.ukti.gov.uk/export/sectors/construction/sectorbriefing/252020.html
231
Azerb, “Transportation: Azerbaijan,” n.d., http://www.azerb.com/az-tran.html
232
Azerb, “Transportation: Azerbaijan,” n.d., http://www.azerb.com/az-tran.html
233
Transport Corridor Europe Caucasus Asia (TRACECA), “Azerbaijan Rail Trade and Transport Facilitation
Project,” 28 February 2012, http://www.traceca-org.org/fileadmin/fm-dam/Investment_Forum/AZR1_Baku-AlyatBeyuk-Kesik_Railway_Rehabilitation.pdf
234
European Commission, “Implementation of the European Neighbourhood Policy in 200 [sic]: Progress Report
Azerbaijan” (commission staff working document, Brussels, 5 December 2010), 13,
http://ec.europa.eu/world/enp/pdf/progress2010/sec10_519_en.pdf
235
Azerbaijan: Embassyhomepage.com, “International Airports in Azerbaijan,” n.d.,
http://azerbaijan.embassyhomepage.com/azerbaijan_airports_xacmaz_airport_hotels_baku_airport_taxi_ali_bayraml
i_airport_transfer_sumqayrt_airport_taxi.htm
236
Aircraft-charter-world, “Airports in Azerbaijan,” 2009, http://www.aircraft-charterworld.com/airports/europe/azerbaijan.htm
237
World Port Source, “Port of Baku: Review and History,” 2012,
http://www.worldportsource.com/ports/review/AZE_Port_of_Baku_2192.php
238
Jennifer Blanke and Thea Chiesa, “The Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report 2011: Beyond the
Downturn” (report, World Economic Forum, Geneva, Switzerland, 2011), xv,
http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TravelTourismCompetitiveness_Report_2011.pdf
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
in the county in 2009 and about 2 million in 2010.239, 240 The numbers for domestic tourism are
also low. But despite the tourism sector’s small size, it accounts for 10% of the nation’s GDP,
and the government recognizes its importance in reducing economic dependency on oil.
Significant factors work against the Azerbaijani tourism
industry. A stark example is the lack of tourism infrastructure.
Water, gas, electricity, and basic sanitation are often
substandard. In 2009, only 425 hotels and hostels existed
throughout the nation, with a particular lack of 2- and 3-star
facilities. General travel costs, including hotel rooms, are high
for the region. Hotel and tour services are below world
standards. The professionalism of travel professionals is low,
and many speak no second language. The difficulty of securing a visa is also problematic. 241, 242
Despite these obstacles, the Azerbaijani government has channeled resources into further
development of its tourism industry. An Azerbaijan Tourism Institute has been created to train
tourism specialists who will help guide the developing industry. The government is also
establishing Tourist Information Centers in Baku, Gäncä, and the country’s other probable tourist
destinations. 243 Other recent efforts include the development of a ski resort below Shahdağ Peak
in the Caucasus and projects to develop Caspian beaches. 244
Banking and Finance
The National Bank of the Republic of Azerbaijan was established in February 1992 and is the
principal authority responsible for implementing monetary policy, regulating the banking
industry, and functioning as a reserve bank. Ninety-nine percent of the nation’s 44 operating
banks are privately owned. 245, 246 In 2010, 5 banks controlled approximately 61% of total assets.
The National Bank controlled approximately 42% of all assets. 247
239
Abdullah Bozkurt, “Azerbaijan Looks for Boost in Tourism Industry, with Some Help from Turkey,” Today’s
Zaman, 20 July 2011,
http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.action;jsessionid=08CFBCDD36393328064155C54CA77
B87?newsId=251068
240
Jennifer Blanke and Thea Chiesa, “The Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report 2011: Beyond the
Downturn” (report, World Economic Forum, Geneva, Switzerland, 2011), 122–23,
http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TravelTourismCompetitiveness_Report_2011.pdf
241
Vugar Bayramov, Leyla Aliyeva and Xalid Mikayilov, “CESD Policy Report on Tourism Sector in Azerbaijan”
(report, Center for Economic and Social Development, July 2011), http://cesd.az/new/wpcontent/uploads/2011/07/CESD-Tourism-Paper.pdf
242
Jennifer Blanke and Thea Chiesa, “The Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report 2011: Beyond the
Downturn” (report, World Economic Forum, Geneva, Switzerland, 2011), 122–23,
http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TravelTourismCompetitiveness_Report_2011.pdf
243
UN Development Programme, “The Government of Azerbaijan and UNDP Expand Cooperation in the Field of
Tourism Development,” 2 April 2007, http://www.un-az.org/undp/news/2007/4-4-2007/4-4-2007.php
244
Abdullah Bozkurt, “Azerbaijan Looks for Boost in Tourism Industry, with Some Help from Turkey,” Today’s
Zaman, 20 July 2011,
http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.action;jsessionid=08CFBCDD36393328064155C54CA77
B87?newsId=251068
245
Embassy of the Republic of Azerbaijan to the United States of America, “Finance and Banking,” 2011,
http://www.azembassy.us/4/44.html
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
The National Bank is in the process of implementing banking rules
compliant with shari’a law. Such banks prohibit the lending of money
for practices prohibited by the Quran (e.g., arms sales, alcohol
purchase) and the charging of interest on loans or the payment of
interest on deposits. The current set of laws governing the industry
does not yet allow a full range of Islamic banking facilities. Plans are
to implement the new rules gradually. Currently, Kovsarbank was the
only facility offering a wide spectrum of Islamic products until its
license was revoked by the National Bank. 248, 249
The new manat (ISO code: AZN) is the national currency of
Azerbaijan; in September 2012, USD 1 was equal to about AZN 0.78. 250 At the beginning of
2006, the country introduced a new version of the manat, with an exchange rate of 5,000 “old
manats” (ISO code: AZM) to AZN 1. The change was made in part to bolster confidence in the
new manat because the low value of the old manat (in comparison with the U.S. dollar) made it
unwieldy for large cash purchases, thus encouraging the use of USD. 251
The country also operates a securities market, the Baku Stock Exchange (BSE), which began
operation in 2000. Its main function is to be the tool of trade for all securities currently permitted
under the law. In 2009, 89% of the exchange’s market allocation was government bonds/equities
and the remaining 11% were corporate bonds/equities. 252
Standard of Living and Employment
According to the United Nations annual living standards report, Azerbaijan’s rank of 91 out of
187 countries places it in the high human development category, just above Turkey. 253 Wages in
the nation are growing steadily; in May 2012, real income of workers grew by 1.8%. 254, 255, 256
246
Central Bank of the Republic of Azerbaijan, “History,” 2010, http://www.cbar.az/pages/about-us/history/
Azerbaijan, “Azerbaijan Banking System,” 2011, http://www.azerbaijans.com/content_738_en.html
248
Pawel Lickiewicz, “Azerbaijan: Islamic Banking Enters the Country,” Eastbook, 1 February 2012,
http://eastbook.eu/en/2012/02/material-en/information-material-en/azerbaijan-islamic-banking-enters-the-country/
249
Shahin Abbasov, “Azerbaijan: Islamic Banking Knocking on the Door,” EurasiaNet.org, 20 June 2011,
http://www.eurasianet.org/node/63707
250
Oanda, “Currency Converter,” 13 September 2012, http://www.oanda.com/currency/converter/
251
Rovshan Ismayilov, “Azerbaijans [sic] Manat Makeover: Good Times Ahead?” EurasiaNet.org, 28 February
2006, http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/business/articles/eav030106.shtml
252
İllik Hesabat, “Annual Report 2010” (Baku Stock Exchange, 2010), 73–74, 83,
http://www.bfb.az/haqqimizda/hesabatlar
253
UN Development Programme, Human Development Report 2011, “Sustainability and Equity: A Better Future for
All,” 2011, 126, 128, http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2011_EN_Complete.pdf
254
Oanda, “Currency Converter,” 13 September 2012, http://www.oanda.com/currency/converter/
255
Abc.az, “In 2012, Real Growth of Average Salary in Azerbaijan Exceeds GDP Growth by 8 Times,” 18 July
2012, http://abc.az/eng/news/66627.html
256
UN Development Programme, Human Development Report 2011, “Sustainability and Equity: A Better Future for
All,” 2011, 143, http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2011_EN_Complete.pdf
247
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
Nearly 60% of women are active in the nation’s labor force compared to about 67% of men. 257 In
2001, 49% of the population lived below the poverty line. but today the number is about 9%. 258
As oil revenues have increased in the last few years, the
Azerbaijani government has made substantial investments in
social services and infrastructure. But long before this recent
expansion of public development projects, Azerbaijan had
initiated similar projects with the help of foreign investors.
Since its independence in 1991, Azerbaijan has received
economic assistance from several international finance groups,
including the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank,
with a share of this lending targeting improvements in health, education, infrastructure, and
economic institutions. 259 The success of these initiatives can be seen in improved life
expectancy, which is about 71 years (68 for males vs. 75 for females), virtually 100% literacy,
and an average of 12 years of school completed. 260 A slightly higher proportion of women (65%)
complete secondary school than men (62%). 261 Unemployment is relatively low, hovering
between 5% and 6%. Even during the global economic crisis, Azerbaijan continued to reduce its
overall unemployment rate. The nation’s population is young with a median age of 29 years;
about 20% of the population is 15–24 years of age. About 36% of the young, who are
particularly vulnerable to unemployment, were unemployed in 2008. The largest number of
persons are employed in the agricultural sector, followed by trade, education, and
construction. 262, 263
Trade unions and collective bargaining have a long history in Azerbaijan. Workers and
employers enjoy the right to participate in collective bargaining and to organize freely, with
membership in trade unions voluntary. About 85% of workers belong to one of the nation’s more
than 18,600 trade unions. 264
Economic Outlook
257
UN Development Programme, Human Development Report 2011, “Sustainability and Equity: A Better Future for
All,” 2011, 140, http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2011_EN_Complete.pdf
258
International Labour Office, “Decent Work Country Profile: Azerbaijan” (report, ILO, Geneva, Switzerland,
2012), 1, http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/--integration/documents/publication/wcms_175754.pdf
259
Bank Information Center (BIC), “Azerbaijan: Overview,” 11 August 2008,
http://www.bicusa.org/en/Region.11.aspx
260
Central Intelligence Agency, “Azerbaijan: People and Society,” in The World Factbook, 4 September 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/aj.html
261
UN Development Programme, Human Development Report 2011, “Sustainability and Equity: A Better Future for
All,” 2011, 128, 140, http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2011_EN_Complete.pdf
262
State Statistical Committee of the Republic of Azerbaijan, “Employed Population by Types of Economic
Activity,” 2012, http://www.azstat.org/publications/azfigures/2012/en/005en.shtml
263
International Labour Office, “Decent Work Country Profile: Azerbaijan” (report, ILO, Geneva, Switzerland,
2012), 8, http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/--integration/documents/publication/wcms_175754.pdf
264
International Labour Office, “Decent Work Country Profile: Azerbaijan” (report, ILO, Geneva, Switzerland,
2012), 49, http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/--integration/documents/publication/wcms_175754.pdf
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
The economic outlook for the near term is positive. Petroleum
and hydrocarbon product exports are likely to remain strong,
although the pace of growth will likely slow. Growth in the
nonenergy sector is expected to grow even faster, helping fuel
the economic recovery; the overall economy is expected to
expand roughly 2.5% through 2013. 265, 266
But several economic risks could affect growth. The European
crisis could lead to economic downturns in Azerbaijan as well
as other economies in the region. Rising oil prices and instability in the Middle East are potential
sources of risk. Inflation represents another stumbling block to economic growth and security.
According to the IMF, inflation is expected to rise 5.6% by the end of 2013 and increase to a rate
of 6.5% by 2017. At the same time, GDP is predicted to rise by only 3.1% in 2012 and contract
to 1.9% in 2013. Unemployment is expected to remain around 6% through 2016. 267
Economic diversification remains a cornerstone to long-term economic growth and stability. An
essential element in that effort is FDI. Azerbaijan has been working on important reforms to
attract additional investment, but the nation ranks as one of the most corrupt for doing business
and has received one of the lowest rankings in the World Bank’s 2011 Doing Business Report.
The Azerbaijani government has already taken legal and regulatory steps to address some of
these issues, but enforcement will be the key to success. 268, 269
265
International Monetary Fund, “Caucasus and Central Set for Solid Growth, but Global Risks Loom Large”
(Regional Economic Outlook Update, Middle East and Central Asia Department, Washington, DC, 20 April 2012),
1, http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/reo/2012/mcd/eng/pdf/cca-update0412.pdf
266
RealClearWorld, “Compare World Economic Outlook: Azerbaijan,” 2012, http://economicoutlook.realclearworld.com/
267
International Monetary Fund, “World Economic Outlook: Growth Resuming, Dangers Remain” (report, April
2012), 68, http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/01/pdf/text.pdf
268
Bureau of Economic, Energy and Business Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “2011 Investment Climate
Statement—Azerbaijan,” March 2011, http://www.state.gov/e/eb/rls/othr/ics/2011/157236.htm
269
International Monetary Fund, “Azerbaijan: 2008 Article IV Consultation, Preliminary Conclusions of the IMF
Mission,” 12 March 2008, http://www.imf.org/external/np/ms/2008/031208.htm
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
Chapter 3 Assessment
1. The Abşeron Peninsula, home to the cities of Baku and Sumqayit, is the center of
Azerbaijan’s industrial activity.
True
Historically, Baku and Sumqayit, both located on the Abşeron Peninsula, have served as
the country’s major oil and industrial hubs.
2. Half of the population is employed in the agricultural sector.
False
Agriculture accounts for about 5.5% of GDP and employs about 38% of the nation’s
labor force.
3. Azerbaijan’s trade surplus is largely a product of the country’s oil and natural gas
exports.
True
In 2011, Azerbaijan had a positive trade balance equaling more than USD 17 billion, due
mainly to its oil and natural gas exports. More than 90% of Azerbaijan’s exports are
related to oil and gas. Machinery, cotton, and foodstuffs make up most of the rest.
4. Azerbaijan’s attempts at diversifying its economy have largely failed.
False
Azerbaijan has worked to reduce its dependence on oil by diversifying its economy. Its
success in transforming the economy earned it a top ten ranking for global reformers in
2009. Since 2011, nonenergy sector growth has far outpaced the energy sector.
5. Azerbaijan’s oil industry has attracted large amounts of foreign investment, but many of
the country’s other economic sectors have received limited investment.
True
International companies have invested huge sums in the country’s oil and gas industry.
Beyond the energy sector, smaller amounts of FDI have gone primarily to breweries,
soft-drink companies, telecommunications, and the hotel industry.
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
CHAPTER 4: SOCIETY
Introduction
Azerbaijan is an ancient land with archeological evidence of
human settlements dating back nearly 1.5 million years.
Located at a strategic crossroads on an important trading route,
the area of modern-day Azerbaijan was part of Arab, Greek,
Mongol, Roman, Turk, Persian, and Soviet empires before the
nation achieved final independence in 1991. The peoples of
these empires left their imprint on Azerbaijanis and their
culture. 270, 271
The population of Azerbaijan is primarily Azeri, but there are as many as 40 other ethnic groups
throughout the nation. 272, 273 Azerbaijanis are predominantly Muslim, with little tension existing
between the Shi’a and Sunni communities. Religion does not play a significant role in the
Azerbaijani identity. As a result, the society is more tolerant than others in the region. 274, 275, 276
Among Azerbaijanis, who are proud of their country, there is a resurging pride in their ethnic
language and culture. Azerbaijanis have worked to establish a national identity that embraces
both their Turkic and Persian roots as well as some uniquely Azerbaijani elements. This identity
helps unite the nation’s diverse peoples and maintain a sometimes fragile political and religious
balance. 277, 278
270
B. Blair, “Azerbaijanis,” in Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life, eds. Timothy L. Gall and
Jeneen Hobby (Detroit, MI: Gale Cengage Learning, 2009), 71.
271
Alireza Asgharzadeh, “Azerbaijan and the Challenge of Multiple Identities: In Search of a Global Soul,” Middle
East Review of International Affairs 11, no. 4 (December 2007), http://www.gloria-center.org/2007/12/asgharzadeh2007-12-02/
272
Central Intelligence Agency, “Azerbaijan: People and Society,” in The World Factbook, 10 September 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook//geos/aj.html
273
Gerald Robbins, Azerbaijan: The Growth and Influence of Islam in the Nations of Asia and Central Asia
(Philadelphia: Mason Crest Publishers, 2005), 81.
274
Gerald Robbins, Azerbaijan: The Growth and Influence of Islam in the Nations of Asia and Central Asia
(Philadelphia: Mason Crest Publishers, 2005), 74–77.
275
American Foreign Policy Council, World Almanac of Islamism, “Azerbaijan: Islamism and Society,” 14 July
2011, http://almanac.afpc.org/Azerbaijan#
276
UN Development Programme, Azerbaijan Human Development Report 2007, “Gender Attitudes in Azerbaijan:
Trends and Challenges,” 2007, 15, http://www.un-az.org/doc/nhdr2007gendereng.pdf
277
Hülya D. Emirdirek, “Azerbaijan,” Countries and Their Cultures, 2012, http://www.everyculture.com/ABo/Azerbaijan.html
278
Alberto Priego Moreno, “The Creation of the Azerbaijani Identity and Its Influence on Foreign Policy” (UNISCI
Discussion Papers, University of Madrid, May 2005),
http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=5&ved=0CEEQFjAE&url=http%3A%2F%2
Frevistas.ucm.es%2Findex.php%2FUNIS%2Farticle%2Fdownload%2FUNIS0505230007A%2F28190&ei=UFVbU
JqWI5DtiQKB2oGoAg&usg=AFQjCNFVmNUp1c9El2ImjQzgiTNkpPpRAQ&sig2=tZTPXwpPmgMr-Oo2xjKjVg
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
Ethnic Groups and Language
Azerbaijan lies in a region conquered and occupied by numerous powers throughout its history.
Varying degrees of integration of local inhabitants and foreign invaders and migrants has created
a complex cultural mix. Some ethnic classifications of Azerbaijanis recognize such complexity
by using the primary language as the distinguishing factor in determining ethnic groups. 279
Azeris
The largest ethnic group, Azeris, make up 80–90% of the
country’s population. 280, 281 Azeris are predominantly Shi’a
Muslims and speak a northern version of the Azerbaijani
language closely related to Turkish. (The southern version of
Azerbaijani is spoken in northern Iran.) The written
Azerbaijani language changed from a Cyrillic to a modified
Latin script at the end of the Soviet era. Prior to Soviet rule,
several versions of Arabic script were used. 282, 283
Azeris are an amalgam of Persian and Turkic influences. A common view is that Azeris were a
Caucasian people who were assimilated under ruling empires, including those of the Turks and
the Persians. For the most part, Azeris today see themselves as Turkic rather than Persian. Even
though Azeris share close religious ties with Shi’a-dominated Iran, Azerbaijan has better foreign
relations with Sunni-dominated Turkey. This closeness underscores an important aspect of Azeri
life. Religion is not a central feature of daily life and takes a backseat to ethnic identification. 284
Kurds
The Kurds of Azerbaijan are part of an ethnic group spread across Iran, Iraq, Turkey, and Syria.
Their language and cultural heritage is distinct from other groups in the nation. Kurds are
Muslims, and those in Azerbaijan are generally Shi’a. 285 For centuries, the Kurds have sought to
establish an independent Kurdistan. Kurds cluster in the areas around Kalbajar and Lachin.
Following suppression by Stalin, they remained under the radar. But the situation changed when
the war with Armenia over the Karabakh region broke out. Many Kurds fled the area, and the
Armenians used the opportunity to appeal to Moscow to establish autonomous Kurdish zones as
a means to end the violence. Although the proposal was ultimately rejected by Moscow, Kurds
have been invited by Armenia to resettle in the region. Armenia’s intent in making such an
279
Gerald Robbins, Azerbaijan: The Growth and Influence of Islam in the Nations of Asia and Central Asia
(Philadelphia: Mason Crest Publishers, 2005), 81.
280
Central Intelligence Agency, “Azerbaijan: People and Society,” in The World Factbook, 10 September 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook//geos/aj.html
281
David C. King, Azerbaijan: Cultures of the World (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2006), 53.
282
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Azerbaijan: The People,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/46781/Azerbaijan#
283
Abulfazl Bahadori, “Alphabet in the Boiling Pot of Politics,” Azerbaijan International 1, no. 3 (September 1993),
http://www.azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/13_folder/13_articles/13_alphapolitics.html
284
Barbara A. West, Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania (New York: Facts on File, 2009), 68.
285
Andrew Humphreys and Krista Mits, eds., “Kurds,” in The Red Book of the Peoples of the Russian Empire
(Tallinn, Estonia: NGO Red Book, 2001), http://www.eki.ee/books/redbook/kurds.shtml
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
invitation is not clear, but some suspect it is to provoke Azerbaijan’s government. 286 Of all the
Kurdish groups, those in Azerbaijan are under the greatest pressure to maintain their cultural
heritage and identity. But the government in Baku is actively trying to assimilate minorities. By
failing to recognize or use Kurdish as an official language and by designating Kurds as
Azerbaijanis in the most recent census, the government is trying to force assimilation.287
Lezgins (Dagestani)
The Lezgins, who account for about 2% of the population, are
the second-largest ethnic group. They are Sunni Muslims, and
most speak Azerbaijani as well as their native tongue. Russian
is a common third language. Although the Lezgi language
once used a Latin-based script, today the language is still
written using a modified Cyrillic script that was implemented
in 1938. 288, 289, 290
The Lezgins live on the southern slopes of the Greater
Caucasus Mountains, in the Qusar rayon (district) adjoining the Russian republic of Dagestan.
The Lezgins believe they are descended from the historic kingdom of Albania and want to
reunite both their Azerbaijani and Russian communities by creating a new Lezghinistan.
Widespread support for the movement does not exist, but the group occasionally carries out
terrorist activities to help accomplish its goals. 291, 292
Russians and Armenians
Constituting less than 2% of the population and steadily shrinking, the Russians are a reminder
of the Soviet era. Some argue that the Russian presence has kept the Azerbaijani national identity
from becoming completely Turkish. Russian influence helped Azerbaijan remain a secular nation
with few of the interreligious tensions and rivalries afflicting other nations. 293 The Russian
286
Paul Goble, “Azerbaijan’s Other Ethnic Minorities: Between Politics and Geopolitics,” Azerbaijan Diplomatic
Academy, 1 June 2008, http://ada.edu.az/biweekly/issues/149/20090327123147200.html
287
Andrew Humphreys and Krista Mits, eds., “Kurds,” in The Red Book of the Peoples of the Russian Empire
(Tallinn, Estonia: NGO Red Book, 2001), http://www.eki.ee/books/redbook/kurds.shtml
288
Central Intelligence Agency, “Azerbaijan: People and Society,” in The World Factbook, 10 September 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook//geos/aj.html
289
Lea Gerber, “Minorities in Azerbaijan: The Sociolinguistic Situation of Lezgis, Udis, Georgians (Ingiloys) and
Talyshs in Azerbaijan—with a Particular Focus on Education” (paper, Cimera, 2007), 8–9,
http://www.cimera.org/pdf/Minorities_in_Azerbaijan.pdf
290
Gerald Robbins, Azerbaijan: The Growth and Influence of Islam in the Nations of Asia and Central Asia
(Philadelphia: Mason Crest Publishers, 2005), 82.
291
Lea Gerber, “Minorities in Azerbaijan: The Sociolinguistic Situation of Lezgis, Udis, Georgians (Ingiloys) and
Talyshs in Azerbaijan—with a Particular Focus on Education” (paper, Cimera, 2007), 8–9, 15,
http://www.cimera.org/pdf/Minorities_in_Azerbaijan.pdf
292
Gerald Robbins, Azerbaijan: The Growth and Influence of Islam in the Nations of Asia and Central Asia
(Philadelphia: Mason Crest Publishers, 2005), 82.
293
Paul Goble, “Azerbaijan’s Other Ethnic Minorities: Between Politics and Geopolitics,” Azerbaijan Diplomatic
Academy, 1 June 2008, http://ada.edu.az/biweekly/issues/149/20090327123147200.html
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
language is still widely used throughout the country, although in an unofficial capacity. Most
Russians are followers of the Russian Orthodox faith and live in the nation’s urban centers. 294
Just before Azerbaijan’s independence, most of the Armenian population lived in the area of
Nagorno-Karabakh with other significant enclaves in Baku and Sumqayit. By the mid-1990s,
few Armenians remained in Azerbaijan. Most were settled in Nagorno- Karabakh, which remains
overwhelmingly an Armenian region. Armenians in Karabakh have established their own selfrule (which remains unrecognized by the international community), electing their own leaders
and legislature. Armenians and other Azerbaijanis have little interaction, and tensions between
the Armenian minority and Azerbaijani government remain high. 295
Tats
To the southwest of the Lezgins live the Tats, who make up about 1%
of the population. Tats are Muslim, Christian and Jewish but,
regardless of religion, all speak a language closely related to Farsi. 296,
297
The Judeo-Tat dialect is spoken by the people referred to as
Mountain Jews, who inhabit the all-Jewish village of Krasnaya
Sloboda, located just outside the northern city of Quba. 298, 299 The
Jewish Tats are considered a closed group based on their adherence to
a policy of ethnic purity. 300 In spite of their relatively small numbers,
this group plays a significant role in national politics. The Jewish Tats
are an important bridge between the governments of Azerbaijan and
Israel, with whom relations are strong and positive. 301
Talysh
The Talysh, who live in the far southeast of Azerbaijan along its border with Iran, represent
about 1% of the population. They are mostly Shi’a Muslims of Persian ancestry who speak an
Iranian-based language. 302, 303, 304, 305 This largely rural group is broadly bilingual, speaking both
294
Refworld, “World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples—Azerbaijan: Russians,” Minority Rights
Group International, 2008, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,COI,MRGI,,AZE,,49749d5ac,0.html
295
Refworld, “World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples—Azerbaijan: Russians,” Minority Rights
Group International, 2008, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,MRGI,,AZE,,49749d5b32,0.html
296
Paul M. Lewis, ed., “Languages of Azerbaijan,” Ethnologue, 2009,
http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=AZ
297
Paul Goble, “Azerbaijan’s Other Ethnic Minorities: Between Politics and Geopolitics,” Azerbaijan Diplomatic
Academy, 1 June 2008, http://ada.edu.az/biweekly/issues/149/20090327123147200.html
298
Azerb, “Krasnaya Sloboda,” n.d., http://www.azerb.com/az-krasnaya.html
299
Mark Elliott, Azerbaijan, with Excursions to Georgia, 2nd ed. (Hindhead, Surrey, UK: Trailblazer Publications,
2004), 165.
300
Andrew Humphreys and Krista Mits, eds., “The Tat People,” in The Red Book of the Peoples of the Russian
Empire (Tallinn, Estonia: NGO Red Book, 2001), http://www.azerb.com/az-tat.html
301
Paul Goble, “Azerbaijan’s Other Ethnic Minorities: Between Politics and Geopolitics,” Azerbaijan Diplomatic
Academy, 1 June 2008, http://ada.edu.az/biweekly/issues/149/20090327123147200.html
302
Central Intelligence Agency, “Azerbaijan: People and Society,” in The World Factbook, 10 September 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook//geos/aj.html
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
their native language and Azerbaijani. The Talysh do not have a written language, but Arabic
script is used whenever it is necessary to write something. 306 In 1993, a Talysh-Mughan
Autonomous Republic was briefly declared in this region by Talysh separatists before
government forces intervened. The Talysh continue to claim their right to an autonomous region,
although not as aggressively as the Lezgin. 307
Religion
Islam
Between 91% and 96% of the people in Azerbaijan identify
themselves as Muslim, with 65%–75% Shi’a and the
remainder Sunni. Sunni Muslims are more predominant in the
north while the Shi’a tend to reside in the south. This regional
difference is rooted in cultural bases rather than strictly
religious ones. 308, 309, 310 Differences between Azerbaijani
Shi’ites and Sunnis have historically been less clearly defined
than in other Muslim regions, and Muslim identity tends to
rest more on culture than on religion. 311 Although Azerbaijan has experienced something of a
religious resurgence since the dissolution of the Soviet Union (numerous mosques have reopened
or been constructed), the majority of Azerbaijani Muslims do not actively practice their
religion. 312, 313
303
Lea Gerber, “Minorities in Azerbaijan: The Sociolinguistic Situation of Lezgis, Udis, Georgians (Ingiloys) and
Talyshs in Azerbaijan—with a Particular Focus on Education” (paper, Cimera, 2007), 11,
http://www.cimera.org/pdf/Minorities_in_Azerbaijan.pdf
304
Gerald Robbins, Azerbaijan: The Growth and Influence of Islam in the Nations of Asia and Central Asia
(Philadelphia: Mason Crest Publishers, 2005), 82.
305
David C. King, Azerbaijan: Cultures of the World (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2006), 87.
306
Andrew Humphreys and Krista Mits, eds., “The Talysh (or the Talishi),” in The Red Book of the Peoples of the
Russian Empire (Tallinn, Estonia: NGO Red Book, 2001), http://www.eki.ee/books/redbook/talysh.shtml
307
Gerald Robbins, Azerbaijan: The Growth and Influence of Islam in the Nations of Asia and Central Asia
(Philadelphia: Mason Crest Publishers, 2005), 82.
308
Central Intelligence Agency, “Azerbaijan: People and Society,” in The World Factbook, 10 September 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook//geos/aj.html
309
Refworld, “2011 Report on International Religious Freedom: Azerbaijan,” Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights,
and Labor, U.S. Department of State, 30 July 2012,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,,,AZE,,502105ddc,0.html
310
Gerald Robbins, Azerbaijan: The Growth and Influence of Islam in the Nations of Asia and Central Asia
(Philadelphia: Mason Crest Publishers, 2005), 74.
311
Refworld, “2011 Report on International Religious Freedom: Azerbaijan,” Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights,
and Labor, U.S. Department of State, 30 July 2012,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,,,AZE,,502105ddc,0.html
312
Anar Valiyev, “Azerbaijan: Islam in a Post-Soviet Republic,” FrontPage Mag.com., 8 December 2005,
http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=6401
313
Refworld, “2011 Report on International Religious Freedom: Azerbaijan,” Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights,
and Labor, U.S. Department of State, 30 July 2012,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,,,AZE,,502105ddc,0.html
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
In Azerbaijan, Islamic practices retain some elements of ancient animist and Zoroastrian
traditions. 314, 315 Azerbaijani Muslims, especially those living in rural mountainous regions, are
as likely to visit sacred shrines (pirs) and the graves of saints as they are to visit mosques. 316
Such practices have been branded as contrary to the tenets of Islam by Salafist Muslims, who
practice a strain of the religion associated with fundamentalist Islam. In areas of northern and
western Azerbaijan, where Sunni Muslims are more prevalent, Salafist organizations have made
some progress in promoting a less tolerant, “purer” form of Islam. But opinions differ regarding
the extent to which Azerbaijan’s more secular brand of Islam is threatened by these groups. 317
Christianity
Christianity once enjoyed a wide following in Azerbaijan. Some
Christians began leaving the country around the end of World War II,
coinciding with Russia’s development of Siberian oil sources. In 1991,
with independence, concern over the future caused many of the
remaining Christians to leave. 318 Today, most Christians in Azerbaijan
are followers of the Russian Orthodox or Armenian Orthodox
(Armenian Apostolic Orthodox) traditions.319 Armenian Orthodox
churches are found in Nagorno-Karabakh and adjacent areas under
Armenian control. 320 Russian Orthodox churches are primarily located
in Baku and on the Abşeron Peninsula. 321
Eastern Orthodox Christianity developed because of a split in the 11th
century between Rome and Constantinople, the two main centers of world Christianity. The
division centered largely on how the two centers viewed the nature of Christ. The split resulted
in a new type of Christianity—Eastern Orthodox—of which both the Russian and Armenian
churches are members. 322
314
Mark Elliot, Azerbaijan, with Excursions to Georgia, 2nd ed. (Hindhead, Surrey, UK: Trailblazer Publications,
2004), 47.
315
Anar Valiyev, “Azerbaijan: Islam in a Post-Soviet Republic,” FrontPage Mag.com., 8 December 2005,
http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=6401
316
David C. King, Azerbaijan: Cultures of the World (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2006), 76–78.
317
Anar Valiyev, “Azerbaijan Increasingly Caught Between Salafism and Iran,” Jamestown Foundation, 24 October
2007, http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=4468
318
Gerald Robbins, Azerbaijan: The Growth and Influence of Islam in the Nations of Asia and Central Asia
(Philadelphia: Mason Crest Publishers, 2005), 77.
319
Central Intelligence Agency, “Azerbaijan: People and Society,” in The World Factbook, 10 September 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook//geos/aj.html
320
Refworld, “Freedom in the World 2012: Nagorno-Karabakh,” Freedom House, 7 September 2012,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,,,ARM,,504dad7523,0.html
321
Russkiy Mir Foundation, “The Russian Diaspora in Azerbaijan,” 15 January 2010,
http://www.russkiymir.ru/russkiymir/en/publications/articles/article0119.html
322
Mark Nickens, “1054: The Year Christianity Split for the First Time,” Christian Timelines, 2009,
http://www.christiantimelines.com/1054.htm
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
Judaism
Approximately 20,000 Jews live in Azerbaijan, the majority in
Baku. Much of Baku’s Jewish population consists of Mountain
Jews who have moved to the area. Besides Krasnaya Sloboda,
small pockets of Mountain Jews can be found in the small
villages of Oğuz and Privolnoe. 323 Mountain Jews observe
customs somewhat different from Jews in other parts of the
world. Mountain Jews remove their shoes before entering a
sanctuary. Few speak or read Hebrew, learning the verses of
the prayers and chants by memory. Women are not allowed to
attend services nor are they allowed to work. 324, 325
Cuisine
Kebab, known locally by the Russian word shashlyk, is
ubiquitous in Azerbaijan. The typical kebab consists of
skewered chunks of marinated meat (tika), but, unlike in the
United States, the meat (typically lamb) is grilled on separate
skewers from the vegetables. 326, 327 A variation is the lüla
kebab, in which minced lamb is mixed with spices and herbs,
shaped into a ball, and grilled on skewers.
Another popular Azerbaijani dish is dolma, which comes in
several varieties based on the type of casings and ingredients. Spiced lamb and rice mixtures
wrapped in grape leaves are known as yarpaq dolmasi, whereas cabbage leaves are used as the
wrappings for kalam dolmasi. Tomatoes, sweet peppers, and eggplants are also sometimes used
as dolma casings. 328, 329
Other traditional Azerbaijani dishes include dovğa (hot soup made with yogurt, rice, spinach, and
onions), doğrama (cold soup with sour milk, cucumbers, potatoes, and onions), piti (lamb stew
with chickpeas and potatoes and sometimes spiced with saffron), plov (a meat and rice pilaf),
baliq (a fish kebab, often using sturgeon, served with a sour plum sauce), and duşbara (small
dumplings filled with minced lamb and served in a hot broth). A regional dish from the
323
Joanna Sloame, “Virtual Jewish History Tour: Azerbaijan,” Jewish Virtual Library, 2012,
http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Azerbaijan.html
324
Inga Saffron, Philadelphia Inquirer, “The Mountain Jews of Guba,” Azerbaijan International 6, no. 2 (Summer
1998), http://www.azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/62_folder/62_articles/62_mountainjews.html
325
Sarah Marcus, “Mountain Jews,” Tablet, 26 August 2010, http://www.tabletmag.com/jewish-news-andpolitics/42649/mountain-jews
326
David C. King, Azerbaijan: Cultures of the World (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2006), 119.
327
Richard Plunkett and Tom Masters, Lonely Planet: Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan, 2nd ed. (Footscray,
Victoria, Australia: Lonely Planet Publications, 2004) 197–98.
328
David C. King, Azerbaijan: Cultures of the World (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2006), 120.
329
Mark Elliott, Azerbaijan, with Excursions to Georgia, 2nd ed. (Hindhead, Surrey, UK: Trailblazer Publications,
2004). 21–22.
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
Länkäran-Talysh region in southeastern Azerbaijan is lävängi, which consists of baked chicken
stuffed with walnuts, pomegranate seeds, raisins, and rice. 330
Seventy years of Soviet rule have left a culinary imprint on Azerbaijan as well. Under the Soviet
planned economy, which designated certain regions as suppliers for the rest of the country, rice
fields in southern Azerbaijan were shifted to cabbage, potatoes, and wheat. Russian dishes such
as borscht (beet-and-cabbage soup), stolichni (potato salad with shredded chicken and diced
vegetables), goulash, salad vinaigrette (beans, potatoes, carrots, beets, cabbage), meat cutlets,
and shi (fish soup) largely replaced many traditional rice-based dishes, such as rice pilaf, which
were thereafter reserved for special occasions. 331, 332 Common desserts shifted from shakarbura
(a crescent-shaped pastry filled with nuts) or pakhlava (baklava) to cake and ice cream. Alcohol
consumption also became more common, particularly at social celebrations such as weddings. 333
Traditional Dress
Today, Western dress is the common style throughout
Azerbaijan. Full traditional costumes are generally reserved
for dances or other types of folk performances and for special
occasions such as weddings. Some older men still wear the
papah, a round wool hat. 334
Rural women sometimes wear traditional clothing consisting
of a long pleated skirt, long-sleeved blouse, and a long piece
of cloth (charshab) wrapped around the skirt. Some
Azerbaijani women, mostly younger ones, wear kerchiefs (orpack). 335 Women may also wear
head scarves or other types of head or facial coverings. Although women in many Muslim
countries face great pressure to follow strict Islamic traditions concerning appropriate dress,
Azerbaijani women have occasionally found themselves in legal battles over their rights to wear
headscarves, particularly in photos for use in identity papers. 336, 337, 338
330
“Stuffed Chicken: Lavangi,” Azerbaijan International 8, no. 3 (Autumn 2000),
http://www.azari.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/83_folder/83_articles/83_265.html
331
Pirouz Khanlou, “Forgotten Foods: Comparison of the Cuisines of Northern and Southern Azerbaijan,”
Azerbaijan International 10, no. 4 (Winter 2002, reprinted from Autumn 2000),
http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai104_folder/104_articles/104_food_north_south.html
332
Tahir Amiraslanov, “From Pilaf to Pizza: A Road Map of Azerbaijani Cuisine,” Azerbaijan International 8, no. 3
(Autumn 2000), http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/83_folder/83_articles/83_amiraslanov.html
333
Tahir Amiraslanov, “From Pilaf to Pizza: A Road Map of Azerbaijani Cuisine,” Azerbaijan International 8, no. 3
(Autumn 2000), http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/83_folder/83_articles/83_amiraslanov.html
334
CultureGrams Online Edition, “Azerbaijan,” 2012.
335
CultureGrams Online Edition, “Azerbaijan,” 2012.
336
Stephen Mulvey, “Azerbaijani Women Celebrate Headscarf Victory,” BBC, 27 June 1999,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/376380.stm
337
Nigar Musayeva, “Headscarves Provoke Bitter Controversy,” Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 23 August
2007, http://iwpr.net/report-news/headscarves-provoke-bitter-controversy
338
Shahin Abbasov, “Azerbaijan: Hijab Ban in Schools Fuels Debate in Baku on Role of Islam,” EurasiaNet.org, 6
January 2011, http://www.eurasianet.org/node/62670
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
Gender Issues
Since independence, Azerbaijan has wrestled with the role of women
and equality for women. Women are still regarded primarily as
homemakers and the keepers of tradition, despite a 1994 decree by the
president to increase the role of women in the nation. 339, 340 The
national constitution guarantees gender equality. In 2006, the nation
adopted a law on Guarantees of Gender (Men and Women) Equality in
an effort to end discrimination and sexual harassment. Nevertheless, it
has been difficult to end traditional ideas about gender. Although
women work outside the home, they are overrepresented in lower and
middle management positions and have few senior positions in
government. 341 Women have fewer employment opportunities than
men and tend to be concentrated in female-type occupations, such as education; the average
salary for a woman is only 57% of a man’s. 342, 343
Under Soviet rule, there was nominal equality between men and women. After independence
some of that legacy remained, although traditional patriarchal values, suppressed during the
Soviet years, began to reemerge. 344 Popular folk sayings, such as “Give me seven sons and a
single daughter,” often suggest that women are less valued than men 345 But these views exist
alongside acknowledgment of a matriarchate of strong and influential women who helped rule
the country centuries ago. 346
Yet the traditional patriarchy of the nation has been particularly resistant to change. Family
gender roles make men the breadwinners and the family authority figure. Women are responsible
for domestic chores, raising children, and passing on the culture and traditions of the country.
339
National Centre for Productivity and Competitiveness, International Labour Organization, “Development of
Gender Equality and Woman Entrepreneurship Program: Evaluation of the Situation for Development of Woman
Entrepreneurship” (National Report, Baku, 2009), 7,
http://www.ilo.org/public/english/region/eurpro/moscow/info/publ/employment/dev_gend_eq_wom_ent_prog.pdf
340
Yuliya Aliyeva Gureyeva, “Azerbaijan: Policy Attitudes Towards Women in Azerbaijan: Is Equality Part of the
Agenda?” Gunder Werner Institute, n.d., http://www.gwi-boell.de/web/democracy-100-years-women%27s-dayazerbaijan-equality-3061.html
341
National Centre for Productivity and Competitiveness, International Labour Organization, “Development of
Gender Equality and Woman Entrepreneurship Program: Evaluation of the Situation for Development of Woman
Entrepreneurship” (National Report, Baku, 2009), 7–8,
http://www.ilo.org/public/english/region/eurpro/moscow/info/publ/employment/dev_gend_eq_wom_ent_prog.pdf
342
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), “Azerbaijan Gender Profile,” 5 March 2007,
http://www.ifad.org/english/gender/cen/profiles/aze.htm
343
National Centre for Productivity and Competitiveness, International Labour Organization, “Development of
Gender Equality and Woman Entrepreneurship Program: Evaluation of the Situation for Development of Woman
Entrepreneurship” (National Report, Baku, 2009), 28,
http://www.ilo.org/public/english/region/eurpro/moscow/info/publ/employment/dev_gend_eq_wom_ent_prog.pdf
344
UN Population Fund (UNFPA), “UNFPA: Supporting Gender Equality in Azerbaijan,” n.d.,
http://www.unfpa.org.tr/azerbaijan/gender-situation.htm
345
UN Development Programme, Azerbaijan Human Development Report 2007, “Gender Attitudes in Azerbaijan:
Trends and Challenges,” 2007, 14, http://www.un-az.org/doc/nhdr2007gendereng.pdf
346
UN Development Programme, Azerbaijan Human Development Report 2007, “Gender Attitudes in Azerbaijan:
Trends and Challenges,” 2007, 13–15, http://www.un-az.org/doc/nhdr2007gendereng.pdf
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
Both men and women tend to take these roles for granted and appear not to challenge the
situation. 347 Gender roles are particularly strong in rural areas. 348 Traditional views about a
women’s reputation often result in restrictions on a woman’s freedoms, inhibiting, for example,
travel and educational opportunities. Girls sometimes marry at a young age to secure financial
stability for themselves and their families. Azerbaijan’s constitutional guarantees of freedom and
equal protection for women are inconsistently reinforced. Patriarchy often wins out, leaving the
goal of equality between men and women unfulfilled. 349, 350
Arts
Literature
Most of Azerbaijan’s classic poets wrote in Persian. The 12th
and early 13th centuries were a golden age of poetry in the
region, when Khagani Shirvani (1120–1199), Mehsati Ganjavi
(precise dates unknown), and Nizami Ganjavi (1141–1209) all
practiced their craft. Nizami, who was born in Gäncä and lived
his entire life there, is considered by many to be the greatest
romantic epic poet to write in the Persian language. 351 His epic
Khamsa includes five poems inspired, in part, by legendary
love stories. Today, virtually every town in Azerbaijan has a statue of Nizami. 352, 353, 354
Four centuries later, poet Mehmed bin Suleyman Fuzuli (ca. 1498–1556) composed his own
version of Layli and Majnun (one of the five stories of Nizami’s Khamsa) in Azeri-Turk. This
and other poems by Fuzuli are generally considered some of the first important written works in
the Azerbaijani language. 355, 356
During the 19th century, following Russia’s conquest of the Azerbaijani khanates, Azerbaijani
writers began exploring new formats and themes. Notable among this generation of literary
talents was Mirza Fatali Akhundov (1812–1878), who wrote some of the first plays in the
Azerbaijani language. Akhundov’s stage works were comedic social critiques that compelled
347
UN Development Programme, Azerbaijan Human Development Report 2007, “Gender Attitudes in Azerbaijan:
Trends and Challenges,” 2007, 53–54, http://www.un-az.org/doc/nhdr2007gendereng.pdf
348
Transparency International Azerbaijan, “TI Azerbaijan Gender Audit Report” (final draft, 8 February 2010),
http://www.transparency.az/genrep/TI-Az%20Gender%20Audit%20Report.pdf
349
UN Population Fund (UNFPA), “UNFPA: Supporting Gender Equality in Azerbaijan,” n.d.,
http://www.unfpa.org.tr/azerbaijan/gender-situation.htm
350
UN Development Programme, Azerbaijan Human Development Report 2007, “Gender Attitudes in Azerbaijan:
Trends and Challenges,” 2007, 13–19, http://www.un-az.org/doc/nhdr2007gendereng.pdf
351
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Nezāmī,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/413374/Nezami#
352
Countries and Their Cultures, “Azerbaijani Turks: History and Cultural Relations,” 2012,
http://www.everyculture.com/Russia-Eurasia-China/Azerbaijani-Turks-History-and-Cultural-Relations.html
353
David C. King, Azerbaijan: Cultures of the World (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2006), 90–91.
354
Office of Communication of Azerbaijan, “Literature,” n.d., http://ocaz.eu/literature.html
355
Turkish Cultural Foundation (TCF), “Muhammed Fuzuli (1498–1556),” 2011,
http://www.turkishculture.org/pages.php?SearchID=634
356
Danielle Systermans and Michael Kohn, Lonely Planet: Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan (Footscray, Victoria,
Australia: Lonely Planet Publications, 2004), 195.
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
some contemporary commentators to compare him with the French playwright Molière. 357
Akhundov played a significant role in lobbying for a Latin alphabet for the Azerbaijani language
rather than an Arabic script. 358
One of the most renowned works by an Azerbaijani writer of the 20th century is the novel Ali
and Nino (or Layli and Majnun). Similar to Romeo and Juliet, it is a story of doomed love set in
Baku and other parts of the Caucasus during 1918–20. Originally published in 1937 in German,
the book has been translated into 28 languages and is still widely read. The author, known under
the pseudonym Kurban Said, is thought to have been Baku-raised Lev Nussimbaum. 359 More
recently, the novels and stories of Azerbaijani writer Anar Rzaev are credited with helping break
down the narrow literary boundaries of socialist realism from the Soviet era. 360
Music
Mugam, a traditional Azerbaijani musical form described as
part poetry and part song, remains popular. Mugam
compositions utilize one of seven different tonal scales, each
invoking a different mood or emotion. Improvisation within
the musical and lyrical forms is a characteristic element of its
performance. 361, 362, 363 Various instruments are used, with the
tar and kamancha being two of the most common. The tar is a
long-necked lute-like instrument that has 5, 11, or 13 mostly
paired strings. 364, 365 The kamancha is similar to a spike fiddle and has 3, 4, or 5 strings played
with a bow. 366, 367
Mugam compositions are typically accompanied by lyrics derived from Persian, Arabic, or Azeri
poetry, often with a theme connected to the search for divine love. Mugam singers play the
gaval, a tambourine-like percussive instrument used to set the tempo of the piece. 368, 369 One of
357
Tadeusz Swietochowski, Russia and Azerbaijan: A Borderland in Transition (New York: Columbia University
Press, 1995), 26.
358
Farid Alakbarov, “Mirza Fatali Akhundov: Alphabet Reformer Before His Time,” Azerbaijan International 8, no.
1 (Spring 2000), http://www.azeri.org/Azeri/az_english/81_folder/81_articles/81_akhundov.html
359
Elin Suleymanov, “‘Ali and Nino’ by Kurban Said: Inside the Soul of a Caucasian,” Azerbaijan International 12,
no. 2 (Summer 2004),
http://www.azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai122_folder/122_articles/122_suleymanov_elin.html
360
Joseph P. Mozur, review of “Subversive Imaginations: Fantastic Prose and the End of Soviet Literature, 1970s–
1990s” by Nadya L. Peterson, Slavic Review 56, no. 4 (1997): 822, http://www.jstor.org/pss/2502169
361
Jo’s Nexus, “Mugam,” n.d., http://www.datacomm.ch/lawless/mugam.htm
362
David C. King, Azerbaijan: Cultures of the World (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2006), 94–95.
363
“Mugham Documentary 1 Unique Music to Azerbaijan Only!” YouTube video, 10:04, uploaded by azerimusic
on 10 July 2007, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FNwJxsIwetw
364
Mark Elliott, Azerbaijan, with Excursions to Georgia, 2nd ed. (Hindhead, Surrey, UK: Trailblazer Publications,
2004), 56.
365
Azerjaiban Republic, Garabagh Region, “Tar,” 2012, http://garabagh.net/content_238_en.html
366
Atlas of Traditional Music of Azerbaijan, “Kamancha,” n.d., http://atlas.musigi-dunya.az/en/kamancha.html
367
Kamancha.com, “The Kamancha of Azerbaijan: The History of Kamancha,” 2012 http://www.kamancha.com/
368
Betty Blair and Priouz Khanlou, “Alim Gasimov: Master of Mugham,” Azerbaijan International 9, no. 1 (Spring
2001), http://www.azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/91_folder/91_articles/91_alim.html
369
Mugam Radio, “Instruments: Gaval (Daf),” 2011, http://www.mugamradio.az/instruments/gaval-daf
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
Azerbaijan’s foremost mugam singers is Alim Qasimov, a Baku resident who was named the
laureate of the prestigious UNESCO Music Prize in 1999, placing him in the company of past
winners such as Dmitri Shostakovich, Leonard Bernstein, Ravi Shankar, Benny Goodman,
Miriam Makeba, and Oscar Peterson. 370
Another ancient Azerbaijani musical tradition that continues to this day is practiced by
wandering minstrels known as ashugs. Ashug music has been compared to mugam, but several
distinctions separate them. Instead of a mugam trio, ashugs are generally soloists, accompanying
themselves on a large lute-like instrument known as a saz. Ashug songs tend to be more
rhythmically focused, and the lyrics are more improvisational, reflecting an oral, folkloric
tradition rather than mugam’s more classical, written tradition. 371
A more modern musical form that is popular in Azerbaijan is jazz. Improvisation, an element
linking both mugam and ashug music, makes the newer art form a natural fit in Azerbaijan’s
musical scene. An international jazz festival is held in Baku each April, attracting worldrenowned artists such as the Azerbaijani jazz pianist Aziza Mustafa Zadeh, whose innovative
father, Vagiv, fused mugam and jazz traditions into a uniquely Azerbaijani form in the 1950s–
1970s. 372, 373
Folk Culture and Folklore
Between 1906 and 1931, a Baku-published satirical journal titled Molla Nasreddin regularly
addressed the social and political issues and injustices of the day. This influential journal took its
name from a significant and well-known character in Azerbaijani folklore, Molla Nasreddin.
Surprisingly, this magazine was able to survive through a tumultuous quarter century that
featured the Bolshevik Revolution, the founding of the first Azerbaijan republic, and the
subsequent fall of the republic to Bolshevik forces. 374
For centuries in Azerbaijan and adjacent regions, Molla Nasreddin has been known as the
sometimes foolish but often sage character of countless folk stories and anecdotes. Different
cultures, from the Mediterranean basin to Central Asia, have modified or developed their own
versions of the Molla Nasreddin stories, which are used to convey morals or traditional
wisdom. 375
370
UNESCO, “Prize Laureates, 1975–2005,” n.d., http://www.unesco.org/imc/programmes/prize_laureates.htm
Anna Oldfield, “Music of the Bards: So You Want to Become an Ashug…” Azerbaijan International 12, no. 4
(Winter 2004), http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai124_folder/124_articles/124_ashug_atilla.html
372
Betty Blair, “Mugham Jam: Vagif Mustafazade: Musical Roots in Baku’s Old City,” Azerbaijan International 12,
no. 3 (Autumn 2004),
http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai123_folder/123_articles/123_vagif_mustafazade_eng.html
373
Raul d’Gama Rose, “Aziza Mustafa Zadeh: Body and Soul and Mugam!” All About Jazz, 6 March 2004,
http://www.allaboutjazz.com/php/article.php?id=1227
374
Jala Garibova, “Molla Nasraddin—The Magazine: Laughter That Pricked the Conscience of a Nation,”
Azerbaijan International 4, no. 3 (Autumn 1996),
http://www.azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/43_folder/43_articles/43_mollamag.html
375
“Molla Nasreddin: Comic Sage of the Ages,” Azerbaijan International 4, no. 3 (Autumn 1996),
http://www.azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/43_folder/43_articles/43_molla.html
371
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
Folktales have long been important worldwide for teaching children valuable cultural lessons,
and Azerbaijani tales are no exception. One popular story known to most Azerbaijani children is
“Jirtdan,” in which a small, weak boy defeats a monster by using his intelligence. 376 Another
traditional story, “How the Dove Became the Bird of Peace,” was published in an Azerbaijani
reader for fifth-graders in 1994, the year that a cease-fire was called in the bloody NagornoKarabakh war, which left Azerbaijan with hundreds of thousands of internally displaced
refugees. One of the themes of the story is the need to consider the consequences of warfare. 377
Sports and Recreation
If Azerbaijan were to pick a national recreational activity, the most
likely selection would be nard, one of the world’s oldest board games
and a slight variant of backgammon. 378, 379 Another popular
Azerbaijani board game is chess. 380 Garry Kasparov, considered by
many to be the greatest chess champion of all time, is a Baku native. 381
Of the country’s active chess players, Teimour Radjabov of Baku,
Gashimov Vugar, and Shakhriyar Mamedyarov of Sumqayit are
ranked among the top 25 players in the world. 382 Eltaj Safarli is the
world’s 10th-ranked junior player. 383
Football (soccer) is popular in Azerbaijan and is the top spectator
sport. 384 Azerbaijan has won at least one medal in various sports at every summer Olympics
since 1996. 385 They have won gold medals in the sports of judo, Greco-Roman wrestling, skeet,
and freestyle wrestling. They have also medaled in weightlifting and boxing. 386
Several traditional sports remain popular, including a style of wrestling known as gulesh. The
sport combines mental and physical strength and is regarded as a symbol of Azerbaijan’s culture.
The warmup is a ritual dance in which bare-chested men, wearing loose embroidered pants
belted with cloth, circle each other swinging their arms. After several salutatory gestures, the
competitors hit each other three times, alternating shoulders, and then jump away from each
376
Just for Kids, “Children’s Folklore,” Azerbaijan International 4, no. 3 (Autumn 1996),
http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/43_folder/43_articles/43_children.html
377
Just for Kids, “How the Dove Became the Bird of Peace,” Azerbaijan International 4, no. 3 (Autumn 1996)
http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/43_folder/43_articles/43_peace.html
378
David C. King, Azerbaijan: Cultures of the World (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2006), 105.
379
The European Azerbaijan Society, “Azerbaijan: Sport,” 2012, http://teas.eu/sport
380
David C. King, Azerbaijan: Cultures of the World (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2006), 105–6.
381
Fred Waitzkin, “King Kasparov,” New York Times Magazine, 7 October 1990,
http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE4D81E3EF934A35753C1A966958260&sec=&spon=&page
wanted=1
382
World Chess Federation, “Top 100 Players September 2012: Archive,” 2012,
http://ratings.fide.com/toparc.phtml?cod=225
383
World Chess Federation, “Top 100 Juniors September 2012: Archive,” 2012,
http://ratings.fide.com/toparc.phtml?cod=227
384
David C. King, Azerbaijan: Cultures of the World (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2006), 109.
385
The European Azerbaijan Society, “Azerbaijan: Sport,” 2012, http://teas.eu/sport
386
BBC Sport Olympics, “Medals for Azerbaijan,” 2012,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/olympics/2012/medals/countries/azerbaijan
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
other signaling their readiness to fight. Gulesh competitions are held throughout the country. 387,
388
Other popular games, especially in rural areas, include Cockfight for boys and Seven Beauties
for girls. In Cockfight, two teams face each other in a circle. One team stands on their left legs
and the other on their right with hands on their hips. They then try to force each other out of the
circle. 389 In Seven Beauties, seven girls crochet stockings; the winner is the young woman who
completes the highest quality stocking in the shortest amount of time. 390, 391
387
Azerbaijan 24, “Traditional Wrestling: Gulesh,” 2012, http://azerbaijan24.com/component/content/article/36other/83-Traditional-wrestling
388
David C. King, Azerbaijan: Cultures of the World (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2006), 108.
389
David C. King, Azerbaijan: Cultures of the World (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2006), 108.
390
The European Azerbaijan Society, “Azerbaijan: Sport,” 2012, http://teas.eu/sport
391
David C. King, Azerbaijan: Cultures of the World (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2006), 109.
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
Chapter 4 Assessment
1. The Azeri ethnic group represents the majority of Azerbaijan’s population.
True
Azeris, who speak a northern version of the Azerbaijani language, account for between
80% and 90% of the country’s population.
2. In Azerbaijan, many followers of Islam incorporate ancient animist and Zoroastrian
elements into their religious practices.
True
Although there are some fundamentalist sects of Islam in the country, many Azerbaijani
Muslims observe ancient religious traditions, such as visiting sacred shrines and the
graves of venerated figures.
3. There are strong religious tensions between the Sunni and Shi’a Muslims in Azerbaijan.
False
Although Azerbaijanis are predominantly Muslim, little tension exists between the Shi’a
and Sunni communities. Religion does not play significant role in the Azerbaijani
identity.
4. One of the most popular board games in Azerbaijan is gulesh.
False
If Azerbaijan were to pick a national recreational activity, the most likely selection would
be nard, one of the world’s oldest board games. Gulesh is a style of wrestling.
5. Because of many years of Soviet rule, Azerbaijani cuisine reflects significant Russian
influences.
True
As Azerbaijan became an important agricultural supply center for the rest of the Soviet
Union, the nation’s crops (and thus its food products) shifted from rice to traditional
Russian staples such as potatoes and cabbage.
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
CHAPTER 5: SECURITY
Introduction
Azerbaijan lies in a region of complex and often adversarial political
interests and histories. Iran, Russia, and Turkey, with their conflicting
regional strategies, are among the nations that border Azerbaijan,
compelling the Azerbaijani government to work toward a balance in
pursuing and establishing policy. 392, 393 In addition, the region’s ethnic
diversity has made the government’s task of establishing an
Azerbaijani national identity especially difficult. The challenge is to
unify the populace without neglecting the cultural and linguistic rights
of minority citizens, many of whom live near the Russian and Iranian
borders. 394, 395 Threats from radical Islamist groups are also a concern,
although the nation’s religious tolerance and lack of a sharp SunniShi’a divide have created conditions that are not particularly conducive to the spread of Islamic
fundamentalism. 396, 397
In recent years, Azerbaijan has made efforts to form a greater military and economic alignment
with the West, as evidenced by its participation in NATO’s Partnership for Peace Program and
its construction of oil and gas pipelines that bypass Russia and Iran. These efforts bring both
rewards and risks. Foremost among potential risks is a strain in relations with Russia and Iran,
both of whom are opposed to increasing Western military influence in the southern Caucasus.
Russia’s intervention in Georgia’s conflicts in South Ossetia and Abkhazia in August 2008 have
raised concerns that Azerbaijan’s own stalled conflict—the Nagorno-Karabakh War—could lead
to outside intervention from Russia, a key ally of Armenia, if fighting were to resume. 398, 399
392
Wilson Center, Kennan Institute, “Events: Azerbaijan and the New Geopolitics of Eurasia: Foreign Policy
Strategies, Caspian Energy Security, and Great Power Politics,” 14 October 2008,
http://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/azerbaijan-and-the-new-geopolitics-eurasia-foreign-policy-strategies-caspianenergy-security
393
Burcu Gültekin-Punsmann, “Chapter 5: Azerbaijan in the Changing State Quo: Adaptation Strategies,” in
Reassessing Security in the South Caucasus: Regional Conflicts and Transformation, ed. Annie Jafalian (Surrey,
England: Ashgate Publishing, 2011), 75–88.
394
Javid J. Huseynov, “Azerbaijani National Identity: Historical and Contemporary Context” (paper, 15th Annual
Convention of the Association for Study of Nationalities, Columbia University, 15 April 2010), 2–3, 7–13,
http://vugar-seidov.azeris.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/04/Javid-Huseynov-presentation-at-ASN-April-2010.pdf
395
Ceylan Tokluoglu, “Definitions of National Identity, Nationalism and Ethnicity in Post-Soviet Azerbaijan in the
1990s,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 28, no. 4 (July 2005): 722–49,
http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/eBooks/Articles/National%20Identity%20in%20Postco%20AZ%20Tokluoglu.pdf
396
Jane’s, “Security (Azerbaijan),” Sentinel Security Assessment—Russia and the CIS, 13 July 2012.
397
Anar Valiyev, “Azerbaijan: Islam in a Post-Soviet Republic,” Middle East Review of International Affairs 9, no.
4 (December 2005):1–2, 5–11,
http://azerbaijandiplomaticacademy.academia.edu/AValiyev/Papers/1176562/Azerbaijan_Islam_in_a_postsoviet_republic
398
Tamara Grigoryeva, “Azerbaijan: Public Angry at Russian Offensive,” Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 19
August 2008, http://iwpr.net/report-news/azerbaijan-public-angry-russian-offensive
399
Jane’s, “External Affairs (Azerbaijan),” Sentinel Security Assessment—Russia and the CIS, 21 December 2010.
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U.S.-Azerbaijani Relations
Relations between the United States and Azerbaijan are
cordial. The United States regards continued good relations
with Azerbaijan important, particularly in view of its strategic
location. 400, 401 The U.S. government has promoted broad
American investment in the Azerbaijani economy, although to
date most of the funding has been directed toward the energy
sector. The United States, along with Russia and France, is a
co-chair of the Minsk Group, which is providing the
framework for negotiations to end the standoff in NagornoKarabakh.
Relations between the two countries have been tested somewhat by Washington’s unhappiness
with the slow pace of reform in Azerbaijan. Corruption in business, periodic crackdowns and
restrictions on political dissent, and judicial interference with independent election-monitoring
groups have all been subjects of criticism made by U.S. government representatives. 402, 403
The two countries have important strategic reasons for maintaining strong relations. For the
United States, Azerbaijan is a significant supplier of oil and gas to European markets through the
Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan (BTC) pipeline, which was built by a consortium of oil companies that
included the U.S. firms ConocoPhillips and Unocal. The United States government lobbied
strongly for the Azerbaijan-Georgia-Turkey route, rather than routing Caspian oil through Iran to
the south or through Russia to the north. 404, 405
Azerbaijan, for its part, looks to the West and, in particular, to the United States as an important
geopolitical counterweight to Russia. Although Azerbaijan has maintained workable relations
with Russia since independence, its long history of forced integration into the Russian state has
given Azerbaijani leaders strong reason to develop economic and security ties to the West. 406, 407
400
Jim Nichol, “Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia: Political Developments and Implications for U.S. Interests”
(report, Congressional Research Service, 27 September 2012), 3, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33453.pdf
401
Jim Nichol, “Azerbaijan: Recent Developments and U.S. Interests” (report, Congressional Research Service, 29
June 2012), Summary, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/97-522.pdf
402
America.gov Archive, “State’s Fried Remarks on Situation in South Caucasus Region,” 19 June 2008,
http://www.america.gov/st/texttrans-english/2008/June/20080619105352xjsnommis0.4269831.html
403
Jim Nichol, “Azerbaijan: Recent Developments and U.S. Interests” (report, Congressional Research Service, 29
June 2012), 2, 4–5, 8–9, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/97-522.pdf
404
Fiona Hill, “Pipelines in the Caspian: Catalyst or Cure-All?” Georgetown Journal of International Affairs
(Winter/Spring 2004): 17–19,
http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/articles/2004/3/spring%20russia%20hill/20040301.pdf
405
Jim Nichol, “Azerbaijan: Recent Developments and U.S. Interests” (report, Congressional Research Service, 29
June 2012), 10–11, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/97-522.pdf
406
Fiona Hill, “Pipelines in the Caspian: Catalyst or Cure-All?” Georgetown Journal of International Affairs
(Winter/Spring 2004): 19, http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/Files/rc/articles/2004/spring_russia_hill/20040301.pdf
407
America.gov Archive, “State’s Fried Remarks on Situation in South Caucasus Region,” 19 June 2008,
http://www.america.gov/st/texttrans-english/2008/June/20080619105352xjsnommis0.4269831.html
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
Relations with Neighboring Countries
Armenia
Azerbaijan views Armenia as the main threat to its national
security, and relations between the neighbors are hostile. The
two countries officially remain at war because of the failure to
negotiate a peace treaty in the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, and
the border remains closed. 408, 409, 410 Since 1992, negotiations
to settle the Nagorno-Karabakh dispute have been carried out
through the Minsk Group, an ad hoc body representing the
Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe
(OSCE). 411 The negotiations have not included any representatives of the self-declared NagornoKarabakh Republic (NKR), which is not recognized by any country, including Armenia. With
little indigenous economy left, the NKR is heavily dependent on Armenia and the large
worldwide Armenian diaspora for economic assistance. 412 Both sides continue to blame each
other for the protracted war, which shows no sign of ending. Cease-fire violations in 2012 left
several troops dead, leading to fears that the situation could escalate. 413, 414
Complicating the situation in Nagorno-Karabakh is the sensitive geopolitical nature of the
region. Since independence, Armenia and Azerbaijan have devoted time and energy to
cultivating relations with their powerful neighbors. 415, 416, 417
Georgia
Azerbaijan and Georgia have cordial relations and a strong strategic partnership cemented by
shared economic and political interests. 418, 419 The BTC oil pipeline runs from Baku through
408
BBC, “Conflict Overshadows Armenia Polls,” 18 February 2008, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7250235.stm
Jane’s, “External Affairs (Azerbaijan),” Sentinel Security Assessment—Russia and the CIS, 21 December 2010.
410
Carim-east.eu, “Border Management in the Republic of Armenia,” December 2011, http://www.carimeast.eu/media/sociopol_module/ARM_Border%20management.pdf
411
Carol Migdalovitz, “Armenia-Azerbaijan Conflict” (issue brief, Congressional Research Service, 8 August 2003),
3, http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/crs/ib92109.pdf
412
Jim Nichol, “Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia: Security Issues and Implications for U.S. Interests” (report,
Congressional Research Service, 14 January 2009), 6, http://ftp.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL30679.pdf
413
David M. Herszenhorn, “Armenia and Azerbaijan Blame Each Other for Protracted War, New York Times, 19
June 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/20/world/europe/leaders-call-for-end-to-armenia-azerbaijan-war.html
414
Armenian Mirror-Spectator, “Armenian Forces Kill Five Azeri Soldiers: After Border Infiltration Three
Armenian Soldiers Die Repelling Attack,” 6 June 2012, http://www.mirrorspectator.com/2012/06/06/armenianforces-kill-five-azeri-soldiers-after-border-infiltration-three-armenian-soldiers-die-repelling-attack/
415
Oleg Shchedrov, “Russia, Armenia to Stay Close: New Presidents,” Reuters, 24 March 2008,
http://www.reuters.com/article/gc07/idUSL2435859820080324?pageNumber=1&virtualBrandChannel=0
416
Robin Forestier, “Isolated Armenia Leans on Iran,” BBC, 24 July 2008,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7514341.stm
417
Michael Cecire, “Azerbaijan-Armenia Tensions: Regional Risks, Policy Changes,” World Politics Review
(WPR), 12 June 2012, http://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/articles/12046/azerbaijan-armenia-tensions-regionalrisks-policy-challenges
418
Zaur Shiriyev, “‘Time Tested Friendship’: Azerbaijan-Georgian Relations,” Cesran International, 26 July 2010,
http://www.cesran.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=954%3Aqtime-tested-friendshipqazerbaijangeorgian-relations-&catid=57%3Amakale-ve-raporlar&Itemid=312&lang=en
409
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
Georgia to Turkey’s oil terminals on the Mediterranean Sea (near the city of Ceyhan). A gas
pipeline follows the BTC route for a portion of the distance. The two countries are further linked
economically through a bilateral free trade agreement that went into effect in 1996. 420 The
balance of trade between the two nations favors Azerbaijan. 421, 422
Relations are sometimes strained by complaints of discrimination from ethnic Azeris in the
Kvemo Kartli region of southern Georgia. 423, 424 A somewhat contentious border issue concerns
the status of an ancient Georgian Orthodox monastery complex known as David Gareji in
Georgia and as Keshish Dagh in Azerbaijan. The Soviet-drawn boundary runs through David
Gareji, and Georgia has made efforts to negotiate a boundary settlement giving it sovereignty
over the full area in exchange for a tract of land located elsewhere along the border. Azerbaijan
has been hesitant to cede its portion of the complex because of its strategic value as the highest
point in the region. Recently, both sides have agreed to settle the dispute, although a conclusion
has not yet been reached. 425, 426 In spite of these occasional problems, relations are stronger now
than in the past. 427
Iran
Even though Iran and Azerbaijan are both predominantly Shi’a Muslim
nations, the two neighbors have had cautious relations for much of the
last two decades. 428 Relations reached their lowest point in 2001, when
Azerbaijan accused Iran of trying to destabilize the Azerbaijani
government through its support of radical Islamic sects. In 2012,
tensions escalated further following Iranian accusations that
Azerbaijan provided safe havens to assassins targeting Iranian nuclear
scientists. 429
Azerbaijan has followed a secular path since independence, quite
419
Asbarez, “Whoever Opposes Azerbaijan Is Georgia’s ‘Enemy,’ Says Saakashvili,” 4 August 2011,
http://asbarez.com/97475/whoever-opposes-azerbaijan-is-georgia%E2%80%99s-%E2%80%98enemy%E2%80%99says-saakashvili/
420
World Trade Law, “Free Trade Agreement Between Georgia and Azerbaijan,” 8 March 1996,
http://www.worldtradelaw.net/fta/agreements/geoazefta.pdf
421
State Statistical Committee of the Republic of Azerbaijan, “Main Trade Partners of Azerbaijan in 2011 (thsd. US
$),” 2011, http://www.azstat.org/publications/azfigures/2012/en/018en.shtml
422
Jane’s, “External Affairs (Azerbaijan),” Sentinel Security Assessment—Russia and the CIS, 21 December 2010.
423
OHCHR, “Human Rights Monitoring Group of Ethnic Minorities: Renewal of Toponymy as One of the Real
Steps on Reinstatement of Interethnic Dialog in Kvemo-Kartli Region in Georgia,” n.d.,
http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cerd/docs/ngos/MRMG_Georgia79.pdf
424
International Federation for Human Rights (FIDH), “Note: Situation of Human Rights in Georgia,” October
2006, http://www.ecoi.net/file_upload/228_1161611510_fidhnotegeorgia.pdf
425
Nino Edilashvili, “Border Dispute Breaks Harmony Between Azerbaijan and Georgia,” Georgian Times, 12 April
2007, http://www.geotimes.ge/index.php?m=home&newsid=3887
426
RIA Novosti, “Georgia, Azerbaijan Agree to Settle Border Issue,” 21 May 2012,
http://en.rian.ru/world/20120521/173591213.html
427
Jane’s, “External Affairs (Azerbaijan),” Sentinel Security Assessment—Russia and the CIS, 21 December 2010.
428
Jane’s, “External Affairs (Iran),” Sentinel Security Assessment—The Gulf States, 25 June 2012.
429
Jim Nichol, “Azerbaijan: Recent Developments and U.S. Interests” (report, Congressional Research Service, 29
June 2012), 15, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/97-522.pdf
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unlike Iran’s theocratic government. Although some Azerbaijani officials have periodically
accused Iran of trying to spread Islamic fundamentalism or sponsor terrorism in Azerbaijan,
there is little evidence that Iran has actively tried to subvert the Azerbaijani government. 430
Nonetheless, in December 2007, the Azerbaijani government convicted 15 Azerbaijani citizens
accused of spying and plotting a coup with assistance from Iran’s Islamic Revolutionary Guard
Corps, but Iran vigorously denied the charges. 431, 432, 433 In 2012, Azerbaijan arrested Iraniantrained terrorists and discovered two Iranian spy networks. In partial response, Iran accused
Azerbaijan of providing a launch base for Israeli military attacks against Iran. 434
Iran’s repression of Azerbaijani cultural and linguistic rights among the Azeri minority inside
Iran has fueled tensions. 435, 436 Azeris are the largest ethnic minority in Iran, representing 16% of
the nation’s population. 437, 438 Although the leaders in Baku, wishing to maintain improved
relations between the two countries, have been relatively quiet on the crackdown on cultural
rights groups in Azeri areas of Iran, some nationalist groups in Baku have tried to stage
protests. 439
Iran and Azerbaijan have yet to settle a territorial dispute concerning oil rights in the Araz-AlovSharg oil field in the Caspian Sea. In 2001, this lingering issue led to a confrontation between an
Iranian warship and an Azerbaijani oil research boat, but the dispute has been less antagonistic in
recent years because of improving relations between the two countries. 440, 441
Russia
Of the 15 new countries that emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991,
Azerbaijan was one of the quickest to cut ties with Moscow. It was the first Soviet republic in the
430
Jim Nichol, “Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia: Security Issues and Implications for U.S. Interests” (report,
Congressional Research Service), 14 January 2009, 58–60, http://ftp.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL30679.pdf
431
Jim Nichol, “Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia: Security Issues and Implications for U.S. Interests” (report,
Congressional Research Service), 14 January 2009, 60, http://ftp.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL30679.pdf
432
Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, U.S. Department of State, “Chapter 2: Country Reports: Europe
Overview: Azerbaijan,” in Country Reports on Terrorism 2007, 30 April 2008, 55–56,
http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/105904.pdf
433
Kim Murphy, Los Angeles Times, “Azerbaijan, Stuck Between U.S. and Iran,” Iran Focus, 10 February 2008,
http://money.iranfocus.com/en/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=14121:azerbaijan-stuck-betweenus-and-iran&catid=4:iran-general&Itemid=26
434
Jim Nichol, “Azerbaijan: Recent Developments and U.S. Interests” (report, Congressional Research Service, 29
June 2019), 15, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/97-522.pdf
435
EurasiaNet.org, “Iran Adopts Firm Stance on Minority Rights Issue,” 19 October 2006,
http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/civilsociety/articles/eav102006a.shtml
436
Azerbaijan Global, “Azerbaijani Minority Rights to Freedom of Expression in Iran,” n.d.,
http://www.azglobal.org/index.php/en/interviewer/19-azerbaijani-minority-rights-to-freedom-of-expression-in-iran
437
Central Intelligence Agency, “Iran: People and Society,” in The World Factbook, 24 August 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ir.html
438
Jim Nichol, “Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia: Security Issues and Implications for U.S. Interests” (report,
Congressional Research Service, 14 January 2009), 58, http://ftp.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL30679.pdf
439
EurasiaNet.org, “Iran Adopts Firm Stance on Minority Rights Issue,” 19 October 2006,
http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/civilsociety/articles/eav102006a.shtml
440
Jane’s, “External Affairs (Azerbaijan),” Sentinel Security Assessment—Russia and the CIS, 21 December 2010.
441
Dawn, “Iran, Azerbaijan Face Off as Caspian Oil Row Turns Nasty,” Hartford Web Publishing, 25 July 2001,
http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/27b/017.html
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
Transcaucasus to declare independence, distribute its own currency, and evict Soviet armed
forces from its lands. Azerbaijan initially declined to join the Commonwealth of Independent
States (CIS), an alliance of post-Soviet nations, although it voted to become a member of the CIS
in 1993. The Russian Cyrillic alphabet used for the Azerbaijani language was abandoned for a
modified Latin script. Azerbaijan’s rush to separate completely from Russia stemmed from
several likely causes, including memories of 1920, when the first independent Azerbaijan
Republic was conquered by the Bolsheviks, as well as the Nagorno-Karabakh War, which forged
a strong sense of nationalism in Azerbaijan. 442
Relations between Russia and Azerbaijan have improved since the
early 1990s, although some issues remain, including Russia’s increased
military presence in Armenia, which resulted from the closure of its
military bases in Georgia. It is estimated that about 3,500 Russian
troops are now deployed in Armenia, primarily at the military base in
Gyumri. 443, 444
Cross-border ethnic tensions also periodically stress RussianAzerbaijani relations. Representatives of some of the ethnic groups in
northern Azerbaijan—most notably, the Lezgins, Avars, and
Tsakhurs—have attracted attention with statements condemning “forced assimilation” into
Azerbaijan. 445 Each of these ethnic groups has a significant population in Russia’s Dagestan
Republic as well. Suspicions exist in Azerbaijan that the separatist feelings have, in some cases,
been stirred by Moscow, primarily as a means to exert influence on Azerbaijan. 446, 447
Economically, Russia is the largest source of imported goods and products for Azerbaijan. 448
Prior to 2007, when production began in the Shah Deniz natural gas field in the Caspian Sea,
Russia provided Azerbaijan with a large percentage of its natural gas imports. 449 Since that time,
442
Murat Gül, “Russia and Azerbaijan: Relations After 1989,” Alternatives: Turkish Journal of International
Relations 7, nos. 2, 3 (Summer/Fall 2008): 55–57, http://www.alternativesjournal.net/volume7/Number2&3/gul.pdf
443
Jim Nichol, “Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia: Security Issues and Implications for U.S. Interests” (report,
Congressional Research Service, 14 January 2009), 3, http://ftp.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL30679.pdf
444
Anar Valiyev, “Finlandization or Strategy of Keeping the Balance? Azerbaijan’s Foreign Policy Since the
Russian-Georgian War” (Policy Memo No. 112, PONARS Eurasia, 2010), 2–3,
http://www.gwu.edu/~ieresgwu/assets/docs/pepm_112.pdf
445
Liz Fuller, “Do Azerbaijan’s Ethnic Minorities Face Forced Assimilation?” Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty, 26
June 2008, http://www.rferl.org/content/Azerbaijan_Ethnic_Minorities_Forced_Assimilation/1145552.html
446
Alexander Melikishvili, “Russia Resurrects the Lezgin Issue in Azerbaijan at Moscow Conference,” Jamestown
Foundation, 16 July 2008, http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews[tt_news]=33805
447
Liz Fuller, “Do Azerbaijan’s Ethnic Minorities Face Forced Assimilation?” Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty, 26
June 2008, http://www.rferl.org/content/Azerbaijan_Ethnic_Minorities_Forced_Assimilation/1145552.html
448
State Statistical Committee of the Republic of Azerbaijan, “Main Trade Partners of Azerbaijan in 2011 (thsd. US
$),” 2011, http://www.azstat.org/publications/azfigures/2012/en/018en.shtml
449
Aitor Ciarreta and Shahriyar Nasirov, “Analysis of Azerbaijan Oil and Gas Sector” (paper, U.S. Association of
Energy Economics, 2011), 11, http://www.usaee.org/usaee2011/submissions/OnlineProceedings/Ciarreta_NasirovArticle1.pdf
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Azerbaijan has ceased importing gas from Russia, and in a reversal is selling some of its Shah
Deniz natural gas to the Russian energy giant Gazprom. 450
Turkey
Although Turkey and Azerbaijan share one of the world’s
shortest borders (9 km, 5.6 mi), the two countries share deep
cultural, linguistic, and economic connections. Common
regional interests, including Turkey’s historical feuds with
Armenia, further strengthen ties. 451, 452 Azerbaijan enjoys
warm relations with Turkey, which it regards as a
counterbalance to Russian and Iranian influences in the
region. 453 The recent completion of oil and gas pipelines
running from Baku to Turkey have further cemented the countries’ close relations. New
agreements to construct the Trans-Anatolian Pipeline were completed in 2011. 454 Construction
on a railway connection from Baku to the eastern Turkish city of Kars, via Georgia, is scheduled
for completion in 2013. 455 When completed, the new railway will link Baku to the Turkish rail
system for the first time since the Turkish-Armenian border closed. 456, 457 The construction of a
branch line from Kars to the isolated Naxçivan region has been proposed by Turkey and
Azerbaijan. 458, 459
Turkey remains an important trading partner with Azerbaijan. The balance of trade between the
two nations favors Turkey, which is Azerbaijan’s second-largest import partner. 460 Turkey has
also been one of the top providers of foreign direct investment (FDI) in Azerbaijan, especially in
nonenergy sectors. 461
450
UPI.com, “Russia to Double Azerbaijan Gas Imports,” 25 January 2012,
http://www.upi.com/Business_News/Energy-Resources/2012/01/25/Russia-to-double-Azerbaijan-gas-imports/UPI40841327491000/
451
Jane’s, “External Affairs (Azerbaijan),” Sentinel Security Assessment—Russia and the CIS, 21 December 2010.
452
Central Intelligence Agency, “Azerbaijan: Geography,” in The World Factbook, 10 September 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/aj.html
453
Jim Nichol, “Azerbaijan: Recent Developments and U.S. Interests” (report, Congressional Research Service, 29
June 2012), 15, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/97-522.pdf
454
Jim Nichol, “Azerbaijan: Recent Developments and U.S. Interests” (report, Congressional Research Service, 29
June 2012), 14, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/97-522.pdf
455
E. Ismayilov, “Implementation of New Baku-Tbilisi-Kars Rail Project to Be Completed in 2013,” Trend, 18 July
2012, http://en.trend.az/capital/business/2048098.html
456
Samuel Lussac, “The Baku-Tbilisi-Kars Railroad and Its Geopolitical Implications for the South Caucasus,”
Caucasian Review of International Affairs 2, no. 4 (Autumn 2008), http://cria-online.org/5_5.html
457
Panorama.am “Working Group Handling Iran-Armenia Rail Road Construction,” 1 August 2008,
http://www.panorama.am/en/economy/2008/08/01/iran/
458
Chris Jackson, “Railways Realign in Troubled Region,” Railway Gazette, 16 January 2008,
http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/single-view/view/railways-realign-in-troubled-region.html
459
Azar Nacafov, “A Thorny Path for the Steel Way [sic],” Region Plus, 17 February 2006,
http://www.regionplus.az/en/articles/view/1061
460
State Statistical Committee of the Republic of Azerbaijan, “Main Trade Partners of Azerbaijan in 2011 (thsd. US
$),” 2011, http://www.azstat.org/publications/azfigures/2012/en/018en.shtml
461
State Statistical Committee of the Republic of Azerbaijan, “Foreign Investments (mln. US dollars),” 2011,
http://www.azstat.org/publications/azfigures/2012/en/020en.shtml
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
Although the population of both countries is overwhelmingly Muslim, Azerbaijan’s population is
mostly Shi’a while Turkey’s is mostly Sunni. The two governments appear to be heading in
different directions related to questions of religion and its role in government. Turkey also claims
that Azerbaijan has provided help and shelter to anti-Turkish Kurdish rebel groups. 462
Military
Azerbaijan’s military consists of three branches: the Army, the
Navy, and the Air and Air Defense Forces. 463 Current troop
strength is estimated to be around 67,000 (Army, 57,000;
Navy, 2,200; Air, 7,900). 464, 465 Eighteen months of active
military service is mandatory for men aged 18–35, although
university graduates are only required to serve 12 months. 466,
467
Roughly 20% of the Azerbaijani Armed Forces are
professional personnel, with the remainder consisting of
conscripts. Many of the senior officers are Soviet cadre personnel. A significant number of the
junior officers are graduates of the military academy in Baku or are enlisted men who have
completed their military obligations. 468, 469 The lack of professional troops in the enlisted ranks
seriously degrades operational effectiveness and is reflected in high levels of abuse, desertion,
and mutiny. 470 Several instances of fragging have been reported. In 2011, there were many cases
of soldiers and conscripts murdering colleagues or officers, poisoning-related deaths among
conscripts, and arrests and violent deaths of mid- and senior-level officers. 471
The army, the largest service branch with approximately 80% of personnel and equipment,
comprises five corps headquarters located throughout the country. Most of the ground forces are
deployed in Nagorno-Karabakh along the border with Armenia. A new restructuring plan is
replacing the old Soviet model. Brigades will have 3–5 battalions, each with around 500 troops,
and some smaller support units. 472
Much of the military’s equipment is aging and poorly maintained. A lack of spare parts leaves
much of the equipment nonoperational. Uneven modernization and availability of equipment
create widely varying levels of readiness across military units. 473 Increased budget allocations
462
Jane’s, “External Affairs (Azerbaijan),” Sentinel Security Assessment—Russia and the CIS, 21 December 2010.
Central Intelligence Agency, “Azerbaijan: Military,” in The World Factbook, 10 September 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/aj.html
464
Jane’s World Armies, “Azerbaijan,” 6 July 2011.
465
International Institute for Strategic Studies, “Chapter 4: Europe,” in The Military Balance 2011 (London:
Routledge, 2011).
466
Central Intelligence Agency, “Azerbaijan: Military,” in The World Factbook, 10 September 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/aj.html
467
Jane’s World Armies, “Azerbaijan,” 6 July 2011.
468
Jane’s World Armies, “Azerbaijan,” 6 July 2011.
469
NATO Parliamentary Assembly, “16–17 October 2006—Visit to Baku, Azerbaijan by the Sub-Committee on
Future Security and Defence Capabilities,” 2006, http://www.nato-pa.int/default.asp?SHORTCUT=1021
470
Jane’s World Armies, “Azerbaijan,” 6 July 2011.
471
Jane’s World Armies, “Azerbaijan,” 6 July 2011.
472
Jane’s World Armies, “Azerbaijan,” 6 July 2011.
473
Jane’s World Armies, “Azerbaijan,” 6 July 2011.
463
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for the military have helped, and the president promised an additional USD 3.3 billion in
2011. 474 Most money is allocated to the purchase of equipment at the expense of training.
Azerbaijan’s ability to effectively deal with threats from Armenia has not improved since
2003. 475
Police
Azerbaijan’s police force is under the direction of the Ministry
of Internal Affairs. 476 Most citizens view the police as corrupt,
and according to the U.S. State Department corruption is
rampant in the force. Government efforts to reduce corruption
through increased salaries have had little effect. 477 Businesses
often complain that the police fail to reliably uphold and
enforce law and order. 478, 479 The president wields a great deal
of influence over courts, exercising excessive control over the
judiciary. Judges sometimes follow the president’s instruction in court cases, regardless of the
merits of a case. 480, 481
In 2007, the heads of the antidrug and organized crime units were fired for “gross violations” of
procedure, and 197 police officers were charged with various legal violations. 482 Nevertheless,
police are typically exempt from prosecution for criminal acts, perhaps because appointments to
the higher ranks are often based on political connections rather than on merit. 483
Terrorist Groups
In the past, Azerbaijan was used by international mujahideen (Muslim guerilla fighters) as a base
for a logistics network designed to supply funds, personnel, and arms to the Caucasus region,
including to operatives involved in the nearby separatist conflict in Chechnya. 484 But since 2001,
474
Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty, “Armenia Dismisses Azerbaijani Military Buildup,” 28 June 2011,
http://www.rferl.org/content/armenia_dismisses_azerbaijani_military_buildup/24249543.html
475
Jane’s World Armies, “Azerbaijan,” 6 July 2011.
476
OSCE, POLIS, “Azerbaijan: General Information,” 25 June 2010,
http://polis.osce.org/countries/details?item_id=6
477
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State, “2010 Human Rights Report:
Azerbaijan,” 8 April 2011, http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2010/eur/154413.htm
478
Business Anti-Corruption Portal, “Azerbaijan Country Profile: Police,” 2011, http://www.business-anticorruption.com/country-profiles/europe-central-asia/azerbaijan/corruption-levels/police/
479
Klaus Schwab, ed., “The Global Competitiveness Report 2011–2012” (report, World Economic Forum, Geneva,
2011), 107, http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GCR_Report_2011-12.pdf
480
Jane’s, “Security (Azerbaijan),” Sentinel Security Assessment—Russia and the CIS, 13 July 2012.
481
Global Integrity Report, “Azerbaijan: 2009,” n.d., http://report.globalintegrity.org/Azerbaijan/2009
482
Jane’s, “Security (Azerbaijan),” Sentinel Security Assessment—Russia and the CIS, 13 July 2012.
483
Global Integrity Report, “Azerbaijan: 2009,” n.d., http://report.globalintegrity.org/Azerbaijan/2009
484
Jim Nichol, “Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia: Security Issues and Implications for U.S. Interests”(report,
Congressional Research Service, 14 January 2009), 16, http://ftp.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL30679.pdf
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
Azerbaijan has increased its interdiction efforts and has made moderate gains in disrupting such
activity. 485, 486
Azerbaijani security officials have confronted a wide array of
mostly indigenous terrorist groups, although in some cases
members of these organizations have been led or inspired by
foreign terrorist groups or operatives. 487 One active group
appears to be the Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of
Armenia (ASALA), which issued recent credible threats
against Azerbaijani embassies. 488
Numerous arrests and convictions of members of terrorist
groups have taken place over roughly the last decade. In 2000, 13 members of a group known as
Jayshulla were convicted of terrorist activities, including the suspected planning of a bomb attack
on the U.S. Embassy in Baku. 489 The group was a militant Salafist (Sunni Muslim
fundamentalist) organization that reportedly received training in Chechnya. 490 In 2005 and 2006,
two groups allegedly associated with al-Qaeda in the Caucasus were convicted of terrorist
plots. 491 In 2007, 11 Azerbaijanis were arrested for planning attacks against the U.S. and British
embassies. This group was led by Kamran Asadov, a radicalized Azerbaijani army lieutenant
who, when he deserted his unit, took a cache of military arms to support the group’s plan. 492, 493
A month after Asadov’s arrest, Abu Jafar, an ethnic Arab with alleged ties to the al-Qaeda and
al-Jihad terrorist networks, was arrested in Sumqayit (along with 11 Azerbaijanis) on terrorism
charges. 494, 495 In 2008, several individuals were arrested and tried for taking part in the Afghan
insurgency after attending insurgent training centers in Pakistan. 496 In 2012, several people
485
Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, U.S. Department of State, “Chapter 2: Country Reports: Europe
and Eurasia Overview: Azerbaijan,” in Country Reports on Terrorism 2011, 31 July 2012,
http://www.state.gov/j/ct/rls/crt/2011/195543.htm
486
International Crisis Group, “Azerbaijan: Independent Islam and the State” (Europe Report No. 191, 25 March
2008), 2–4, http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/europe/191_azerbaijan_independent_islam_and_the_state.pdf
487
Anar Valiyev, “The Two Faces of Salafism in Azerbaijan,” Jamestown Foundation, 7 December 2007,
http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews[tt_news]=4587
488
Journal of Turkish Weekly, “Top Official: Azerbaijan Takes Necessary Security Measures After Threats from
Armenian Terrorist Organizations,” 14 September 2012, http://www.turkishweekly.net/news/141910/top-officialazerbaijan-takes-necessary-security-measures-after-threats-from-armenian-terrorist-organizations.html
489
Jane’s, “Security (Azerbaijan),” Sentinel Security Assessment—Russia and the CIS, 13 July 2012.
490
Anar Valiyev, “The Two Faces of Salafism in Azerbaijan,” Jamestown Foundation, 7 December 2007,
http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews[tt_news]=4587
491
International Crisis Group, “Azerbaijan: Independent Islam and the State” (Europe Report No. 191, 25 March
2008), 3, http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/europe/191_azerbaijan_independent_islam_and_the_state.pdf
492
Anar Valiyev, “The Two Faces of Salafism in Azerbaijan,” Jamestown Foundation, 7 December 2007,
http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews[tt_news]=4587
493
Jim Nichol, “Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia: Political Developments and Implications for U.S. Interests”
(report, Congressional Research Service, 27 September 2012,), 15, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33453.pdf
494
International Crisis Group, “Azerbaijan: Independent Islam and the State” (Europe Report No. 191, 25 March
2008), 4, http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/europe/191_azerbaijan_independent_islam_and_the_state.pdf
495
Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty, “Newsline—November 7, 2007: Azerbaijan Claims to Have Crushed Another
Terrorist Group,” 30 October 2007, http://www.rferl.org/content/article/1143989.html
496
Jane’s, “Security (Azerbaijan),” Sentinel Security Assessment—Russia and the CIS, 13 July 2012.
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suspected of planning attacks against foreigners, including attacks against U.S. and Israeli
embassies in Baku, were arrested. 497
Issues Affecting Security
Nagorno-Karabakh
The standoff between Armenia, Azerbaijan, and the selfproclaimed Nagorno-Karabakh Republic continues to be the
most significant threat to Azerbaijani stability. Underlying this
“frozen conflict are historical debates over the region’s
ownership, which go back hundreds of years. 498 The stalemate
has generated a war of words between Armenia and
Azerbaijan, including periodic Azerbaijani threats to resort to
military action to regain its lost territory. But a resumption of
hostilities would have an even greater impact on regional order than it did in 1994. Since the
cessation of fighting, Azerbaijan has developed oil and gas pipelines that pass not far from
northern Nagorno-Karabakh. If these pipelines were attacked and disrupted, Azerbaijan would
suffer devastating economic losses. Renewed conflict could also attract the unwelcome attention
of larger nations with regional interests in the southern Caucasus. 499, 500
In Azerbaijan, hundreds of thousands of internally displaced persons (IDPs) and refugees
continue to draw from the nation’s economy. The majority of Azerbaijanis displaced in the
Nagorno-Karabakh War (a group that makes up nearly 10% of the population) have yet to be
resettled, although the Azerbaijani government has increased assistance to its displaced
population since the beginning of its current energy-driven economic boom. 501, 502, 503
Democratic and Business Reforms
The United States and other countries have expressed concerns about Azerbaijan’s mixed record
on fighting internal corruption and providing important democratic rights, such as unhindered
497
Global Jihad, “Iranian Plot Thwarted in Azerbaijan,” 14 March 2012,
http://www.globaljihad.net/view_news.asp?id=2253
498
International Crisis Group, “Azerbaijan: Turning Over a New Leaf?” (Europe Report No. 156, Baku/Brussels, 13
May 2004), 5, http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/europe/156_azerbaijan_turning_over_a_new_leaf
499
Michael Goulet, “Oil Consortium Agreement with Azerbaijan” (Research Paper No. 15, December 1996),
http://www1.american.edu/ted/azeri.htm
500
U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), “Azerbaijan: Country Analysis Brief,” 9 January 2012,
http://www.eia.gov/countries/country-data.cfm?fips=AJ&trk=c
501
Roberta Cohen, “Migration, Refugees and Displaced Persons,” Brookings (speech), 10 October 2003,
http://www.brookings.edu/speeches/2003/1010humanrights_cohen.aspx
502
Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC), “Azerbaijan: IDPs Still Trapped in Poverty and Dependence”
(report, Norwegian Refugee Council, Geneva, 14 July 2008), 3–4, http://www.uprinfo.org/IMG/pdf/IDMC_AZE_UPR_S4_2009_anx1.pdf
503
Petr Kostohryz, “Azerbaijan: Internally Displaced Amidst a Booming Economy,” Norwegian Refugee Council,
n.d., http://www.fmreview.org/FMRpdfs/FMR30/76.pdf
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and freely monitored elections and media freedom. 504 Improvements in these areas are needed to
ensure that political opposition in the country does not become radicalized and that the
Azerbaijani economy diversifies beyond the energy sector. 505
The Azerbaijani government practices repression to maintain order and stability in the country.
Since 2009, there have been many arrests of activists and journalists criticizing elections and
policies. 506, 507, 508 Continued repression of opposition groups and violations of human rights risk
alienating the population and radicalizing some groups. 509, 510
Corruption is pervasive throughout the nation and poses a serious risk
to future economic growth. Foreign companies must often pay bribes
and are disadvantaged by domestic companies that enjoy political
connections. 511, 512 Since 2007, FDI has fallen off because of concerns
about corruption, inadequate legal protections, and bureaucratic
barriers. 513, 514, 515 A positive sign is that the government has
demonstrated greater initiative in addressing these problems, although
the implementation and enforcement of new anticorruption measures
has progressed slowly. 516
Organized crime groups are becoming increasingly problematic.
Although they remain largely involved in organized begging, burglary, small-scale drug
operations, and protection rackets, a new kind of organized crime is developing. Some of
504
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, U.S. Department of State, “Country Reports on Human Rights
Practices for 2011: Azerbaijan,” n.d.,
http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/index.htm?dlid=186330
505
International Crisis Group, “Azerbaijan: Turning Over a New Leaf?” (Europe Report No. 156, Baku/Brussels, 13
May 2004), 31, http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/europe/156_azerbaijan_turning_over_a_new_leaf
506
Ceyhun Veliyev, “U.S. Foreign Policy Toward Azerbaijan,” Washington Review of Turkish and Eurasian
Affairs, October 2011, http://www.thewashingtonreview.org/articles/us-foreign-policy-toward-azerbaijan.html
507
Jim Nichol, “Azerbaijan: Recent Developments and U.S. Interests” (report, Congressional Research Service, 29
June 2012), 2–7, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/97-522.pdf
508
Human Rights Watch, “World Report 2012: Azerbaijan,” 2012, http://www.hrw.org/world-report-2012/worldreport-2012-azerbaijan
509
Refworld, “Nations in Transit 2012: Azerbaijan,” Freedom House, 6 June 2012,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,FREEHOU,,AZE,,4fd5dd33c,0.html
510
Elisabeth Precht, “Azerbaijan: In the Shadow of a Dictatorship” (report, Jarl Hjalmarson Foundation, 2012), 10,
http://www.hjalmarsonfoundation.se/azerbaijan-in-the-shadow-of-a-dictatorship/
511
Bureau of Economic, Energy and Business Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “2011 Investment Climate
Statement: Azerbaijan,” March 2011, http://www.state.gov/e/eb/rls/othr/ics/2011/157236.htm
512
Bureau of Economic, Energy and Business Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “2011 Investment Climate
Statement: Azerbaijan,” March 2011, http://www.state.gov/e/eb/rls/othr/ics/2011/157236.htm
513
UN Conference on Trade and Development, “World Investment Report 2007: Country Fact Sheet: Azerbaijan,”
16 October 2007, http://www.unctad.org/sections/dite_dir/docs/wir07_fs_az_en.pdf
514
UN Conference on Trade and Development, “World Investment Report 2012: Country Fact Sheet: Azerbaijan,” 5
July 2012, http://unctad.org/sections/dite_dir/docs/wir12_fs_az_en.pdf
515
Bureau of Economic, Energy and Business Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “2011 Investment Climate
Statement: Azerbaijan,” March 2011, http://www.state.gov/e/eb/rls/othr/ics/2011/157236.htm
516
Anti-Corruption Network for Eastern Europe and Central Asia (ACN), “Azerbaijan: Update on National
Implementation Measures” (paper, 6th Monitoring Meeting of the Istanbul Anti-Corruption Action Plan, OECD,
Paris, 13 December 2006), 2–3, http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/54/16/38006308.pdf
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
Azerbaijan’s more marginalized groups, such as the Chechens, appear to be creating criminal
gangs. 517
Outlook
Azerbaijan regards the ongoing conflict with Armenia over the
Nagorno-Karabakh region as the single greatest threat to its political
stability, as well as a key determining factor in foreign policy and
future economic growth. 518, 519, 520 Tensions between the two nations
are escalating. Although the Azerbaijani and Armenian foreign
ministers met in Paris in June 2012, negotiations failed, and the
situation is still fragile enough to be a cause for moderate concern. 521
Recent armed skirmishes along the border have created concerns
among some in the international community that war could erupt.
Some analysts believe the current spate of escalations are being
provoked by Russia and are related to energy issues in the region as
well as to Azerbaijan’s generally pro-Western policies. 522, 523
Azerbaijan’s economy shows signs of positive growth, and the government is progressing in
diversification. The nation’s economic plans include continuing economic diversification,
improving the market structure and investment climate, modernizing transportation
infrastructure, and developing human capital, particularly through investments in education.
Issues related to environmental protection, establishing and upholding the rule of law, and the
development of civil society present major challenges. 524, 525
517
Jane’s, “Security (Azerbaijan),” Sentinel Security Assessment—Russia and the CIS, 13 July 2012.
President of Azerbaijan, “Speech by Ilham Aliyev at the UN Security Council Meeting,” 4 May 2012,
http://en.president.az/articles/4845
519
Ilgar Gurbanov, “Interview with Nesrin Suleymanli, Expert of the Geo-strategic Center of the Academy of Public
Administration Under the President of the Azerbaijan Republic,” Strategic Outlook, 16 July 2012,
http://www.strategicoutlook.org/interviews/news-overview-to-azerbaijan-armenian-relations.html
520
Lamiya Adilgızı, “Reality of Davutoğlu’s Nagorno-Karabakh Policy Becomes Controversial,” Today’s Zaman,
31 August 2012, http://www.todayszaman.com/mobile_detailn.action?newsId=291000
521
Jane’s Intelligence Weekly, “Situation Reports,” 15 June 2012.
522
Anar Valiyev, “Military Clashes Between Armenia and Azerbaijan Threaten Stability in the Region,” Jamestown
Foundation, 13 June 2012,
http://www.jamestown.org/programs/edm/single/?tx_ttnews[tt_news]=39489&cHash=a3c4f8101fdee19184ab04d31
d07e33e
523
Orkhan Gafarli, “Russia as an Obstacle in the Settlement of Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict,” Strategic Outlook, 25
August 2012, http://www.strategicoutlook.org/caucasus/news-russia-as-an-obstacle-in-the-settlement-of-nagornokarabakh-conflict.html
524
President of Azerbaijan, “Development Concept ‘Azerbaijan–2020: Outlook for the Future’,” n.d.,
http://www.president.az/files/future_en.pdf 525 Azerbaijan Diplomatic Academy, School of International Affairs and
Business, “Azerbaijan as a Regional Hub in Central Eurasia: A Conversation with Taleh Ziyadov,” Azerbaijan in the
518
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
World: ADA Biweekly Newsletter 5, nos. 16, 17 (1 September 2012): 1–4,
http://biweekly.ada.edu.az/issues/vol5no16-17/20120914024719403.html
525
Azerbaijan Diplomatic Academy, School of International Affairs and Business, “Azerbaijan as a Regional Hub in
Central Eurasia: A Conversation with Taleh Ziyadov,” Azerbaijan in the World: ADA Biweekly Newsletter 5, nos.
16, 17 (1 September 2012): 1–4, http://biweekly.ada.edu.az/issues/vol5no16-17/20120914024719403.html
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
Chapter 5 Assessment
1. The majority of Azerbaijani troops are professional soldiers.
False
Only approximately 20% of Azerbaijani troops are professionals, with the remainder
consisting of conscripts.
2. The United States has encouraged economic and political reforms in Azerbaijan.
True
U.S. officials would like to see Azerbaijan implement a series of reforms, particularly
in terms of liberalizing election processes, freedom of the press, and business
practices.
3. Although its rival, Armenia, has developed close ties with Russia and Iran,
Azerbaijan has looked to Western powers for economic and political alliances.
True
Despite Azerbaijan’s strong relations with local allies such as Turkey and Georgia, it
has also developed ties with Western powers in order to offset Armenia’s close
connections to Russia and Iran.
4. A key component of Azerbaijan’s relationship with Georgia has been the
development of the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan (BTC) oil pipeline.
True
Georgia serves as the intermediary country on the BTC pipeline route, which runs
from Azerbaijan’s oil-rich properties on the Caspian Sea to Turkey’s oil terminals on
the Mediterranean.
5. Azerbaijan maintained close connections with Russia for many years following the
dissolution of the Soviet Union.
False
After declaring its independence, Azerbaijan quickly cut ties with Russia by issuing
its own currency, expelling Soviet troops from its territory, and adopting a nonRussian alphabet for the Azerbaijani language.
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
FINAL ASSESSMENT
1. The industrial town of Sumqayit is known for its extremely poor environmental conditions.
True / False
2. Residents of Naxçivan City in the Naxçivan Autonomous Republic are allowed to travel freely
through Armenia in order to reach the rest of Azerbaijan.
True / False
3. The Abşeron Peninsula of eastern Azerbaijan is now largely free from pollution because of
intensive cleanup efforts.
True / False
4. The widespread use of toxic herbicides and pesticides in Azerbaijan has had a lasting effect upon
the environment.
True / False
5. Because Azerbaijan is located in an active seismic zone, earthquakes continue to pose a natural
disaster risk to the region.
True / False
6. The ancient Albanian tribes who lived for many centuries in the region of modern-day Azerbaijan
maintained full political autonomy throughout their history.
True / False
7. Because of their long historical and cultural ties, Azerbaijan and Iran enjoy warm relations.
True / False
8. In January 1990, the city of Baku experienced a series of ethnic riots in which Armenian and
Azerbaijani ethnic tensions flared.
True / False
9. In the 19th century, a peace treaty between Russia and Persia divided the Azerbaijani region
between the two empires.
True / False
10. Azerbaijan’s resurgent oil industry has played a major role in the country’s improving economy.
True / False
11. Islamic banks are generally unavailable in Azerbaijan.
True / False
12. Azerbaijan produces sufficient electricity to meet domestic demand.
True / False
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
13. Collective bargaining and trade unions are illegal in Azerbaijan.
True / False
14. Two key issues facing the Azerbaijani economy are inflation and economic diversification.
True / False
15. Azerbaijan’s oil and natural gas resources are predominantly extracted from onshore drilling
sites.
True / False
16. The majority of Azerbaijan’s predominantly Muslim population follows the Sunni sect of Islam.
True / False
17. The traditional Azerbaijani musical form of mugam is typically accompanied by poetic lyrics.
True / False
18. Azerbaijani women are required to wear veils in public.
True / False
19. The second-largest ethnic group is made up of the Lezgins, who live near the Russian republic of
Dagestan.
True / False
20. Since Azerbaijan’s independence in 1991, there has been a resurgence of traditional patriarchal
values.
True / False
21. Azerbaijan’s close relations with Turkey have been buttressed by a series of cooperative energy
and transportation development projects.
True / False
22. Azerbaijan and Iran are involved in an ongoing territorial dispute concerning energy rights in the
Caspian Sea.
True / False
23. In roughly the last decade, Azerbaijani security officials have made very few arrests in
connection with a number of planned or executed terrorist attacks in Azerbaijan.
True / False
24. The unresolved conflict over the Nagorno-Karabakh region remains the greatest threat to
Azerbaijan’s stability.
True / False
25. The widespread practice of corruption in Azerbaijan poses a serious risk to economic growth and
stability.
True / False
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AZERBAIJAN in Perspective
FURTHER READING
BBC News. “Azerbaijan Country Profile.” 23 December
2011http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/1235976.stm
Bureau of Consular Affairs, U.S. Department of State. “Azerbaijan: Country Specific
Information.” 7 August 2012. http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_978.html
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State. “2009 Human
Rights Report: Azerbaijan.” 11 March 2010.
http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2009/eur/136020.htm
Conservation International. “The Biodiversity Hotspots: Europe and Central Asia: Caucasus.”
2012. http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/indo_burma/Pages/default.aspx
EIA, U.S. Energy Information Administration. “Azerbaijan.” 16 October 2012.
http://www.eia.doe.gov/countries/country-data.cfm?fips=AJ
Encyclopedia of Earth. “Biodiversity in the Caucasus.” 22 August 2008.
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Biological_diversity_in_the_Caucasus
Freedom House. “Freedom in the World: Azerbaijan.” 2010.
http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2010&country=7775
Heritage Foundation. “Azerbaijan: 2012 Index of Economic Freedom.” 2012.
http://www.heritage.org/Index/Country/Azerbaijan
Human Rights Watch. “Azerbaijan.” 2012. http://www.hrw.org/europecentral-asia/azerbaijan
Library of Congress. “Azerbaijan.” 9 October 2012.
http://www.loc.gov/law/help/guide/nations/azerbaijan.php
UCLA Language Materials Project. “Azerbaijani.” n.d.
http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=57&menu=004
UN Data. “Country Profile: Azerbaijan.” 2012.
http://data.un.org/CountryProfile.aspx?crName=Azerbaijan
UNESCO, World Heritage Convention. “Azerbaijan.” 2012.
http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/az
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