30 Jahre Tschernobyl
und 5 Jahre Fukushima
Ein Blick auf die gesundheitlichen Folgen
Hansruedi Völkle, Universität Freiburg
FME-GV, 12. Mai 2016, Aarau
Tschernobyl: Ursachen
-
Schlechtes Design: Graphit, pos. Void-Coeff., kein Contaniment, …
Menschliches Fehlverhalten: gefährliches Experiment, Koordination
Ignoranz der Behörden : Information, Evakuierung, Massnahmen,
Zusammenbruch der SU (ev. durch Tschernobyl noch beschleunigt !)
Fukushima: Ursachen
-
Tsunami-Schutz ungenügend; Gebäude nicht wasserdicht
Behördenstruktur zu komplex und zu schwerfällig, «Copinage»
Keine Inspektionen (durch IAEA) und kein Nachrüsten
Mehrfachbarrieren und Diversivikation ungenügend berücksichtigt
Keine H2-Rekombination und kein «Venting» (wie bei uns)
Notfallschutz ungenügend
Sicherheitskultur ungenügend (durch Regierung festgestellt!)
Chap. 8b
1 from 30
H. Völkle: Radioactivity and Radiation Fall Term 08: Chernobyl
The Chernobyl Catastrophe (Ukraine) from April 26th 1986
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Chap. 8b
11 from 30
H. Völkle: Radioactivity and Radiation Fall Term 08: Chernobyl
RBMW reactor design vs. Western Type Reactors
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Contribution of radionuclides to the absorbed dose rate in air in a contaminated area
of the Russian Federation during the first several months after the Chernobyl accident
Source: UNSCEAR 2000, Annexes – Vol. II.
Chap. 8b
15 from 30
H. Völkle: Radioactivity and Radiation Fall Term 08: Chernobyl
Deposition
131
I in Belarus & Russian Federation (from UNSCEAR)
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Chap. 8b
16 from 30
Reconstruction of 131I radioactive contamination in Ukraine caused by the Chernobyl accident using atmospheric transport modelling,
Nikolai Talerko, Scientific Center for Radiation Medicine, 53 Melnikov Street, Kyiv 04050, Ukraine,
(Source: Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 84 (2005) 343 to 362)
H. Völkle HS15
Chap. 8b
17 from 30
H. Völkle: Radioactivity and Radiation Fall Term 08: Chernobyl
Infant Thyroid Cancer Incidence (Source: IPSN/GRS et al)
Belarus
20
Gomel
Bryansk
Ukraine
Thyroid Cancer Incidence in Children unter 15 Y
Numer of cases per 105 Children
15
10
5
0
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
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H. Völkle HS15
1996
1998
Radiological Consequences of the Chernobyl Reactor Accident: Thyroid Cancer in children
Thyroid cancer Incidence in children and adolescents from Belarus after the Chernobyl accident. Source: DEMIDCHIK YE,
DEMIDCHIK E.P., SAENKO V.A., et al, 2007 Childhood thyroid cancer in Belarus. International Congress Series 1299: 32-38,
and CARDIS E., HOWE G., RON E., et al, 2006 Cancer consequences of the Chernobyl accident: 20 years on. J Radiol Prot 26:
127-140.
Chap. 8b
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H. Völkle: Radioactivity and Radiation Fall Term 08: Chernobyl
Deposition of
137
Cs in the Chernobyl region (from: UNSCEAR)
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Chap. 8b
19 from 30
Deposition of
H. Völkle: Radioactivity and Radiation Fall Term 08: Chernobyl
137
137
Cs in Europe (From: Atlas
Cs de la CE; EUR 16733)
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Chap. 8b
20 from 30
H. Völkle: Radioactivity and Radiation Fall Term 08: Chernobyl
Deposition of
90
Sr (left) and
239
Pu (right) (Source: IPSN/GRS et al)
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Table 1: Distribution of levels of radiation dose among populations exposed as a result of the
Chernobyl accident (Dose estimates from ILYIN et al, J. Radiol. Prot. 10 (1990) p.3-29).
Source: ELISABETH CARDIS & ALEXEY E. OKEANOV, http://www.iaea.org/inis/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/31/056/31056936.pdf.
1)
2)
SCZ = Strict Control Zones, defined as areas with 137Cs contamination above 40 Ci/km2 = 1500 kBq/m2.
CEDE = committed effective dose equivalent
The so called «Liquidators»:
- Some 600 «Emergency Workers» in the first days, 134 of them with symptoms of acute radiation sickness: 0.8 – 16 Gy, 23 of them
died of bone marrow failure (1 of 50 with 2.2 - 4.1 Sv, 7 of 22 with 4.2 - 6.4 Sv, 20 of 21 with 6.5 - 16 Sv).
- And ≈ 600’000 «Liquidators» (2/3 of them were between 30-40 year old), average effective dose: 15 – 170 Sv, individual < 10 …
>500 mSv (1986-1987); exposure to the thyroid < 0.15 … 3 Gy (226’000 of them involved in recovery operation work in the 30 km
zone surrounding the reactor). Leukemia among Russian Liquidators 1986-1991: 6x more CML than before 1986 but also 3x more
CLL than before 1986 ???
Source: V. SAENKO et al, Clinical Oncology 23 (2011), pp.234-243.
Other Healt effects (according to the WHO-Report on Chernobyl of 2006)
Population
(years exposed)
Liquidators
(1986–1987)
(high exposed)
Evacuees
(1986)
Residents SCZs
(> 555 kBq/m2)(1986–2005)
Residents low contaminated territories
(37 kBq/m2) (1986–2005)
Natural background
Number
Average total in 20 years (mSv)1
240’000
> 100
116’000
> 33
270’000
> 50
5’000’000
10 – 20
2.4 mSv/year
(typical range
1–10,
Max. > 20)
48
SCZ = strict control zones
Chap. 8b
21 from 30
H. Völkle: Radioactivity and Radiation Fall Term 08: Chernobyl
The Cancer Burden from Chernobyl in Europe
Briefing Document (April 2006)
by E. Cardis et al. International Agency for Research in Cancer (IARC) and
World Health Organisation (WHO)
Estimation of the number of cancer, cancer
Mean
95 %
death for all Europe4) (570 Mio.) until 2065
value
Confidence
(80 year)
Interval
Number of thyroid cancers
16'000 (1)
Number of other cancers
25'000 (2) 11'000 - 59’000
Number of cancer death
16'000 (3)
3'400 - 72’000
6'700 - 38’000
Legend: for Belarus, Ukraine and the most affected regions of the Russian
Federation :
(1) ≈ 2/3 ; (2) ≈ 50 % ; (3) ≈ 9000
4
) Estimation for all Europe until 2006: number of thyroid cancer: 1000 cases (95
% : 200 - 4400), number of other cancers 4000 cases (95 % : 1700 - 10'000)
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Other Health effects (according tot he WHO-Report on Chernobyl of 2006) (1)
Diseases
Thyroid cancer
WHO-Comment (April 2006)
Belarus, the Russian Federation & Ukraine nearly 5 000 cases of thyroid cancer
have been diagnosed to date among children who were aged up to 18 years at
the time of the accident. Fortunately, even in children with advanced tumors,
treatment has been highly effective and the general prognosis for young patients
is good.
Leukemia
and nonthyroid solid
cancer
Recent investigations suggest a doubling of the incidence of leukemia among the
most highly exposed Chernobyl liquidators. No such increase has been clearly
demonstrated among children or adults resident in any of the contaminated
areas. While scientists have conducted studies to determine whether cancers in
many other organs may have been caused by radiation, reviews by the WHO Expert Group revealed no evidence of increased cancer risks, apart from thyroid
cancer, that can clearly be attributed to radiation from Chernobyl. Aside from the
recent finding on leukemia risk among Chernobyl liquidators, reports indicate a
small increase in the incidence of pre-menopausal breast cancer in the most contaminated areas, which appear to be related to radiation dose. Both of these
findings, however, need confirmation in well-designed epidemiological studies.
Other Health effects (according tot he WHO-Report on Chernobyl of 2006) (2)
Mortality
1) According to UNSCEAR (2000), 134 liquidators received radiation doses high
enough to be diagnosed with acute radiation sickness (ARS). Among them, 28
persons died in 1986 due to ARS. Other liquidators have since died but their
deaths could not necessarily be attributed to radiation exposure.
2) The Expert Group concluded that there may be up to 4 000 additional cancer
deaths among the three highest exposed groups over their lifetime (i.e. 240’000
liquidators; 116’000 evacuees and the 270’000 residents of the SCZs, total:
626’000). Since more than 120’000 people in these three groups may eventually
die of cancer, the additional cancer deaths from radiation exposure correspond to
3-4% above the normal incidence of cancers from all causes.
3) Projections concerning cancer deaths among the five million residents of areas
with radioactive cesium deposition of 37 kBq/m2 in Belarus, the Russian
Federation and Ukraine are much less certain because they are exposed to doses
slightly above natural background radiation levels. Predictions, generally based on
the LNT model, suggest that up to 5’000 additional cancer deaths may occur in
this population from radiation exposure, or about 0.6% of the cancer deaths
expected in this population due to other causes. Again, these numbers only
provide an indication of the likely impact of the accident because of the
important uncertainties listed above.
Other Health effects (according tot he WHO-Report on Chernobyl of 2006) (3)
Cataracts
The lens of the eye is very sensitive to ionizing radiation and cataracts are known
to result from effective doses of about 2 Sv. The production of cataracts is
directly related to the dose. The higher the dose the faster the cataract appears.
Chernobyl cataract studies suggest that radiation opacities may occur from doses
as low as 250 mSv. Recent studies among other populations exposed to ionizing
radiation (e.g. atomic bomb survivors, astronauts, patients who received CT-scans
to the head) support this finding.
Cardiovascular A large Russian study among emergency workers has suggested an increased risk
disease
of death from cardiovascular disease in highly exposed individuals. While this
finding needs further study with longer follow-up times, it is consistent with
other studies, for example, on radiotherapy patients, who received considerably
higher doses to the heart.
Other Health effects (according tot he WHO-Report on Chernobyl of 2006) (4)
Mental
health and
psychological
effects
The accident has had a serious impact on mental health and well-being in the
general population, mainly at a sub-clinical level that has not generally resulted
in medically diagnosed disorders. Designation of the affected population as «Victims» rather than «Survivors» has led to feelings of helplessness and lack of control over their future. This has resulted in excessive health concerns or reckless
behavior, such as the overuse of alcohol and tobacco, or the consumption of
mushrooms, berries and game from areas still designated as having high levels of
radioactive cesium.
Reproductive
and hereditary effects
and children's health
Given the low radiation doses received by most people exposed to the Chernobyl
accident, no effects on fertility, numbers of stillbirths, adverse pregnancy outcomes or delivery complications have been demonstrated nor are there expected to be any. A modest but steady increase in reported congenital malformations in both contaminated and uncontaminated areas of Belarus appears
related to improved reporting and not to radiation exposure.
Other Health effects (according tot he WHO-Report on Chernobyl of 2006) (5)
PTSD
More investigations are necessary on effects like PTSD: consequences of
evacuation, resettlement, lack of individual control, social disruption of
life, stress, worry, anxiety, apathy, fatalism, etc.: i.e. increased of stress
hormones, immune system depression, Down’s Syndrome, increase
stillbirth, tuberculosis, heart disease, anemia, AIDS, abortion, suicide
and changes in lifestyle patterns (tobacco, alcohol & substance abuse).
Unfortunately no or only poor data are available so far and no epidemiological or mathematical models do exist.
Conclusions: Non-radiological consequences (for Chernobyl and for Fukushima), i.e. on mental health have been widely underestimates.
Chap. 8b
22 from 30
137
H. Völkle: Radioactivity and Radiation Fall Term 08: Chernobyl
2
Cs Deposition [kBq/m ] in Switzerland after Chernobyl (Source: SFOPH)
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Chap. 8b
25 from 30
H. Völkle: Radioactivity and Radiation Fall Term 08: Chernobyl
Evolution of the ambient dose equivalent [nSv/h] (nano = 10-9) in
Caslano (Ticino), calculated from in situ measurements (Source: SFOPH)
Natural contribution (grey) and artificial contribution (blue: Chernobyl
and nuclear weapon test fallout from the fifties and sixties) are
represented in different colors.
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Chap. 8b
26 from 30
H. Völkle: Radioactivity and Radiation Fall Term 08: Chernobyl
Average additional doses [mSv] of the Swiss population in the 1st year
after the Chernobyl accident, calculated for different regions of the
country (Source: SFOPH)
In brackets percentages of the population in each region
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Chap. 8b
27 from 30
H. Völkle: Radioactivity and Radiation Fall Term 08: Chernobyl
Doses [mSv] for the most exposed population groups in the 1st year of the
Chernobyl accident (Source: SFOPH)
Calculated for different age classes. (The recommendations would have
reduced the thyroid doses of infants by about 0.8 mSv).
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Chap. 8b
28 from 30
H. Völkle: Radioactivity and Radiation Fall Term 08: Chernobyl
Average additional doses [mSv] of the Swiss population from the
Chernobyl accident in the years 1986 and following (Source: SFOPH)
(Source: SFOPH)
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BWR in operation
PWR in operation
other nucl. installations
destroyed
Not destroyed
The greatest Tsunamis in Japan: height of the wave [m]
Earthquakes in Japan with magnitude ≥ 6 (of the 20th century)
Chap. 9g
H. Völkle HS14
15
Chap. 9g
H. Völkle HS14
17
Chap. 9g
H. Völkle HS14
19
Reactor 1
Reactor 2
What happened
at the 4 nuclear
reactors of
Fukushima-Dai-ichi
Hydrogen
explosion
Reactor 3
Reactor 4
Core
melt down
Reactor number 4 was
in a shut down mode.
All fuel elements had
been transferred to the
fuel element storage
pool.
Le reacteur
no. 4
était vide.
Fukushima-Dai-ichi (reactors 1 – 4) after the Tsunami Wave
1
2
3
4
Cumulated deposition of 134Cs and 137Cs [Bq/m2]
City of Fukushima
Deposition of
134Cs
+ 137Cs [Bq/m2]
6‘000‘000 – 30‘000‘000
3‘000‘000 – 6‘000‘000
1‘000‘000 – 3‘000‘000
600‘000 – 1‘000‘000
300‘000 –
600‘000
Deposition of 137Cs in the districts of the Fukushima prefecture
and some neighboring districts
Source: UNSCEAR 2013
Deposition of 137Cs onto the ground form the air (measured by: MEXT/Japon)
Source: UNSCEAR 2013
Mext =
Ministery of Education,
Culture, Sports,
Science and Technology
Average effective doses by districts for inhabitants of the Fukushima prefecture
In the first year after the accident
(for the on evacuated districts)
Source: UNSCEAR 2013
Thyroid absorbed doses for 1year old children in the first year
after the accident in Fukushima prefecture and some districts nearby
Source: UNSCEAR 2013
Average effective doses for 1year old children in the first year after the
Fukushima accident
Source: UNSCEAR 2013
Average doses per district for adults, children and infants
representatifs for the inhabitants of Fukushima City
Source: UNSCEAR 2013
Distribution of the effective doses of the employees of the Fukushima NPP
for the time period from March 11th 2011 to October 31th 2012
Source: UNSCEAR 2013
Excess lifetime morbitities from radioactivity releases from Fukushima-Daiichi
by region: Best estimates, lower and upper uncertainties, based on
LNT-Hypothesis (percentages are total after end of simulation, i.e. in the 50 years
following the one month simulation)
Source: JOHN E. TEN HOEVE & MARK Z. JACOBSON, Stanford University, Energy Environ. Sci., 2012, 5, pp. 8743-8757
Worldwide, incl. Ingestion
Worldwide (30%)
Canada (56%)
Mexiko (29%)
United States (49%)
South Korea (71%)
China (68%)
Japan (27%)
Africa (59%)
Europe (75%)
North America (46%)
Asia (29%)
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
1000
10000
Excess lifetime mortalities from radioactivity releases from Fukushima-Daiichi
by region: Best estimates, lower and upper uncertainties, based on
LNT-Hypothesis (percentages are total after end of simulation, i.e. in the 50 years
following the one month simulation)
Source: JOHN E. TEN HOEVE & MARK Z. JACOBSON, Stanford University, Energy Environ. Sci., 2012, 5, pp. 8743-8757
Worldwide, incl. Ingestion
Worldwide (28%)
Canada (58%)
Mexiko (30%)
United States (51%)
South Korea (72%)
China (69%)
Japan (25%)
Africa (61%)
Europe (76%)
North America (48%)
Asia (27%)
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
1000
10000
WHO’s estimates of lifetime baseline risk (LBR) and lifetime attributable risk (LAR)
in % for areas within Fukushima Prefecture with effective doses of 12-25 mSv in the
1st year; (in parentheses: age of exposure); uncertainties for LAR: 0.3x … 3x
All solid cancer (LAR)
All solid cancer (LBR)
Leukaemia (LAR)
Leukaemia (LBR)
Breast cancer (LAR)
Breast Cancer (LBR)
Thyriod cancer (LAR)
Thyriod cancer (LBR)
100
10
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
Male (1y)
Male (10y)
Female (1y)
Male (20y)
Female (10y)
Female (20y)
Gesundheitliche Auswirkungen der Reaktorkatastrophe von Fukushima (WHO-Bericht)
Dosen bei der betroffenen Bevölkerung:
Präfektur Fukushima
Im 1. Jahr
(meistbelastete Bezirke)
Eff. Dosis (mSv)
10 - 50
Schilddrüsen
10 – 100 (wenige 100 – 200)
(mSv)
Präfektur Fukushima
(übrige Bezirke)
1 – 10
Übriges
Japan
0.1 – 1
Rest der
Welt
< 0.01
1 - 10
< 0.01
Risiko Krebserkrankung am meisten betroffenen Bevölkerung (für Individuen z.Z. Unfall im Kindesalter):
Leukämie Männer: < 7 %; Brustkrebs Frauen: < 6 %; übrige solide Tumoren: < 4 %;
Schilddrüsenkrebs Frauen: < 70% (Zahl ist hoch, weil hier die spontane Inzidenz sehr tief ist!);
Übrige stark-betroffenen Gebiete der Präfektur Fukushima: etwa die Hälfte der genannten Werte.
Betroffenen Arbeiter (rund 20‘000) im KKW Fukushima + Aufräumarbeiten:
für 2/3 < 10 mSv; für 1/3 10 - 50 mSv; für < 4 % 50 - 100 mSv; für < 1 % 100 - 200 mSv; für 0.5 % > 200 mSv.
Schilddrüsendosen: für rund 70 %: 5 mSv; für 30 %: 140 mSv; für < als 1 %: 200 mSv.
Erwartete Zunahmen des Erkrankungsrisikos bei den Arbeitern:
Schilddrüsenkrebs, Leukämie und übrige soliden Tumoren (Zahlen berechnet für Altersklassen 20-, 40- & 60jährige). (Zunahme ist bei jüngster Klasse relativ am höchsten da die spontane Inzidenz hier am tiefsten ist.)
Leukämie und den übrige soliden Tumoren: für 99 %: wenige %, Schilddrüse: einige 10 %.
Akute Strahlenerkrankungen wurden bei den Mitarbeitern keine festgestellt.
Grosses Problem bleiben (auch hier) die nicht radiologischen Auswirkungen (PTSD) bei der Bevölkerung!!
 Restricted Area,
 Deliberate Evacuation Area,
 Evacuation Area,
 Evacuation-Prepared Area
in case of Emergency and
regions including specific
spot recommended for
evacuation
(as of August 3, 2011)
1 day after the accident some
130‘000 inhabitants have been
evacuated in area of r = 20 km.
On March 5th 2011 345‘000
persons have been advised to
stay indoors and additional
measures were taken
(for example on food).
30 km
Besten Dank
für Ihre Aufmerksamkeit!
Fragen ?
Radioactivity releases into the air [Bq] at the
Freisetzung in die Luft [Bq] aus Tschernobyl (rot)
Chernobyl (red)
et the Fukushima accidents (blue)
131
und aus Fukushima-Dai-ichi (blau)
133
1.E+19
Xe
Bq
Release [Bq]
I
133
I
1.E+18
132
Te
1.E+17
1.E+16
Chernobyl releases
≈ 10 times higher
than Fukushima
85
Kr
releases to the sea:
total 4.7x1015 Bq
1.E+15
134
Cs
137
Cs
1.E+14
Release rates at the Chernobyl accident:
Noble gazes ≈ 100 %; iodine ≈ 2/3; Cs, Te ≈ 1/3;
Other fission products (Sr) ≈ few%; actinides ≈ ≤ 3%
1.E+13
1.E+12
Last values by UNSCEAR 2013 by Isotope in 1015 Bq and % released:
132Te: 2.85 (0.33);
131I: 124 (2.1);
132I: 28.5 (0.32); 133I: 9.56 (0.07);
133Xe: 7320 (61); 134Cs: 9.01 (1.3); 136Cs: 1.77 (0.81); 137Cs: 8.85 (1.3)
1.E+11
1.E+10
129
I
Tag - 1 Woche
11day
1 week -- 11 Jahr
year
1.E+09
Sources: IRSN (F),
GRS (D), Kurchatov (RF)
HWZ[d]
[d]
Half-life
1.E+08
1.E+07
1.E+06
1.E+05
1.E+04
1.E+03
1.E+02
1.E+01
1.E+00
1.E-01
1.E-02
1.E-03
1.E+08
Chap. 8b
13 from 30
H. Völkle: Radioactivity and Radiation Fall Term 08: Chernobyl
Radioisotopes released (Source: IPSN/GRS et al.)
Isotope
T½
Inventory [PBq]
Release [%]
Release [PBq]
50.5 d
28.8 y
64.0 d
2.75 d
211’000 y
39.3 d
372.6 d
4000
230
5800
> 6200
ca. 0.04
> 3700
> 860
2.9
4.3
3.4
> 2.7
2-3
> 4.5
> 8.5
115
10
196
> 168
0.00097
> 168
> 73
8.04 d
3100
57
1760
20.8 h
3.26 d
5.25 d
4800
4400
6500
19
26
100
910
1150
6500
134
2.07 y
30.1 y
170
260
32
33
54
85
140
12.8 d
32.5 d
284 d
2.35 d
87.7 y
24’100 y
6540 y
14.4 y
432.2 y
163 d
6000
5600
3900
5900
1.9
1
1.5
180
?
43
4.0
3.5
3.0
1.6
2.7
3.2
2.8
3.3
?
2.1
240
196
116
945
0.035
0.03
0.042
6.0
0.0042
0.9
89
Sr
Sr
95
Zr
99
Mo
99
Tc
103
Ru
106
Ru
90
131
I
133
I
Te
133
Xe
132
Cs
137
Cs
Ba
Ce
144
Ce
239
Np
238
Pu
239
Pu
240
Pu
241
Pu
241
Am
242
Cm
141
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Chap. 8b
14 from 30
H. Völkle: Radioactivity and Radiation Fall Term 08: Chernobyl
Duration of the release (Source: IPSN/GRS et al.)
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Chap. 8b
23 from 30
H. Völkle: Radioactivity and Radiation Fall Term 08: Chernobyl
3
Radioactivity of the air (aerosol filters) [Bq/m ] in Mai 1986 in Fribourg
(Source: SFOPH)
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Chap. 8b
24 from 30
H. Völkle: Radioactivity and Radiation Fall Term 08: Chernobyl
137
Cs in milk from Ticino [Bq/l] (Average values for each interval)
(Source: SFOPH)
Contamination from the air in spring-summer 1986, by contaminated hay
in winter 1986/87 and by foot uptake in 1987 and following years
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Dose rate [µSv/h] by contamination in the vicinity of
Chernobyl (left) and Fukushima (right) one month after the accidents
(Source: ENSI)
Quelle: ENSI
Comparison: brown + red + blue + violet (dose rate ≥ 20 µSv/h):
Chernobyl: ≈ 420 km2; Fukushima: ≈ 43 km2; i.e. ≈ 1/10
Wichtigste
Kritikpunkte
Fachleute
Main criticism
by nuclearder
specialists
- Tsunami prevention was insufficient: Tsunamis of > 10 m happen in Japan!
- During the last 500 years: at least 14, on average one every 30 years,
- Greatest Tsunamis: 1993: 31 m and 1994: 11 m
- Structures of the authorities: to heavy, on to many institutions and ministries
- Nuclear authorities: no sufficiently independent for the NPP:
- Separation & independency of Licensing and control is today state of
the art in most of the nuclear countries and is required by the IAEA
- The Fukushima-Daiichi NPP have never been inspected (OSART) or
technically updated and modernized with regard to nuclear safety and security
- The principle of multiple barriers was not fully respected and implemented,
the same for the «Defense in Depth» principle, i.e. for diversification,
redundancy and separation for all safety relevant parts of the reactor
- No Hydrogen recombination an filtered containment venting system
Buildings not watertight (protection against Tsunami insufficient)
- Emergency measures insufficient; «Multi Block Units» = elevated risk
- Failure of the Japanese System of nuclear safety: The Report by the
Japanese Government: «The safety culture was insufficient !»
«Nuclear Safety Consciousness» in different countries worldwide, illustrated by the comparison
of nuclear reactor to the OSART missions performed so far in each country.
Numer of nuclear plants in operation by country
Number of OSART and OSART Follow-up missions by the IAEA
100
80
60
40
20
USA
Hungary
Ukraine
Czech Republic
Taiwan
South Korea
South Africa
Spain
Slovenia
Slovakia
Switzerland
Sweden
Russian Federation
Rumania
Pakistan
Netherlands
Mexico
Canada
Japan
Iran
India
Great Britain
France
Finland
Germany
China
Bulgaria
Brazil
Belgium
Armenia
Argentina
0
Measurements in the air outside Japan
Iodine-131 (particle bound)
Comparaison 137Cs:
Japan
US (West Coast)
Germany
Switzerland
CH: nucl. weapons fallout
Mai ‘76:
Air: up to 300 µBq/m3
CH: Chernobyl Mai ’86:
Air: Up to 1‘300‘000 µBq/m3
CH: Algeciras June ’98:
Air: Up to 150 µBq/m3
CH: Fukushima air
(at ground level)
March ’11: up to 42 µBq/m3
≈ 1/50
Source: SFOPH and ENSI
CH: Fukushima
Air at 7900 m
March 30th 11:
up to 170 µBq/m3
(Source: CFSR/KUER- and
reports of the SFOPH)