early christian history
100 - 700 C.E.
Extra ecclesiam
nulla salus
Outside the church
there is no salvation.
– Cyprian of Carthage
(200-258 C.E.)
maxieburch.net
© 2009
table of contents
Christianity Becomes a Distinct Faith
page 1
Biblical Interpretation in Early Christianity
page 5
Threats to Christian Unity
page 9
Christianity and the Roman Empire
page 12
The Ecumenical Councils: Theology from the Top Down
page 17
Christian Monasticism: Theology from the Bottom Up
page 24
Early Christian Missions
page 30
St. Augustine: A Transitional Figure
page 34
Appendix 1 | Historical Rules of Thumb
page 41
Appendix 2 | Apostles Creed and Nicene Creed
page 42
Appendix 3 | Trinity Diagram
page 43
Appendix 4
| Timelines for Early Christianity, Part 1
page 44
Appendix 5 | Timelines for Early Christianity, Part 2
page 45
Map 1 | Eastern Expansion of the Roman Empire During the Sixth Century
page 47
Map 2 | Campaigns of Marcus Aurelius and the Severan Emperors
page 48
Map 3 | Roman Empire of Diocletian and Constantine
page 49
Map 4 | Greece, the Aegean, and Western Asia Minor
page 50
Map 5 | Roman Empire North and West in the “Age of Crisis”
page 51
Map 6 | Roman Empire Divided Into Prefectures and Dioceses
page 52
christianity
becomes
a distinct
faith
1
christianity becomes a distinct faith
I. Separation of Christianity from Judaism | 60-150 C.E.
(See Map 1. See Timeline: Appendix 4)
Early persecution | Jewish Revolt against Rome and dispersion (66-70 C.E.)...destruction of the temple
in 70 C.E. Christian Church vs. Jewish Synagogue:
General Factors that Separated Christianity from Judaism:
1. Letters of Ignatius of Antioch
2. Christians as “God’s people”
3. Sacred Literature
4. Hierarchy of Leadership
II. An Emerging Faith: Monoepiscopacy, Canonization, Creeds and Apologists
A.Monoepiscopacy
1. Development of Church Hierarchy | 1 Timothy 3
2. Bishop-Ignatius of Antioch’s letters: three fold ministry and the Bishop’s role as the High Priest.
Administration of the Eucharist, position evolved over next three centuries.
Centrality of the Eucharist in early Christian worship.
2
christianity becomes a distinct faith
B. The Process of Canonization
Regula Fidei | The “rule of faith”, seen as synonymous with the apostolic faith for interpreting
scripture. Balancing oral tradition and written accounts.
Four criteria for canonization:
1.
2.
3.
4.
C. Creeds: Developed in concert with the regula fidei for teaching and instruction.
Apostles Creed (2nd century) and Nicene Creed (4th century) (See Appendix 2)
3
christianity becomes a distinct faith
D. Apologists: (See Map 2)
Jewish and Roman persecution of Christians in first three centuries made Christianity distinct.
The beginning of the 2nd century witnessed the rise of Christian intellectuals who used both
scriptural and philosophical resources to answer accusations brought against Christianity.
Christian Apologists:
1. Justin Martyr (100-165 C.E.) | Developed the philosophical/theological concept of the Logos.
First Apology (155 C.E.)
2. Irenaeus (140-200 C.E.) | Developed the relationship between the regula fidei and the canon.
Against Heresies (180-185 C.E.)
3. Tertullian (150-225 C.E.) | Developed the concept of trinitas and opposed philosophy
as a means for understanding faith.
Apology (200 C.E.)
Against Marcion (207 C.E.)
4
biblical
interpretation
in early
christianity
5
biblical interpretation in early christianity
I. Jewish Hermeneutical Sources
A. Midrash | Rabbinical interpretation of the Torah – “building a fence around the Torah” provides
B. Commentaries | The Mishnah, the oldest commentary on the Torah.
traditional interpretation, first oral then written tradition results in Commentaries.
Composed of 6 volumns and sometimes called the “Oral Torah”. A “gemara” is a rabbinical
commentary on the Mishnah and there are two sources for gemara: Palestinian and Babylonian.
The Talmud is a collection of quotations from the Mishnah and the gemara on those quotations.
There are two Talmuds: Palestinian Talmud, 5th century and Babylonian Talmud, 7th century.
Hermeneutic to Homeletic: Dual Contents of Biblical Commentary
Halakah (way of life) | Laws and practices for Jewish life created from the ongoing interpretive
process to understand the heart and intent of the Torah, Mishnah, and Talmud.
Aggadah (narrative) | Rabbinical commentary that uses stories and other illustrations to fill out
the unexplained parts of scripture.
C. Jesus’ Midrash | Jesus struggled mightily with the Pharisees, because he was trained in their
tradition, but he disagreed with their Midrash. Jesus offered an alternative Midrash:
Matthew 5:17- 7:28
6
biblical interpretation in early christianity
II. Two Schools of Christian Hermeneutical Thought:
Alexandria and Antioch (See Map 1)
Alexandrian Tradition | Allegorical Method
Antiochene Tradition | Historical/Literal Method
A. Alexandrian Theological Tradition:
Origen (185-253 C.E.)
Background: “Father of Biblical Criticism”, studied in Alexandria at the Museum.
Educated in classical curriculum: arithmetic, music, theory, astronomy, geometry and grammar.
Four Stages of Grammar:
1 | Criticism of Text
2 | Oral Reading
3 | Exposition and Exegesis
4 | Judgment
Works: Hexapla (six parallel columns): Apologetic to Judaism
View of Scripture:
1 | All necessary truths for life were found in the Bible
2 | The Bible was authoritative because God was the author
3 | The text, not the authors, was the Bible’s locus of inspiration and authority
7
biblical interpretation in early christianity
B. Antiochean Theological Tradition
John Chrysostom (347-407 C.E.)
Background: Nicknamed “golden mouth”, John was a great expository preacher. From the school
at Antioch he received a classical education in preparation for a career in law but turned to the study
of scripture under the instruction of Diodore of Tarsus. John dedicated himself to a monastic life,
memorized the New Testament, and was a deacon and priest in Antioch. In 397 C.E., he was appointed
Bishop of Constantinople and was involved in numerous controversies.
Works: Homilies
View of Scripture: Two basic principles
1 | Condescension
2 | Accuracy
• Metaphors for the Bible: Treasure, ark, well and medicine cabinet
Interpretive Method:
1 | Study the Historical Context
2 | Detail the flow and logic of the argument
8
3 | Move towards exhortation
threats
to christian
unity
9
threats to christian unity
In the second century, the church dealt with several challenges to its unity. Persecution threatened
Christians with death if they refused to submit to the demands of the empire, but there were also internal
threats to the new faith. Some of these threats were doctrinal in nature challenging orthodox church teaching,
others were schismatic in nature undermining the church’s unity.
I. Gnosticism | gnosis = secret knowledge
A variety of 1st and 2nd century writings and leaders. Gnosticism thrived in the rich, pluralistic,
religious environment of these first centuries and infiltrated Christian communities.
Five Points of Gnostic Teaching:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Marcion (85-160 C.E.) Christian Gnostic whose writings influenced the canonization of scripture.
10
threats to christian unity
II. Montanists, c.170 C.E. | “The New Prophecy” (See Map 2)
Montanus and two assistants: Priscilla and Maximilla
Three Basic Teachings:
1.
2.
3.
III. Novationists, c.250 C.E. | “Church Discipline”
Novatian: Leader in Roman Church
Four Basic Teachings:
1.
2.
3.
4.
11
christianity and
the roman empire
12
christianity and the roman empire
I. Changing Fortunes of the Church (See Map 3)
A. Consequences of Constantine’s connection to Christianity created a paradoxical relationship
with the church.
1. Hosios of Cordova
2. in hoc signo vinces
3. Pontifex Maximus and Christian Disciple
4. Church Patron and Defender
B. Implications for the Church
End of persecution and favored status as the religion of the empire. Concessions made to the church:
1.
2.
3.
13
christianity and the roman empire
II. Early Christian Political Theory
The church’s new relationship with the Roman Empire eventually forced church leaders to interpret
the political status of Christianity as the new religion of the empire. These interpretations and sentiments varied among church leaders.
Three Early Christian Political Thinkers:
A.Eusebius of Caesarea (260-339 C.E.)
Christian advisor for the eastern empire. When the capitol of the empire was moved to Constantinople
(330 C.E.), Eusebius became a close advisor of Constantine. He transcribed copies of the scriptures
to be used by churches in the new capitol.
Ecclesiastical History
Political Theory (Cultural Model)
Roman state and the church were both ordained by God to cooperate in creating a unified civilization. The Emperor was God’s “vice-regent” with the bishops and therefore he took the title “Bishop
in Externals”. Unity of Church/State was God’s plan from the beginning and was now realized
under Constantine.
BISHOP
CHURCH
14
EMPEROR
STATE
One Christian
Civilization
christianity and the roman empire
II. Early Christian Political Theory
Three Early Christian Political Thinkers:
B. Ambrose of Milan (339-397 C.E.)
Bishop, pastor and counselor to three Roman emperors. He made use of imperial politics to advance
Nicene Christianity against Arianism, but viewed the emperor as a son of the church and therefore
“the emperor is within the church and not above it”. Matters of faith were the business of the church,
not the palace. Ambrose never forgot the memory of the martyrs.
Political Theory (Biblical Model) “Body of Christ”
CHURCH
BISHOP
EMPEROR
STATE
EMPEROR
BISHOP
THE BODY OF CHRIST
(Ephesians 4)
15
christianity and the roman empire
II. Early Christian Political Theory
Three Early Christian Political Thinkers:
C. Hosios of Cordova (256-357 C.E.)
Political Theory: Separate but Equal
Doctrine of the Two Swords
Both church and state are ordained by God, but they represented two autonomous spheres
of power (spiritual and temporal); therefore, they should stay out of each others’ affairs.
BISHOP
EMPEROR
Body of Christ
SEPARATE BUT EQUAL
CHURCH
SPIRITUAL
16
STATE
TEMPORAL
the ecumenical councils:
theology from
the top down
17
the ecumenical councils:
theology from the top down
The first seven ecumenical councils represented those councils of the early church that both the Catholic
Church and Orthodox Church acknowledged as establishing doctrine and practice for the church.
These councils were all held in the eastern half of the empire, the bishops and the emperors called them,
the majority of bishops were from the eastern part of the empire and their decisions carried both theological
and political ramifications for the church. (See Map 4)
Shift from Hebraic to Hellenistic Thought for Theology: The theological language of the councils represented
a shift from the symbolism, concepts and language of Hebraic thought to the language, concepts, and symbols
of the Hellenistic world. Translating the gospel message into the language of another culture was their attempt
to answer philosophical and theological questions with greater precision. (See Appendix 3- Trinity Diagram)
Hilary of Poitiers: “God is one, but He is not alone”.
TRINITY
FATHER(P)
SON(F)
HUMANITY
HOLY SPIRIT(SS)
DIVINITY
[P-F] | 325 C.E., Council of Nicea: Equality of Essence
P-SS} F | 381 C.E., Council of Constantinople: Equality of Natures
P-SS} F | 431 C.E., Council of Ephesus: Relationship of the Natures
P-SS} F | 451 C.E., Council of Chalcedon: Union of Two Natures, One Person
18
the ecumenical councils:
theology from the top down
I. Nicea, 325 C.E. | P/F - Equality of Essence
Issue: Nature of the Son’s relationship to the Father and the full humanity and divinity of Jesus
as the Christ.
Positions Rejected:
A.Monarchianists | Two Types:
1. Modalists or Sabellianism
2. Adoptionists
B. Ebionitism
Jewish sect believed that Jesus was fully human but not divine.
Positions Debated at Council:
Arius (Arianism)
Presbyter of Alexandria said that Jesus “the logos” was not eternal, subordinate to Father
and therefore Jesus was heteroousias.
Athanasius
Assistant to Bishop of Alexandria focused on the soteriological implications of Arius’ views.
John 1:1 | Son is eternal, uncreated, preexistent, coequal with the Father and therefore
Jesus was homoousias. (not one iota)
19
the ecumenical councils:
theology from the top down
Result: Arius was condemned at Nicea and by the Emperor. “Athanasian Creed” and “Nicene Creed”
Political Consequences:
1.
2.
II. Constantinople, 381 C.E. | F - Equality of the Natures
Issue: How are the human and divine natures of Christ related?
Position Rejected:
Docetism
Positions debated:
Apollinarius | leader in Laodicea
An extreme reaction to Arianism led to this view. Jesus was not fully human as we are (not a creature),
he only “appeared to be”. He lacked a human mind because his mind was the divine logos and the logos
cannot actually become flesh.
Basil the Great | Bishop of Caesarea (one of the Cappadocian Fathers)
Argued for the soteriological implications of Apollinarius’ views. “Whatever was not assumed,
was not healed”.
Result: Apollinarius was condemned and Constantinople affirmed that Jesus was fully God, fully Man…
for the time being.
20
the ecumenical councils:
theology from the top down
III. Ephesus, 431 C.E. | F - Relationship of the Natures
Issue: How were the two natures of Christ, human and divine, to be defined? Would the emphasis be on integration of the natures or the distinction of the natures in one person?
Positions debated:
Nestorius | Bishop of Constantinople, represented the Antiochian School
The Antiochian School emphasized the distinct natures, but had to explain how there was a unity in terms
of a moral conjunction or merging of the wills. Sounded like two persons not one.
HD
Cyril of Alexandria | Bishop of Alexandria, represented the Alexandrian School
The Alexandrian School emphasized the integration of the natures in one person, but had to explain
how the natures were distinct. Sounded like the humanity got lost in the divinity.
D
H
12 Anathemas and 12 Counter-Anathemas: Politics at Ephesus
Two councils were actually convened
Result: 433 C. E., Formula of Union
21
the ecumenical councils:
theology from the top down
IV. Chalcedon, 451 C.E. | F - Understanding the Union of Two Natures in One Person
Issue: Further defined how the two natures could coexist in one person. Positions debated:
Eutyches | Archimandrite in Constantinople
Took the Cyril interpretation to the extreme of “a drop of honey in the ocean”.
Leo I | Bishop of Rome
Condemned Eutyches in a Tome that held together the humanity and divinity of Christ in one person
without losing the distinction of the natures.
Result:
Chalcedonian definition preserved the two natures of Christ in one person with the same substance
as the Father, fully God and fully Man, the two natures not abolished by the union.
Four Qualifiers:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Implications of Chalcedon: “Issues are not resolved, they are confined.”
1.
2.
3.
4.
22
the ecumenical councils:
theology from the top down
Political Implications of Ecumenical Councils:
1. Nicean Theology:
Kingdom
of Father = Kingdom
of the Son
_________________
__________________
The State
The Church
2. Arian Theology:
Kingdom
of Father - The State
_______________________________
Kingdom of the Son - The Church
23
christian monasticism:
theology from
the bottom up
24
christian monasticism:
theology from the bottom up
I. Appeared in the 3rd Century (See Maps 2 and 3)
Characteristics:
1.
2.
3.
4.
II. Sentiment to Symbolism: Martyrdom to Monastic Ideal
The power of sentiments in any age is reflected in a number of symbolic ways. One of the most powerful
sentiments in the early church involved the issue of living as a true disciple. Dying for one’s faith under
persecutions became the highest expression of discipleship. This sentiment was symbolized by
martyrdom. Gradually as the persecutions ceased in the 4th century, martyrdom as the symbol
of true discipleship was replaced by monasticism. The sentiment of total commitment was no longer
a martyr’s death but rather a decision to separate oneself from the world in order to live an ascetic,
detached life in communion with God.
The monk replaced the martyr in the 4th and 5th centuries as the symbol of Christianity’s
highest virtues. The sentiments of martyrdom that reflected Christian engagement with the world
in the midst of persecution were replaced by monastic sentiments emphasizing disengagement from
the world as the true sign of Christian discipleship.
25
christian monasticism:
theology from the bottom up
III. Two Types of Monasticism
A. Eremitic (Hermits)
B. Cenobitic (Common Life)
IV. Significant Monastic Figures
A. St. Anthony of Egypt (270-356 C.E.) | Eremetic Monasticism
Egyptian Christian, born to a wealthy family. Heard sermon on Matt. 19, the rich young ruler,
and took it literally. Sold all he had and left the city for the desert to live an ascetic life.
His monastic ideal had two motivations:
1.
2.
Athanasius wrote the biography of Anthony that popularized monasticism in the western empire
over the next three centuries.
26
christian monasticism:
theology from the bottom up
IV. Significant Monastic Figures
B. Basil of Caesarea (330-379 C.E.) | Bishop of Caesarea
Employed the cenobitic style but wanted to create a Christian/Platonists spiritual brotherhood.
“Do not cut off the contemplative life from society”. His monastic community combined family ties
with service to others outside the community. Established monasteries within cities as well as without. The idea was to overthrow the evil in the world not escape from it, to make Christianity a social creed.
Characteristics:
C. Jerome (345-420 C.E.) | Biblical Scholar and Monk
Born in Dalmatia, he thought of himself as a Roman (Latin) Christian. Struggled with his love
for classical thinkers versus the Bible alone. Led an extreme ascetic movement among the aristocratic
class in Rome. Wrote biblical commentaries and translated the works of Origen.
Contributions to Western Monasticism:
1. The Vulgate
2. Against Jovian
27
christian monasticism:
theology from the bottom up
IV. Significant Monastic Figures
D. Benedict of Nursia (480-550 C.E.) | Bishop of Caesarea
Founded a monastery at Monte Cassino, Italy. The Benedictine (Black Monk) monastic tradition and rule
became the standard for western monasticism in the 9th century. Benedict was practical in his
approach to monasticism avoiding the extremes of asceticism and anchorite traditions. He wrote the
Benedictine Rule – an organization rulebook for his monastery.
Offices/Hours of Monastic Community:
Psalm 119:164, 62 | “Seven times a day will I praise thee” and “I will awake at midnight
to confess thee”. The ancient world divided the day into 12 parts or hours from sunrise to sunset.
Lauds | Means “the praises” and is the church’s morning prayer at sunrise.
Prime | Means “the first hour” according to the ancient way of dividing the day and is recited
at 7:00 am.
Terce, Sext, None | Latin for 3rd, 6th and 9th hours in the ancient way and refers to the “little hours” of 9:00 am, noon and 3:00 pm.
Vespers | The church’s evening prayer recited at sunset.
Compline | Recited after sunset just before the monks retire for the night.
Matins | The midnight office of prayer.
Lauds and Vespers are the most important hours of prayer as they begin and end each day as Opus Dei.
Later these seven hours were connected in verse to the last hours of Christ’s life:
At Matins bound, at Prime reviled,
Condemned to death at Terce
Nailed to the cross at Sext, at Nones His blessed side they pierce.
They take Him down at Vesper-tide,
In grace at Compline lay:
Who thenceforth bids His Church observe
Her Sevenfold hours always.
Characteristics:
Life ordered in three daily routines | Orare et laborare
1.
2.
28
3. lectio divina
christian monasticism:
theology from the bottom up
IV. Significant Monastic Figures
E. St. Radegund (518-587 C.E.)
12 year old daughter of a Thuringian King kidnapped and married by the Frankish King Clothar I. Clothar was a nominal Christian with seven wives and numerous concubines. Radegund was a Frankish Queen when she converted to Catholicism and dedicated herself to the care of the poor and
the release of prisoners. She established a leper hospital. Eventually she left Clothar after he
murdered her brother and took the vows of a nun. She established her own monastery at Poitiers,
paid for by Clothar.
Characteristics:
29
early christian
missions
30
early christian missions
I. Early Centers of Christian Influence | 50-300 C.E. (See Maps 1, 2, 5 and 6)
A. Paul’s Missionary Journeys |
Antioch and Jerusalem
Asia Minor: Cappadocia, Galatia, Asia, Bithynia
Greece: Thrace, Macedonia, Achaia
Italy: Rome
B. Expansion into North Africa
Through Alexandria, Egypt to Tunis and Algeria
C. Northern Europe
France (Gaul) and Britain (Roman/British Christianity and later Celtic Christianity)
II. Mission Strategy Shifts | 4th Century
Change in status of Christianity under Constantine opened Christian missions to Western Roman Empire.
Shift from Pauline strategy of establishing urban churches with the converts made by the public preaching
of the gospel to converting chieftains (kings) and thereby their followers.
Two Cultural Symbols: Tribe (Nation) and Chief (King)
The identity of the tribe was connected to the person of the chief as the symbolic head of the people.
The Chief or King was the one who brought order out of chaos and was the ideal of the tribal
(national) myth.
It could be argued that the Christian missionary efforts of the 4th-6th centuries saved the church and what
remained of Roman society from destruction when the western Roman Empire collapsed under Barbarian
invasions in the 5th century.
31
early christian missions
III. Christianity Goes West | 300-600 C.E.
A. Gothic Tribes
Ufilas (311-383 C.E.) Cappadocian mother and Gothic father. Ordained bishop of the Goths in 341 C.E.
and spent 40 years traveling among the Gothic tribes. Translated the Bible into Goth and spread Arian
Christianity among the Goths. Goths remained Arian Christians until the 5th century.
Visigoths, Ostrogoths and Vandals were Arian Christians. They opposed Rome but honored the church.
B. Ireland | Celtic Christianity and Monasticism
St. Patrick (389-461 C.E.)
Background: Christianity was introduced to Roman Britain sometime in the 4th century
but it is not certain how.
Armagh: Headquarters for converting the local king. Patrick established Celtic Christianity with
an Episcopal form of government but not centered in the diocese but rather in the monastery where
the head was not the bishop but rather the abbot.
Characteristics:
• Monastery as a center for education
• Green Martyrdom
• Creation as a Sacrament
• Less focus on rules more focus on community life
• No censorship on learning
• Wandering Monks – Peregrini pro Christo
• Reform of Irish culture
32
early christian missions
III. Christianity Goes West | 300-600 C.E.
C. Scotland and Celtic Monasticism
Columba (521-597 C.E.) | Apostle to Scotland
[Crimthann/fox; called Columcille/dove of the church; Romanized to Columba]
Background: Born to wealthy Irish family, he followed in the footsteps of Patrick becoming a monk
and established monasteries at Durrow and Kells in Ireland. Supposedly his love of books got him
in trouble. One account records that he fought a battle over a contested manuscript in which hundreds
were killed. As a result he was banished from Ireland in 563. Others say that he left Ireland to follow
the call of Christ to Scotland. For whatever reason, he left.
Scotland:
D. Anglo/Saxon England
Aiden (died 651 C.E.) & Cuthbert (634 - 687 C.E.) | Lindisfarne (land by the Lindis)
Background: Aiden arrived from Iona in 635 C.E. with 12 other monks at the request of King Oswald
and they established their monastic community on Lindisfarne. From there they evangelized
the Anglo-Saxon population of Northumbria, introduced Celtic Christian traditions and established two
monasteries at Melrose and Jedburgh.
By 664 C.E., the struggle for ecclesiastical dominance between Lindisfarne (Celtic Tradition)
and Canterbury (Roman Tradition) had reached a head. At the Council of Whitby, called by King Osway,
the Celtic contingent was led by Bishop Colman of Lindisfarne and supported by Hilda, abbess of
the doublehouse at Whitby. The Roman delegation was represented by Bishop Wilfred of York.
After much debate over the dating of Easter and proper haircuts for monks, the Celtic contingent was
forced by King Osway to concede to the authority of Rome and adopt Roman practices.
Coleman’s Irish followers and 30 English monks left Lindisfarne for Iona rather than submit.
The leadership of Lindisfarne passed to Cuthbert, an Anglo-Saxon monk trained in the Celtic tradition
at Melrose.
Cuthbert led the monastic community with integrity and grace and assisted them in complete
compliance with the Roman rites. He was best known for his holy lifestyle and his desire to commune
with God as a hermit in the tradition of the Desert Fathers. The famous Lindisfarne Gospels,
dedicated to Cuthbert, were started in 687 C.E. and completed in 698 C.E.
33
st. augustine:
a transitional figure
34
st. augustine: a transitional figure
Introduction (See Map 2)
Augustine is a transitional figure in that he stood at that pivotal moment when the Roman Empire and
the classical world it represented were waning and the seeds of the soon to emerge medieval world were being
planted. Augustine’s Confessions tell us of the classical world that is dying and what will be lost. Augustine’s
thought and theology created the bridge that connected the classical and medieval worlds, a bridge that future
generations of thinkers were compelled to cross in order to dialogue with this North African bishop.
Both medieval scholasticism and 16th century Protestantism were indebted to the work of Augustine.
In fact this Bishop of Hippo’s collected works helped shape the psyche of western civilization from the time
after the fall of Rome to the Enlightenment.
In a sense Augustine’s Confessions was the forerunner of the modern psyche, the first person to write as “I”. He revealed the hidden inner life with all its complexity, wonders and duplicity.
I. Biography: Confessions | “Theology as Biography”
• Born in 354 C.E. in Thagaste, North Africa
• Mother: Monica
• Father: Patricius
• Schooled in Carthage in classical studies
• Taught rhetoric in Thagaste, Carthage and Milan
• Life characterized by a desperate search for truth about himself, God, the world etc. Tried several philosophies before converting to Christianity.
• His mother, Ambrose of Milan and the Life of St. Anthony were major influences.
• Converted at age 32.
• Ordained a priest in 391 C.E., served in monastery at Hippo and was elected
Bishop of Hippo in 395 C.E.
35
st. augustine: a transitional figure
II. Theological Controversies
A. Pelagianism (Soteriology)
Pelagius was a British monk trained in law. His concern was the moral laxity he found among Christians
and the widespread excuse for moral laxity being that they are not on the same level of spirituality
as monks or priests. The excuse was “I can’t help it, this is just he way I am”. Pelagius sought to
formulate an understanding of God’s law and salvation that placed moral responsibility on the
shoulders of the average Christian. God being just would not give us laws that we were not capable
of fulfilling. God would not demand an ought that we were not able to do. By putting the power
of moral/spiritual transformation back in the hands of people, Augustine asserted that Pelagius
undermined the biblical understanding of law and made Christ’s atonement an empty work.
1. Natural State of Humanity
Pelagius:
Augustine:
2.Fall
Pelagius:
[no need for infant baptism]
Augustine:
[need for infant baptism]
36
st. augustine: a transitional figure
II. Theological Controversies
A.Pelagianism (Soteriology)
3. Will
Pelagius:
Augustine: Two Conditions of the Will
• Before the Fall, Posse non peccare
• After the Fall, Non posse non peccare
4.Sin
Pelagius: We are sinners because we sin.
Augustine: We sin because we are sinners.
5.Grace
Pelagius: Grace is a natural endowment of will and intellect given to us by God in order for us
to obey God’s just laws.
Augustine: God must grant us grace that is outside of our own efforts because we are
non posse non peccare. We cannot will to love God on our own. Salvation is from beginning to end
a work of God’s grace.
37
st. augustine: a transitional figure
II. Theological Controversies
B. Donatism (Ecclesiology)
A schismatic movement in North Africa led by Bishop Donatus of Carthage. This group split from
the Catholic Church over the issue of purity and the implications of purity for the sacraments.
During the Diocletian persecution of the church some bishops and priests who renounced Christ
and turned over the scriptures to be burned. After the persecution some of these men were
reinstated. The Donatists objected to their reinstatement.
Issues:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Augustine’s Arguments:
1. Parable of the wheat and tares | There is no visibly pure church. There is a visible
and invisible church.
2. Difference between ex opere operato and ex opere operantis.
Result:
Augustine supported the state’s persecution of the Donatists because to be schismatic was to be
a heretic. Donatism broke the unity of the church.
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st. augustine: a transitional figure
III. Political Theory | The City of God
In the first decade of the 5th century, Rome was failing in its attempts to hold back the barbarian invasion. The Vandals were in North Africa assaulting Carthage and other cities. Many were saying that Rome could
only be saved by returning to the old gods and old ways.
Augustine wrote the City of God to refute this pagan argument and to present his overarching
understanding of the role of history and human institutions in the larger plans and purposes of God.
Arguments | There are Two Cities
1. the City of Man
2. the City of God
The love of self and the things of the world characterized the first city and the love of God
characterized the second city. These two loves created two kinds of human society. Ultimately God
was working in and through history to bring about his plan of salvation using imperfect people
and institutions.
1. City of Man | Human Governments
Destined to fail because they were not eternal and were based upon and directed toward falsely
directed love, self not God. These institutions were capable of serving the purposes of order
and justice to a limited degree but could never fulfill the plans of God. They could control
the effects of sin but never eradicate it. They could only achieve relative peace and relative order
at best.
2. City of God | The Church
Not the embodiment of the City of God, but rather the anticipation of it because the church
was affected by sin and therefore was not perfect but was the society in which God’s grace was
at work. The church was the shadow of a redeemed human society that would be the final
outcome of God’s purposes in salvation.
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appendixes
40
appendix one | historical rules of thumb
1.
Actual history is simultaneous but we study it in fragments and therefore it is important to recognize
transition. Not this and then that, but rather, this to that.
2.
Most of history is the history of the unintended.
3.
Never beg the question by assuming that history is inevitable.
4.
Historians write history… be careful about using categories created by historians like “Dark Ages”. There was no “Golden Age” in anybody’s history either, only the nostalgia about it.
5.
While searching for the facts of history pay close attention to the sentiments and symbols that motivated
and shaped people’s world view.
6.
Important Question: What was it possible for the people of a particular time to have believed?
Not what we wished they believed, or want them to believe.
Process for Historical Study:
Always trying to move beyond description to analysis.
• Observations
• Questions
• Research
• Analysis
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appendix two
apostles creed (late first, early second century)
I believe in God, the Father Almighty,
the Maker of heaven and earth,
and in Jesus Christ, His only Son, our Lord:
Who was conceived by the Holy Ghost,
born of the virgin Mary,
suffered under Pontius Pilate,
was crucified, dead, and buried;
He descended into hell.
The third day He arose again from the dead;
He ascended into heaven,
and sits at the right hand of God the Father Almighty;
from thence He shall come to judge the quick and the dead.
I believe in the Holy Ghost;
the holy catholic church;
the communion of saints;
the forgiveness of sins;
the resurrection of the body;
and the life everlasting.
the nicene creed (374 C.E.)
I believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth, and of all things visible and invisible.
And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of God, begotten of the Father before all worlds;
God of God, Light of Light, very God of very God; begotten, not made, being of one substance with the Father,
by whom all things were made.
Who, for us men and for our salvation, came down from heaven, and was incarnate by the Holy Spirit
of the virgin Mary, and was made man; and was crucified also for us under Pontius Pilate; He suffered
and was buried; and the third day He rose again, according to the Scriptures; and ascended into heaven,
and sits on the right hand of the Father; and He shall come again, with glory, to judge the quick and the dead;
whose kingdom shall have no end.
And I believe in the Holy Ghost, the Lord and Giver of Life; who proceeds from the Father;
who with the Father and the Son together is worshipped and glorified; who spoke by the prophets.
And I believe in one holy catholic and apostolic Church. I acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins;
and I look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come.
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appendix three | trinity diagram
43
appendix four | timelines, part one
age of jesus and the apostles
Birth of Jesus
Death of Jesus
Death of Stephen
0
20
40
Death of Paul
60
80
100
Nero
Destruction of Jerusalem
age of catholic christianity
Clement of
Alexandria
Polycarp
Ignatius
Irenaeus
Justin
100
150
Marcion
Cyprian
Tertullian
200
Montanus
Origen
250
300
Muritorian Canon
Gnosticism Crisis
Trajan
44
Decius
Diocletian Constantine
appendix five | timelines, part two
age of the christian roman empire
Council of Nicea
Anthony Athanasius
Basil
Council of Chalcedon
Jerome
Ambrose Augustine
300
Leo
400
Gregory
the Great
Benedict
500
Sack of Rome
600
Fall of Rome
Baptism of Clovis
Conversion of Constantine
Justinian
Theodosius
early middle ages
Europe is Christianized
St. Patrick
Ulfilas
300
400
Goths
Augustine to England
Baptism of Clovis
500
Huns Lombards
Conquerors of Rome
Fall of Rome
600
Gregory
the Great
700
Boniface
800
Charlemagne
Battle of Tours
Iconoclastic Controversy
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maps
46
map one |eastern expansion of roman empire
during the sixth century
47
map two | campaigns of marcus aurelius
and the severan emperors
48
map three | roman empire of diocletian
and constantine
49
map four | greece, the aegean, and western
asia minor
50
map five | roman empire north and west
in the “age of crisis”
51
map six | roman empire divided into prefectures
and dioceses
52