LANGUAGE IN
SOCIETY
LANGUAGE AND
CULTURE
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CULTURE
Whatever a person needs to know in
order to function in a particular
society in a manner acceptable to its
members
Socially acquired knowledge necessary behaviours learned from
other members of the community, do
not come from genetic endowment
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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
LANGUAGE AND CULTURE
Three differing views:
views:
Structure of language
language determines the way
that speakers of that language
language view the
world
Culture is reflected in language. Cultural
requirements do not determine structure of
lang,, but influence how it is used
lang
Little or no relationship bet
betw
ween lang
language
uage
and culture
culture
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Sapir--Whorf / Whorfian hypothesis
Sapir
Edward Sapir:
Human beings do not live in the objective world
alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as
ordinarily understood, but are very much at the
mercy of the particular language which has
become the medium of expression for their
society. It is quite an illusion to imagine that one
adjusts to reality essentially without the use of
language….
language
….
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SAPIR’S IDEA
(CONT.)
The fact of the matter is that the ‘real world’
is unconsciously built up on the language
habits of the group.
group. We see and hear
and…. experience very largely as we do
because the language habits of our
community predispose certain choices of
interpretation
(Language
Language,, 1929)
1929)
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Benjamin Lee Whorf
The background linguistic system (in other
grammar)) of each language is
words the grammar
not merely a reproducing instrument for
voicing ideas but rather is itself the shaper
of ideas …. the guide for the individual’s
mental activity… Formulation of ideas is
not an independent process, but… is part
of a particular grammar…
grammar…
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WHAT FOLLOWS?
Different speakers will view the world
differently in so far as the languages they
speak differ structurally.
We perceive only what our language
allows us, or predisposes us, to perceive.
Our language controls our world view, thus
speakers of different languages will have
different world views.
views.
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Data in favour of the Whorfian
hypothesis
Both people and bulls have legs in English, but
in Spanish people have piernas
piernas,, bulls have
patas..
patas
Bedouin Arabs:
Arabs: many different words for camels
camels,,
Samis:: several for reindeer
Samis
reindeer,, Inuits
Inuits:: words for
many different
different kinds of snow
snow..
English has a cover term animal
animal,, but no term to
nuts. Chinese does have
cover both fruit and nuts.
one..
one
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Conclusions from data
Our world view, shaped by our native
tongue, makes it difficult to immediately
understand distinctions that speakers of
other languages make. However,
understanding (as well as translation)
translation) is
possible.
Habitual thought may be conditioned by
language, but opposing relationship, that
is, effect of society and environment
(=culture) on language
language is more obvious.
obvious.
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Effect of culture on language
language
Physical environment - reflected in
language
lang
uage,, normally in the lexicon,
lexicon, e.g.:
e.g.:
Eskimo words to refer to different types of
snow
Social environment also reflected in lang,
lang,
and has an effect on structure of
vocabulary,, e.g.: a society’s kinship
vocabulary
system
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Effect of culture on language
language
(cont
cont.)
.)
Changes in society (social changes)
changes) may
produce corresponding linguistic changes
changes,
eg
eg.:
.: in Russia and Russian.
Russian.
– shurin (19th cent) →→ brat zheni (now)
now)
– nevetska
→→ zhena brata
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Longer phrasal terms indicate current lack of
importance given to certain kinship
relationships
General
General linguistic principle:
principle: truly important
objects and relationships are (tend to be
be))
expressed through single words rather
than phrases
phrases (cf
(cf.. separate Inuite words for
snow vs. Eng dry snow
snow,, fine snow,
snow, etc.)
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TABOO AND EUPHEMISM
TABOO: things people do not talk about
EUPHEMISMS: things people talk about in
a roundabout way
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TABOO
In society
society:: cconcerned
oncerned with behaviour
believed to be harmful to society’s
members for supernatural reasons,
reasons, or
regarded immoral or improper,
improper, because
violating a moral code.
In language: associated with things not
said,, and with words and expressions not
said
used..
used
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TABOO (cont
cont..)
In practice: inhibitions / restrictions to the
use of items of this sort
Failure to adhere to strict rules of use: may
lead to punishment or public shame.
shame.
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TABOO (cont2.)
Taboo words:
words: good reflection in a
language of society’s value and belief
system
Taboo words:
words: words used in spells
(magic
magic),
), words related to left hand, female
relations, game animals
Taboo topics:
topics: sex, death, excretion, bodily
functions,, religious matters
functions
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TABOO (cont3.)
Use of taboo words in nonnon-permitted
contexts: e.g.
e.g. on TV, provokes violent
shock and disgust.
disgust.
BUT – irrational
irrational,, because it is the word
that is taboo (not the concept or the idea it
denotes).
denotes
).
Clearly, taboo is a linguistic and
sociological fact.
fact.
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TABOO (cont4.)
Though rapid change in patterns of taboo
words in English
English,, rules of use are relaxing
relaxing,,
still, a lot of linguistic
linguistic taboos.
If violated
violated:: it is for drawing attention to
oneself, to show contempt
contempt,, to be
aggressive or provocative,
provocative, to mock
authority, to express freedom
freedom,, etc.
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Secondary effect of taboo on language
Words phonetically similar to taboo words
disappear from language because of nonnonuse,, e.g.:
use
e.g.: rooster used in AE for cock
Also in bilingual situations
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EUPHEMISMS
Euphemistic words and expressions:
expressions: allow
us to talk about unpleasant things or
neutralize the unpleasantness,
unpleasantness, e.g. subject
of death and dying, criminality or
unemployment.
Give labels to unpleasant tasks / jobs to
make them sound less repulsive, more
attractive.
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Conclusions
Language, culture and thought are
interrelated in a number of intricate ways.
Effect of environment and society
(=culture) on language use is obvious in
several areas (lexicon,
lexicon, kinship system)
system),
but there is also evidence for the structure
of language to determine the world view of
the speaker.
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Conclusions (cont
cont.)
.)
Language use is sensitive to social
changes, in that changes in society and
culture will appear in language use.
Each social group differs from every other
in the way they are constrained in their
language use by culture, but no social
group uses language quite uninhibitedly.
uninhibitedly.
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