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An investigation into modern art during the Cold War: To what extent did the United
States use contemporary art as a weapon during the Cold War?
Name
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IB 20th Century World History SL/HL
Ms. Makarczuk
Total Word Count: 1909
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Table of Contents
Plan of Investigation
Page 1
Summary of Evidence
Page 2-3
Evaluation of Sources
Page 4
Analysis
Page 5-6
Conclusion
Page 7
Bibliography
Page 8
Appendices
Page 9-10
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Section A: Plan of Investigation
During the Cold War Era, several Central Intelligence Agency-sponsored art shows and tours
focused on abstract expressionism aimed to demonstrate to the rest of the world the American
penchant for free thinking and creativity. Abstract expressionism was a newly developed school
of art during the early 1950s, and its abandonment of precedent and restraint seemed to be a
perfect indication of the desired American consciousness. Compared to Soviet socialist realism,
which often depicted scenes of somewhat falsified Russian culture by way of smiling workers,
lush landscapes, and powerful leaders, abstract expressionism was an explosion of color and
form. To determine the extent to which the Cold War had influence over the development and
support of the growing abstract expressionist movement, the investigation will examine and
analyze the correlation between and relationships fostered by the Central Intelligence Agency
and artists of the abstract expressionist movement.
Word Count: 139
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Section B: Summary of Evidence
Abstract Expressionist Movement

Art movement focused on expression and spontaneity rather than strict artistic talent or
ability1

Regarded as instinctual and direct in both approach and meaning1

Early proponents include Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning, Arshile Gorky, and
Clyfford Still2

Art stripped to raw, primal emotion2

Aimed to invoke feelings, ideas, and concepts through expressive ideas rather than visual
stimulus1

If anything, it seems that the actual process of painting for the painter is much more
important than the aesthetic appeal of the final product in and of itself1

Works are meant to reflect the process by which the artist arrived at the finished product,
rather than emphasizing the result itself2
CIA Sponsored Art Shows

The CIA aimed to display that one could be both avant-garde, left-wing, and antiCommunist, as evidenced by the artists they were so keen on showcasing3

The Congress for Cultural Freedom was formed during the cold war, and was responsible
for sponsoring and supporting numerous American art shows in Europe4

“In 1946, the State Department’s newly formed Office of International Information and
Cultural Affairs put together a show called ‘Advancing American Art.’”3
$49,000 of government money was spent on the purchase of 79 American paintings to be
displayed at “Advancing American Art”3

1
Golub, Leon. "A Critique of Abstract Expressionism." College Art Journal 14, no. 2 (1955): 142-47. Accessed March
15, 2013. http://www.jstor.org/stable/773024.
2
"Abstract Expressionism." MoMA.org. Accessed March 15, 2013.
http://www.moma.org/collection/details.php?theme_id=10051.
3
Menand, Louis. "Unpopular Front." The New Yorker (New York), October 17, 2005. Accessed December 12, 2012.
http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2005/10/17/051017crat_atlarge.
4
Jones, Jonathan. "The Giant Awakes." The Guardian (London), September 17, 2008. Accessed December 12,
2012. http://www.guardian.co.uk/artanddesign/2008/sep/18/art.coldwar.
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
Major aim was to highlight the fact that America was not a cultural wasteland, and was in
fact quite capable of supporting artists who were either subversive or spoke out against
the government without fear of retaliation or repression5
American Reaction

Upon discovering that the CIA was funding modern art exhibitions and shows with tax
dollars, many Americans reacted with outrage3

The American public had very little collective appreciation for the modern art movement,
and most likely did not understand the nature of the exhibitions, seeing them as wastes of
taxpayer dollars3

The American Artists Professional League was a group of conservative artists and
illustrators who criticized both the government support of and the selection of paintings
involved in “Advancing American Art,” claiming that the paintings selected were not
indicative of the American psyche at the time, and did not represent popular opinion3

Most Americans hated modern art at the time, including President Harry S Truman, who
famously declared “If that’s art, then I’m a Hottentot.”5
Art of Pollock



Jackson Pollock is often viewed as the quintessential artist of the abstract expressionist
movement1
His paintings were derivative of the movement as a whole, as they focused on creative
freedom and personal expression rather than illustration3
“I want to express my feelings, rather than illustrate them. Technique is merely a means
of arriving at a statement”6
Word Count: 539
5
Saunders, Francis S. "Modern Art Was CIA 'weapon'" The Independent (London), October 22, 1995. Accessed
December 12, 2012. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/modern-art-was-cia-weapon-1578808.html.
6
Jackson Pollock 51. Dir. Hans Namuth and Paul Falkenberg. Perf. Jackson Pollock. 1951. Youtube. 1 Dec. 2006.
Web. 18 Mar. 2013.
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Section C: Evaluation of Sources
Menand, Louis. "Unpopular Front." The New Yorker (New York), October 17, 2005. Accessed
December 12, 2012. http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2005/10/17/051017crat_atlarge.
This source is an article in New Yorker magazine that details the CIA’s efforts to support and,
arguably, exploit the American abstract expressionist art movement as a means of combating
communism during the Cold War. It gives information on both the artists who were essentially
given government funding and several worldwide art exhibitions aimed towards promoting the
supposedly American ideology evident in the works of the aforementioned artists. The article
presents an obviously western liberal point of view. However, there is a distinct hint of an
attempt to avoid this inherent bias by attempting to present both sides of the argument. Overall, it
can be assumed that the source at least attempts to remain slightly un-biased. In regards to the
validity of the source, the New Yorker is generally regarded as a relatively reliable source for
accurate information regarding certain subjects or issues. The only limitations to this source are
that a lot of the information is based on declassified government documents, which means that
much of the information could be either altered or incomplete in some form.
Word Count: 177
Saunders, Francis S. "Modern Art Was CIA 'weapon'" The Independent (London), October 22,
1995. Accessed December 12, 2012. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/modernart-was-cia-weapon-1578808.html.
This source is an article from The Independent, which is a British newspaper. This article also
describes the nature of the CIA’s role as a governmental patron of the arts during the Cold War.
It also gives the names of several prominent artists at the time, e.g. Jackson Pollock, Willem De
Kooning, and Mark Rothko. It also emphasizes the secrecy of the CIA’s actions during the time.
Seeing as the article is from a British newspaper, there is an inherent bias the may be slightly
anti-American, but still decidedly opposed to communism and the USSR. The Independent is
most likely a valid source, but it doesn’t have the same level of prestige that is associated with
something like the New Yorker, and a quick perusal of the website reveals that the newspaper’s
other articles do not necessarily reflect journalism of as high a caliper as the aforementioned
magazine. The limitations of this article are the same as the previous source, and might be even
greater considering the fact that the article wasn’t written in America, and therefore there may be
an even greater lack of information regarding the CIA
Word Count: 188
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Section D: Analysis
In the late 1950s, a new development in the world of American art proved to be a perfect
representation of supposedly American ideals, and as a result many members of the growing
abstract expressionist movement were sought out by the Central Intelligence Agency as a means
of combating the growing influence of communism during the Cold War. Compared to Soviet
socialist realism, which often depicted scenes of somewhat falsified Russian culture by way of
smiling workers, lush landscapes, and omnipotent leaders, abstract expressionism and the artists
who propagated it represented an veritable explosion of color, form, and creativity. Ranging in
stylistic elements from the erratically controlled chaos of Jackson Pollock’s series of drip
paintings7 to Willem de Kooning’s colorfully frantic paintings of women and abstract shapes8,
abstract expressionism seemingly reflected a distinctly American ideology. Although most of the
American public was diametrically opposed to the notions expressed in this newly developing
school of art, the United States government recognized the significant means of combating the
Soviet Union on a purely cultural level. The relationship between the aforementioned strain of
artistic expression and the inner workings of the United States government was, at least to a
certain degree, symbiotic. Struggling artists of the abstract expressionist movement gained the
unlikely support of the United States government, and even found themselves involved in
transatlantic government-sponsored exhibitions, including the now infamous show known simply
as “Advancing American Art.”9
While “Advancing American Art” was successful in showcasing the American penchant for free
speech and creative thinking overseas, it was a veritable disaster in regards to its stateside
reception. The show was the brainchild of the State Department’s newly assembled Office of
Internal Information and Cultural Affairs, and was focused on promoting American artists and
their works in several European countries, with the underlying hope that nations on the verge of
succumbing to the pressures of communism would regain faith in democracy upon seeing the
cultural smorgasbord the United States had to offer10. The general response to the show was
positive, and while it failed to ignite a democratic revolution in the name of artistic conquest, it
was overall successful in promoting the ideals it was designed to promote. However, on the
home front, the response was overwhelmingly negative. Upon discovering that forty-nine
thousand dollars of government money were spent on seventy-nine paintings by modern artists,
many conservative members of the American public began to question the governmental motives
7
Pollock, Jackson. One: Number 31. 1950. The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Accessed March 13, 2013.
http://www.moma.org/collection/browse_results.php?criteria=O%3AAD%3AE%3A4675&page_number=58&templ
ate_id=1&sort_order=1.
8
De Kooning, Willem. Woman, I. 1947. The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Accessed March 13, 2013.
http://www.moma.org/collection/object.php?object_id=38704.
9
Menand, Louis. "Unpopular Front." The New Yorker (New York), October 17, 2005. Accessed December 12, 2012.
http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2005/10/17/051017crat_atlarge.
10
Jones, Jonathan. "The Giant Awakes." The Guardian (London), September 17, 2008. Accessed December 12,
2012. http://www.guardian.co.uk/artanddesign/2008/sep/18/art.coldwar.
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for such incredulous spending8. Failing understand both the nature of the art in and of itself and
the Cold War implications of such a show, the outrage regarding “Advancing American Art” was
directed back at the United States government.
The implications of such an unprecedented level of governmental involvement in promoting
cultural affairs are far less dramatic than those of most other aspects of the Cold War.
Nevertheless, the involvement of the Central Intelligence Agency and its affiliated departments
in the promotion and exploitation of American artists provides a unique insight into the truly
intricate nature of Cold War politics and policy. The Cold War was not a conflict based purely
on imperialist or militaristic motives. The oft overlooked cultural aspect of Cold War conflict is
greatly indicative of the collective mindset of all parties involved. The American desire to
emphasize the synonymity of free thinking and democratic governmental structure manifested
itself by way of highlighting artists who felt alienated by the social constraints put in place by the
aforementioned democratic governmental structure. Conversely, the Soviet Union’s deep-set
need to convey the unyielding strength, power, and prosperity that communism supposedly
supplied to all those who chose to embrace it ironically resulted in near-complete suppression of
the same values that the United States was trying so desperately to promote. It is this
paradoxically cyclical relationship between two super powers that fueled the Cold War, and as
with most historical conflicts, art played an important role in reflecting the nature of
contemporary issues and ideologies so critical to understanding the implications of such
monumental events.
Word Count: 666
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Section E: Conclusion
During the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union found themselves in a state of
constant competition; each party was doing everything in their power to both prove their own
dominance and expose the inferiority of their rival. Although the cultural aspect of this conflict is
often overlooked, it nevertheless played a very important role in the development of the Cold
War. As a collective entity, the United States aimed to portray itself as the ultimate purveyor of
free speech and cultural superiority. As a result of this desire to forge an image of definitive
freedom, the American government sought to promote artists who operated as far outside of the
constraints of convention as possible. By showcasing these artists, the United States hoped to
prove to the rest of the world that it was not a desolate wasteland of industrialism and militaristic
might, but rather a cultural juggernaut capable of embracing the most radical of artistic
expression. It can therefore be justly claimed that the United States government used
contemporary art as a means of highlighting its supposed cultural superiority over the Soviet
Union, and that artists played an important role in the development of the Cold War.
Word Count: 200
Total Word Count: 1909
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Section F: Bibliography
Works cited:
"Abstract Expressionism." MoMA.org. Accessed March 15, 2013.
http://www.moma.org/collection/details.php?theme_id=10051.
De Kooning, Willem. Woman, I. 1947. The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Accessed
March 13, 2013. http://www.moma.org/collection/object.php?object_id=38704.
Golub, Leon. "A Critique of Abstract Expressionism." College Art Journal 14, no. 2 (1955):
142-47. Accessed March 15, 2013. http://www.jstor.org/stable/773024.
Jackson Pollock 51. Dir. Hans Namuth and Paul Falkenberg. Perf. Jackson Pollock. 1951.
Youtube. 1 Dec. 2006. Web. 18 Mar. 2013.
Jones, Jonathan. "The Giant Awakes." The Guardian (London), September 17, 2008.
Accessed December 12, 2012.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/artanddesign/2008/sep/18/art.coldwar.
Menand, Louis. "Unpopular Front." The New Yorker (New York), October 17, 2005.
Accessed December 12, 2012.
http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2005/10/17/051017crat_atlarge.
Pollock, Jackson. One: Number 31. 1950. The Museum of Modern Art, New York.
Accessed March 13, 2013.
http://www.moma.org/collection/browse_results.php?criteria=O%3AAD%3AE%3A4675&p
age_number=58&template_id=1&sort_order=1.
Saunders, Francis S. "Modern Art Was CIA 'weapon'" The Independent (London), October
22, 1995. Accessed December 12, 2012. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/modernart-was-cia-weapon-1578808.html.
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Appendix 111
11
Pollock, Jackson. One: Number 31. 1950. The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Accessed March 13, 2013.
http://www.moma.org/collection/browse_results.php?criteria=O%3AAD%3AE%3A4675&page_number=58&templ
ate_id=1&sort_order=1.
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Appendix 212
12
De Kooning, Willem. Woman, I. 1947. The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Accessed March 13, 2013.
http://www.moma.org/collection/object.php?object_id=38704.