CHAPTER FOUR
SOCIO-CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES
"Language is [. . .] the embryo of thought and music where myth is
daily companion" ( Myth, Literature and the African World 147).
Mythology, the body of inh?rited myths, is an important and indivisible
element of any literature. Writels usually employ these myths to narrate
contemporary events or to explain life in its varied forms. They explicate
culture and explore civilization. Ac hebe employs myth to expound his view of
men and matters thereby illumining African culture, specially the lgbo life.
Social novels depict reality not as something static, but as dynamic, exposing
the relation between man and his social surroundings. According to William
Righter, myths describe "the foundations of social behaviour" (10).
Society is a microcosnl of \he universe and every society has its own
rich heritage of mythology. The collected wisdom of generations is handed
down throughvarious channels. Folk tales, stories and adages are all part of
mythology and the great ideas or norals they convey last for a long time.
It seems that Achebe's fir:,t and foremost objective in writing is to
explain 'the white myth'. To the colonizers everything white was right and
noble. To the outside world, for a long time, Africa seemed the dark continent
inhabited by savage bush men. Achebe emphatically speaks for Africa and
asserts that Africa had its own glorious and pristine culture. The white regime
destroyed this unique culture. With pride and prophetic commitment the African
writers defended their culture ancl refuted the inferiority attributed to them in
the name of colour and culture. They proved that Africa is no longer the odd
nation narrated in the Heart of Darkness, but a country throbbing with life
and vitality. Lewis Nkosi in Task: and Masks maintains that " The world of
the African folktale and legend
ij
embody human needs and goals [.
a world of myths developed in order to
.
.I"
(58).
Often writers explore the 2ast to identify humanity in terms of the
totality of the experiences the cornrnunity is confronted with. Delving deep
into the myths, legends, folklore m d traditions of society, one can achieve
great insight and wisdom. These k uman dimensions of myth and culture are
really great assets to all literatures. Usually a writer draws inspiration and
substance from the residue of traditions and often they apply it to contemporary
situation. Many myths at the socio-cultural level can be discerned in Achebe's
novels and they contribute to the s:ructural unity and beauty of his novels. To
achieve that he blends history, politics, myth and religion and creates a
panorama of the African culture %ith its unique customs.
An understanding of myth is very important in man's social and cultural
life as myths are means of commL nication. Emmanuel Obiechina observes
that myth is obviously related to man's social life, as myths express social and
communal aspects of a society: "An important fact about traditional life is its
collective nature. Every aspect of human experience-actions,
beliefs,
thoughts, ideas, ideals and human behaviour--derives its realistic authority
from past usage handed down from generation to generation" (40).
The social rituals of the lgbc society in connection with birth, marriage,
initiation and death, throw light on the mythic elements. Like festivals, these
rituals also act as a link in the sociid sphere. For instance, in the lgbo system,
the settlement of bride price enswed good conduct both from the bride and
bridegroom's family. In case of il: treatment by her husband the wife may
return to her family without repzyment and in case of wife's desertion or
misbehaviour husband may claim return of bride price. Lewis Nkosi observes:
[In] Things Fall Apart and Arrow of God, the writer is concerned
mainly with the rendering and elaboration of a certain cultural ethos
which might explain his people's attitudes to events of central
importance in the development of African society; [. . .] a whole
cycle of a people's histclry is sketched out, filled in, re-examined,
paraphrased and myth~l~~gized,
compressing centuries into the space
of a single novel. (30)
Myths display conventionzl modes and mores of the society. Achebe
throughout his novels speaks of the social customs and observances that
linked the lgbo people. Among the Igbos it was a shameful thing40 die of the
swelling in the stomach. It was an 3bomination to the earth goddess and such
people were not given ceremonial burial. Unoka, Okonkwo's father in Things
Fall Apart, was fated to such a death and so he was left in the Evil Forest.
According to Vickery, myth is an c!xpression of 'belief' or 'conventions'
The Igbo society also '~elievedthat if some one died during the
observation of the 'Wec k of Peace' it was an abomination and so
those who died during tnat week were thrown into the Evil Forest.
This custom according o Ogbuefi Ezeulu resulted in leaving "the
evil spirits of these unbuiied dead, hungry to do harm to the living"
(TAT38).Through these customs Achebe throws light on the unique
social myths of the comtnunity.
Breaking of kola was another important custom which the lgbos followed
without fail. It was a sign of hospitality. Drawing lines or patterns showed that
Igbos loved and valued peace. According to Wren, "the kola and the chalk
symbolise respectively the close bond between host and guest and their mutual
benevolence" (28). During the rtxeption of guests the host "prayed to their
ancestors for life and health, iind for protection againt their enemies"
(TAT 19). According to Wole Sc~yinka,"hospitality is one of the treasured
laws of the African social existen,:en (21).Okonkwo, the protagonist, visited
Nwakibie, the rich man and prtsented him kola nut and alligator pepper.
During the breaking of the kola nut Okonkwo prayed, "we shall all live we
pray for life, children, a good harvest and happiness. You will have what is
good for you and I will have whz t is good for me" (TAT29).
Another factor Achebe re\,eals is the relation between the rich and the
poor. Okonkwo was in dire need of Yam seeds and he visited Nwakibie, a
man of many titles. Okonkwo zddresses him 'our father' and observes all
formalities.
Achebe speaks of the annual ceremony held in honour of the earth
deity. Such ceremonial descriptions are given a mythic colour through the
presentation of the appearance of unearthly characters like the egwugwus :
"At such times the ancestors of the clan who had been committed to Mother
Earth at their death emerged again as egwugwus through tiny ant holes"
(TAT 151).
Mortal man acquired immortal stature through the appearance of
egwugwus and created great terror in the onlookers. Unmasking of such
egwugwus was one of the greates: crimes and such an act of desecration was
done by Enoch which resulted in the enraged revenge of the egwugwus.
Certain beliefs which a p p e , awkward
~
to the readers, but form part of
~
are seen in Achebe's novels
the collective consciousness of t h society,
Darkness held a vague terror for these people, even the bravest
among them. Children were warned not to whistle at night for fear
of evil spirits. Dangerous animals became even more sinister and
uncanny in the dark. A slake was never called by its name at night,
because it would hear. 11 was called a string. (TAT22)
The term ogbanjeis too suggestive and is repeated in the novels Things
Fall Apart and Arrow of God. An ogbanje is a wicked child who when it died
entered its mother's womb to be born again and Ezinma Okonkwo's favourite
daughter is pictured as an ogbanjc,. Usually medicine-men ill treated ogbanje
children because such treatment would make them "think twice before coming
again" (TAT 72). Okonkwo brought a medicine-man Okagbue Uyanwa,
"famous in the clan for his great knowledge about ogbanje children" (71). He
asked for all the details of the dead child and "ordered that there should be no
mourning for the dead child. He l~roughtout a sharp razor from the goatskin
bag slung from his left shoulder and began to mutilate the child. Then he took
it away to bury in the Evil Forest, tiolding it by the ankle and dragging it on the
ground behind him" (71-72).
Mr. Brown, the white mirisionary was followed by Mr. Smith who
suspended a young woman from iittending church services. She had "allowed
her heathen husband to mutilate her dead child. The child had been declared
an ogbanje, who had entered her mother's womb to be born again. Four
times this child had run its evil round. So it was mutilated to discourage it
from returning" (167).
The medicine-man Okagbue was digging to find out Ezinma's lyi-uwa
and he succeeded in his attempt. It was a "smooth, shiny pebble" covered in
rags and all were happy as they believed that now "Ekwefi's troubles were at
last ended" (TAT76).
Ezinma, Okonkwo's daughter was carried away by Agabala's priestess
Chielo and Ekwefi followed them She was running after them and soon she
"hit her left foot against an outcropped root, and terror seized her. It was ill
omen" (TAT 90). Achebe while listing the Ibo social myths speaks of some
general traits of popular belief tt at prevail even among cultured, civilized
nations. People associate twitching eyelids as portending things to come. Some
say that if it is the right eyelid thz t twitches, something good may occur. In
Things Fall Apart a conversation begins:
'My eyelid is t~itching.'
'It means you are going to cry', said her mother.
'No', Ezinma said, 'It is this eyelid, the top one'.
'That means you will see something'. (44)
Similarly through numbers, Achebe speaks of many things. Numbers
three, seven, nine, and thirteen arc repeated very often. In almost all societies,
all over the world 'number thirtelzn' is seen as an unlucky number. So are
some days. To some, Friday is not good for starting anything afresh while
Monday is good. The description of Achebe shows that the lgbo society is not
an exception to this.
The lgbo society believe firnly that if a child survives the age of six, it
"may stay" (TAT 50). Achebe nixes facts and fancy which enliven his
presentation and add mythical dimensions to his novels.
Through humorous presentation, day-to-day activities are given a mythic
tinge. For this he portrays a scene that occurs in the hut of Ekwefi. Ezinma is
the only child of Ekwefi, who enjoy5 all the prerogatives of a child. She regularly
takes an egg which is rarely allowed to be taken by children. The reason
behind this is that "such food tempted them to steal" (TAT 70).
Even a single word in Achebe's novels could disclose many interrelated
'beliefs' of the people. For example in Things Fall Apart, osu is a term used by
Achebe to express the belief and mind of the natives. As any society, the lgbo
society too upholds such customs. .qn outcast or osu in the eyes of the natives
was:
a person dedicated to a god, a thing set apart--a taboo forever, and
his children after him. He could neither marry nor be married by the
free-born. He was in fact an outcast, living in a special area of the
village, close to the Great Shrine. Wherever he went he carried with
him the mark of his forbidden caste-long,
tangled and dirty hair. A
razor was taboo to him. An osu could not attend an assembly of the
free-born, and they in turn, could not shelter under his roof. He
could not take any of the four titles of the clan, and when he died he
was buried by his kind irl the Evil Forest. (TAT 129-130)
Myths discuss man's relation to gods and goddesses and the interference
of divine powers upon which his vielfare depends on. Okonkwo was fated to
seven years exile due to his inad~lertentkilling of Ezeudu's son as it was "a
crime against the earth goddess" (7AT 105).Okonkwo's closest friend, Obierika
analyses such an action, to which he could find no answer. He gives vent to
his feelings: "Why should a man suffer so grievously for an offence he had
committed inadvertently?" (113).Achebe throws light on Obierika's words
which pose the question, "are the:,e rituals meaningful?"
After the accidental killing of Ezeudu's son, by his friend Okonkwo,
Obierika reflects on the customs and practices of the Igbo society. He
remembers one of the painful moments in his own life, the occasion on which
he himself threw away his twin children. He muses on that and asks "what
crime had they committed?" He finds the answer, and justifies his action.
"The Earth had decreed that they were an offence on the land and must be
destroyed" (TAT106).Theimpact 3f such crimes will fall upon the whole clan
and the proverb best illustrates thci idea: "If one finger brought oil it soiled the
others" (TAT 106).
Another incident occurs when Nneka leaves her husband Amadi and
joins the missionaries. It is shown that she "had had four previous pregnancies
and child births. But each time she had borne twins, and they had been
immediately thrown away" (TAT 1515).Through this Achebe exposes the popular
Igbo myth about twins.
Achebe juxtaposes the missionaries' attitude to twins with that of the
natives. While the missionaries rescue "the twins from the bush" the villagers
allowed "the twins to remain where they had been thrown away" (TAT 128).
Later those who threw away twins are imprisoned, and they are forced to do
hard work under the supervision of Kotrna or court messenger (143).
Similarly Achebe portrays the pulse of the people of Mbanta through
the details of the 'Evil Forest'. The collective consciousness of the society is
clear in the description:
Every clan and village t a d its 'evil forest'. In it were buried all those
who died of the really wil diseases, like leprosy and small pox. It
was also the dumping qmund for the potent fetishes of great medicinemen when they died. Arl 'evil forest' was, therefore, alive with sinister
forces and powers of darkness. (TAT 123).
In the Evil Forest the missi maries are provided with a piece of land for
the construction of their church. The natives expect them to be dead within
four days. When they survived the puzzled inhabitants believe that "the white
man's fetish had unbelievable power [. . . ] [and] that he wore glasses on his
eyes so that he could see and talk to evil spirits" (TAT 124).
When the missionaries ccrme, they keep their bicycle under the silk
cotton tree. Seeing this the nativc:~think that it is a horse and they tie it to the
tree. They kill one of the missioniries as it is the prophecy given by the oracle.
The oracle has warned that the .white man will spread destruction. They tie
his bicycle to the silk cotton tree because they think that it will run away to tell
what has happened.
Achebe can create mythic: situations in a natural and logical manner.
Once Okonkwo's children Nwoye and others, together with some grownups,
were coming from the farm with baskets full of Yams. "A sudden hush had
fallen on the women, who had been talking, and they had quickened their
steps. Nwoye had heard that twins were put in earthenware pots and thrown
away in the forest" (TAT59).A rnythic scene follows when Achebe speaks of
the feelings and emotions of Nluoye: ''A vague chill had descended on him
and his head had seemed to sw,?ll, like a solitary walker at night who passes
an evil spirit on the way" (59).
Through the lad Ikemefuna, Achebe speaks of the problems of the
youth. lkemefuna on his way to the forest recollects his early days and this
reminiscence brings to mind fond memories of his mother and sister while he
recollects how his father has treated him. His mind gives vent to his confused
thoughts and he fears that his r~othermay have died. He sings a song and
believes that if the song ends 0.1 his right foot, his mother is alive.
Sometimes actions or mo~iementsof characters are given a mythic
touch, as in the way Achebe prezents the drummers. They were beating so
madly that the onlookers may doubt whether "they were possessed by the
spirit of the drums."
Social rituals like marriage, initiation, death, the relationship with
ancestors are all beautifully portral~edwhich shows how Achebe amalgamates
myth and society. Usually myths express individual as well as collective psyche.
Innes and Lindfors obseve that, "culture, like life itself, is a dynamic
or continuing process; and its quzlity often depends upon people's responses
to evolutionaly pressures from within or stresses generated from outside through
fiction with new sets of values and institutional structures" (135).
Folksongs are part of any c:ulture. Achebe uses folk songs which serve
various purposes. They sometirr~esshow man-nature relationship as in the
rain song "The rain is falling, the sun is shining / Alone Nnadi is cooking and
eating" (TAT40).It expresses the temperament of the singer and also speaks
of the particular society. The son3 of Ikemefuna shows they are used to such
folk songs and tales. The natives sing about the white men:
Kotma of the ash b~ttocks,
He is fit to be a slave
The white man has no sense,
He is fit to be a slave. (TAT 144).
The lgbo people believec in the maxim 'Mother is Supreme'. When
some crises crushed one's mind, or when one is exiled for some serious offences,
such persons sought solace in their mother's land. Okonkwo, on committing
the female crime, goes into exile to Mbanta, his mother's village. Similarly,
when a man died, his body was taken to his mother's place for the last rites.
Myths provide special insights and act as a key to the opening and
understanding of the world they portray and the characters they delineate.
According to Gikandi Arrow of God speaks about "contemporary myths
which are promoted by the daily media: myths about leadership, education
[and] culture" (Gikandi 150).He further observes in his enlightening discussion
on myth and ritual that Wole Soyinka posits myth as a "primal phenomenon"
and also as an "embodiment of nature and cosmic principles" (15).When
culture is analysed and civilization is studied, myth seems "a manifestation of
a keen understanding of social and natural phenomena" (150).Besides, myths
express "a certain ideology and [. . .] protect a particular political and economic
interest" (150).
Achebe while portraying two communities in the throes of change,
reveals the difference between the native attitude to myths and rituals and the
colonial attitude. The colonisers erased the deep rooted old modes and forced
their own customs and practices on the blacks. According to Simon Gikandi,
myths are "instruments of domir~ationwhen historical events are represented
as manifestations of a historical and natural order" (154)
In Arrow of God, in the Lieutenant Governor's memorandum to captain
Winterbottom, the Igbo's systerr of government is shown as lacking "Natural
Rulers" (375).To them, their rulers are nominated by divine will. They consider
themselves as torchbearers as their system provides norms and models for
the whole world. They wanted "lo purge the native system of its abuses to
build a higher civilization" (375).
"Arrow of God [. . .] describes the relationship between religion and
the social order" (Kunapipi36).Captain Winterbottom justifies his own role
in the white colonial mission. He sees himself as one "on the spot who knew
his African and knew what he w3s talking about" (TAT 376). Colonialism
wins over the native believers and succeeds in winning over new converts.
Christianity sees the customs of the natives as pagan and taboo. To the
Christians, Idemili's sacred pythoi is a mere reptile, a snake to which they
attribute many negative associations. The evangelist, Goodcountry, advises
his people: "You must be ready tc kill the python as the people of the rivers
killed the iguana. You address the python as father. It is nothing but a snake,
the snake that deceived our first mother, Eve" (TAT366).
Cultural conflict is one of the themes in Arrow of God. The protagonist
is forced to set aside the myths and traditions deeply engraved in his psyche.
Christianity and its conventions foreign to the community, penetrate deep into
the society. Its myths replace the traditional Umuaro myths.
In Umuaro ritual activities such as offering of articles and sacrifices
are undertaken to cleanse people of their iniquities and these rituals are
performed before the harvesting se3so1-1,or when someone has committed an
abomination. Ezeulu, the priest, cleanses the six villages before the planting
season after which commences the Festival of the New Pumpkin Leaves.
These rituals symbolized not nlerely a celebration of life, but also an
acknowledgment of the God's presence among people. Thus Ezeulu's ritual
dance becomes both an embodiment of the "unseen presences around him"
and an enactment of "the First Ccming of Ulu and how each of the four Days
put obstacles in his way" (TAT3SO)
Arrow of God unfolds the c:omplex tribal life, the social web woven by
births, marriages, celebrations, religious ceremonies, death etc. In other words,
it gives a detailed account of a society under stress and strain and of the daily
round of social life in Umuaro. Achebe explores the consequences of colonial
rule and shows how the society succeeds in assimilating the changes, while
the protagonist fails.
Achebe's main purpose in writing is the exposition of the social scene
and it adds to the social dimensicms of the novel. He comments on Arrow of
God:
I'm handling a whole lot of [. . .] more complex themes, [. . .] like the
relationship between a god and his priest. My chief character in this
novel is a village priest not a Christian priest-+
traditional African
religion. And I'm interested in this old question of who decides what
shall be the wish of the gods, and [. . .] that kind of situation. (36)
Arrow of God is a social novel which portrays the tragic consequences
of the society at the individual and social level. It portrays the socio-cultural
situations of the people who are under colonial rule. Together with the colonial
power, Achebe gives a rich, renewed representation of traditional lgbo customs.
The novel shows how the society comes to the realisation that it must come to
terms with the alien force which stems powerful and irreversible.
The novel is centred on the tribal world of Umuaro. The white men
appear in the garb of the agents of social change. The people in Things Fall
Apart see the white people as intruders and look at them with ill feeling. The
vengeance Ezeulu wishes to take c~nthe people unfortunately leads to his own
downfall. The people gradually SL pport the white regime.
Achebe in Arrow of God ~ i v e the
s theme of change. He conveys the
idea that human beings have valid existence only in terms of the community.
Achebe succeeds in showing the relevance of community established in his
famous novels.
Myths and symbols are soinetimes tools for cultural, social or religious
integration. They are arbitrary
i11
nature as very often they depend on the
willingness of a society or the culture to accept a myth as true or reject it as
false. So some ideas which s e e n relevant and meaningful to a community
may be silly and meaningless to some other society. For example, in the novel
the snake becomes a symbol a r d myth and it represents different things to
different people. The people of IJmuaro consider it a divine being while the
Christianssee it asan embodimerlt of evil. The missionaries succeed in winning
the natives by degrading their beliefs and downplaying their importance. The
missionaries provide them with their own system of beliefs and the ultimate
end is the triumph of Christianity over the native religion.
l
is to the people of Umuaro,
The moon which is a n a t ~ r aphenomenon
a symbol, a sign from the gods. The novel opens with Ezeulu, the protagonist
watching the moon: "The moon he saw that day was as thin as an orphan fed
grudgingly by a cruel foster-moth,?r.He peered more closely to make sure he
was not deceived by a feather of cloud" (TAT320). Ezeulu, being the chief
priest, it is his duty to announce the appearance of the moon. He is an
intermediay between the deitiesa.~dmen and it is his sole authority to interpret
the moon, either as a symbol of good fortune or as bad fortune. According to
Simon Gikandi, myth can be "a mode of insight into phenomena" (150).
Ekeulu's invocation to the moor1 reveals the society's spiritual association
with the moon. Ekeulu prays for health, wealth and prosperity.
As W.B. Yeats uses the myths that came from the lips of the Irish
peasants and workers, Achebe uses the myths that are related to the day-today lgbo life. ToYeats, myth was "weapon, vehicle and metaphor" (Varghese
81).Yeats used James Frazer's The Golden Bough; T.S. Eliot, uses both
Golden Bough and Jessie L. Wcrston's From Ritual to Romance. Achebe's
novels echoe symbols and imager; from these two literary masterpieces. In the
legends that Weston treats, the land has been blighted by a curse and it is
reflected in the animate and inan mate world. The crops d o not grow and the
animals fail to reproduce. In Thi.Igs Fall Apart and Arrow of God, there are
echoes of this legend. In Arrow of God, Achebe writes about the social customs
in detail. lnnes and Lindfors comment:
For Igbos, [. . .] humar~independence is the greatest of all values
and Arrow of Goddisplilys this social cohesion at the lineage, village
and clan levels. The narrative centres upon the homestead of the
chief priest, Ezeulu and his extended family in which marriage and
parenthood are never private concerns. (181)
Myth can be "the medium through which a community expresses its
deepest shared values or repressed feelings" (Gikandi 150).
The
ritual
recitation of the myth of Ulu's Fitst Coming is another traditional aspect in
the novel. Eldred Jones in Akican Literature Today: Myth and History observes
that they are very relevant as the element of myths and these rituals signify
that "the purification ceremony of'the Pumpkin Festival in Arrow of God. . .
[is] the fulcrum of the narrative" (132). Myths and rituals incorporated in
varying modes add to the significiince and evocation of ideas. Eldred Jones
writes:
Myth and ritual comple:<eswithin living cultures tend [ . . .] to be
intrinsic systems of ideas and general world-views, of modes of
perception and sensibility. A more or less cohesive set of propositions
about reality and life, about man's place in the world and in time,
may often be deduced from them, though always as an act of
interpretation. (132)
According to Achebe, myths and rituals are created by man "to explain
the problems and mysteries of life and death-his
attempt to make sense of
the bewildering complexity of exis:encen (Morning35).
Sometimes myths may "selve a dramatic structuring or other aesthetic
purpose in varying narrative contc;xts" (African Literature Today 133).When
Arrow of God is studied, certain myths and rituals seem to function at this
level serving an aesthetic purpose!. These help the readers to have a glimpse
into future actions or to foresee uhat is going to happen. Thus certain myths
anticipate future actions. The similarity between the fate and temporal
dispositions of Ezeulu and Obika is foreshadowed throughout the play. Obika
and Ezeulu are destined to tragii: ends. Obika dies and Ezeulu goes mad.
Madness is inherited from Eze~ilu'smother. Myths help to maintain such
linking thoughts or ideas and often they integrate narrative elements.
As in other literary works, myths in Arrow of God add to the thematic
structure of the novel. There are some major myths but others are minor or
associated myths. They enlighten one's reading of the novel and speak in
detail of the rites and practices
3f
Umuaro. For instance, the creation of
Umuaro is given in detail, as 'the ':reation myth' in the novel.
In Arrow of God myths have cultural implications and express meanings
which otherwise will remain intrinsic or hidden and so they have interpretative
values. There are so many publicly oriented rituals in Arrow of Godwhich the
chief priest plays. It is he who oficiates at the ceremonies as the principal
celebrant. He performs these sacrcd duties on account of Ulu, the God whose
authority was acknowledged by the remaining villages. He worked for his
people's well-being and it is he who welcomed the new moon. This rite of
welcoming the new moon was fo lowed by the commencement of the new
year.
The Umuaro myth of origin and the priesthood of Ezeulu are fused
together in the fabric of the novel. Bu-Buakei Jabbi writes in "Myth and Ritual
in Arrow of God" that "in these f~sionsof myth and ritual [. . .] we may find
some of the novel's most promising seeds of meaning and significance" (African
Literature Today 134).
The myth of Ulu's first corning is ritually enacted by the chief priest,
Ulu, during the Pumpkin Festivd. According to Bu-Buakei Jabbi, "[tlhe
priesthood of Ulu and its vestme ~ t of
s myth and ritual are [. . .] a veritable
organic nucleus in Arrow of God'' (African Literature Today 134). The ritual
and mythic expressions are symbolic enactments of the community itself
performed by the priest. The priest acts as the representative of the people.
The festivals in the novel remind one of 'the Onam festival' in Kerala, 'the
Ponkal' in Tamilnadu or 'the Holi festival'. During these festivals great rulers
or great epochs are commemoratetl and such festivals bind the society together.
Often they are celebrated with ritualistic programmes.
Myth centred upon the Idenili cult and its totem of the sacred python
is another major myth in Arrow of God. Moses Unachukwu's over enthusiasm
regarding the snake cult causes confusion and conflict in the society. This
ultimately ends in the abomination committed by Oduche, Ezeulu's son. The
keeping of the sacred python in O(1uche'sbox causes great suffering to Ezeulu
and it leads to an open conflict wi.h the priest of the python cult and with the
clan.
Ezeulu is introduced as one who is fully conscious of his responsibility.
He is an ardent devotee of the god and "looks for the signs of the moon",
always starting to search the sky "three days early because he must not take
a risk" (TAT319).The priest t h t n announces it and ritually eats one of the
twelve yams kept in the sacred shrine. This ritual throws light on their past, as
it has great memorial significance!;.In this sense all these ritualistic proceedings
have a mythic importance.
Story telling, a form of entrtrtainment, is part of Achebe's fiction. Many
African folk traditions are skilfulljr integrated as they are pregnant with great
morals. The majority of these sto.ies are collected from different sources and
they present the ideal literary scer~ariofor the novelist. Achebe is noted for his
stories, as they are supposed to be the oral form of African tradition itself.
They illuminate the Igbo social beliefs and make the novel relevant and lively.
Achebean adaptations of Greek tragedies are visible directly or indirectly
as in the portrayal of Ezeulu's fate. Ancient and modern myths have great
influence on society. Eldered Jones writes in Afr~canLiterature Today: Myth
and History: "Myth has a potential social influence; the more recent the myth,
the greater its potential for tender tiousness" (Editorial2).
Achebe in his novels, espxially in Things Fall Apart and Arrow of
God, shows very systematically how lgbo life follows a culturally rhythmic
pattern. It begins with birth including the naming ceremony, the ritual of
initiation, title-taking ceremony, m.vriage, death, second burial etc. Each ritual
is presented minutely with all detiiils and they add to the mythic structure of
Achebe's fiction.
Written literature in Africa is ~3 relatively recent phenomenon. But it has its
own rich heritage of oral literature, myths, folklore and other traditions. This
section of the chapter analyses how Ayi Kwei Armah's novels, specially the last
hyo, TWOThousand Seasons and i'he Healers, exhibit mythic consciousness at
the social level. All his novels provide enlightening scenes of life in its varied
aspects, its significance in the private and public spheres. A study of them shows
that for Armah myths act as an appropriate vehicle for the expression of his
feelings. Amyth according to Gikansli can be the "expression of collective dreams,
aesthetic lay, or even ritual" (150) Armah's writings are sometimes lucid and
straightforward expressions of life, while at times they are symbolically charged
with meanings. They reveal his commitment to his society, to the country and his
love for humanity. They emphasise the need for the sacredness of human relationship
and thiive~yaspect imparts univeml significance to them. Thus it can be concluded
that in Armah's writings myths at:t as an "amalgam of beliefs, attitudes and
feelings" (Righter 11).
Armah's novels are widely acclaimed as they educate and entertain,
mixing myth and reality. Similarly, fantasy and myth which are complementary
form the v e y texture of his novel:,. So in Armah there are expressions of one's
wishes, intention and beliefs toge:her with that of the society. Armah provides
this social consciousness througt "the most telling images of corruption and
decay which afflictspost-indeper dent African society, and the alienation and
despair of which this corruption and decay are symptoms" ( Tasksand Masks
62).In the early novels, his charat:ters are isolated and insecure. Like Amamu.
the protagonist in This Earth, My Brother, the heroes in The Beautyfill Ones
Are Not Yet Born and Fragments 3re alienated and disoriented. The hero in
The Beaufyful Ones is simply named the 'man'. Like Achebe. Armah too
shows the betrayal of the ideals in the newly independent African states by
the natives. That is why "the history of the African societies is a vicious circle
of the exploitation of the ordinarb people, first by one master, then another"
(Tasks and Masks 62).
The Beautyful Ones Are Nclt Yet Born, Armah's very first novel, shows
how the feeling of loneliness resul:s in the withdrawal of the person from the
community, which leads to a total sense of alienation. 'The Man', the
protagonist, becomes conscious c ~ fthe unclean, nauseating surroundings in
which he is forced to live. His roles as husband and father in the family add to
this feeling of isolation and depres:.ion. He is subjected on the one hand to the
'push' of his wife and children :educed by materialistic comforts of their
neighbours, and on the other hand the 'pull' of the hypnotic gleam that "forced
the admiration of the unwilling" (TBO 176). His suffering and agony are
actually the outcome of his attachment to his family.
'The Man' remembers a tirr~e,when there was great intimacy between
his wife and himself, before she w(3shypnotized by "the gleam". "There was
love in her", he affirms, "there Pad always been, of course, since he had
never had anything else he could I-ave given her. If now it could not come out,
perhaps the fault was with the woman herself. Perhaps the fault was with the
soul born without the luck of other souls" (98). Oyo, the Man's wife, fails to
realize that the man stands against the culture of corruption not just for his
own sense of moral stand, but, ils he puts it, it is "for the children", for the
society.
Fragments deals with Baako's studies abroad and his grandmother
Naana remembers his youthful enthusiasm: "his eyes were filled with an
eagerness to go" (9).The Baakc who returns after five years is shown as a
totally changed person. In his conversation with Juana , it is crystal clear that
he is suffering from severe mental breakdown which could be diagnosed as
"consciousness expansion" (144)caused by extreme anxiety. Baako confesses
that his mental torture was due to "the fear of return" (145).He was worried
of the socio-cultural background which he has to cope with.
The wide gap that separated Baako from his people becomes a barrier
detrimental to his quest for social creativity. This gulf is widened when Baako,
who is expected to bring great ma:erial fortune, returns simply with his 'creative
vision'. He believes that he could contribute much to his society by translating
his creative dreams into reality.
Baako's failure in revealin3 his noble ideals and far sighted vision leads
to his further breakdown. He failri to communicate even with his grandmother
Naana, who had great admiration for and expectations of him. He becomes
the victim of his own extreme irdividualism, and his psychological illness is
partially caused by his sense of incompleteness. Through him Armah shows
how freedom is curtailed and stifl2d by constraints put on the creative potential
of gifted individuals. Comparinci the protagonist and his struggles against the
corrupt society, the snobbish ideology prevalent in the contemporary society
is brought to light. For example, E,rempong is taken aback by Baako's nature
of keeping his African name ' B a ~ ~ kOnipa'.
o
To Brempong his name Robert
Hudson Brempong signifies his envious status and dignified social identity.
Baako withdraws towards the end of the novel into "an isolated heaven
in the shrinking flight inward" ( F l 2 3 ) .This proves his inability to rise against
.
"the dominant ideology of the ru ing class on the one hand, and the need to
realign or re-establish contact wit7 the community on the other" (Mala 179).
s the search for self-fulfilment by two
Why Are We S o Blest? f o c ~ s e on
assimilated African intellectual:;-Modin
Dofo and Solo Nkonim, both
"irretrievably caught in total whiterless" ( WB 103)by virtue of their participation
in the elitist education process. Piccording to Mala Pandurang , "the central
motif of the novel is this sense of isolation of the two protagonists, whose
natural sense of belonging has bt:en lost" (131).
Like Baako in Fragments, Solo confesses his total isolation: "there is
no contact possible. . . . There i:; no portion of the stream, no part of all this
flowing life into which I can fling myself and say 'here 1 belong. This is my
home' (11).Mala Pandurang observes that "Armah directs a hard hitting and
uncompromising attack on the r~eo-colonialelite for their role in the moral
and economic bankruptcy of contemporary society" (66).
Two Thousand Seasonsseems a literary manifestation of the collective
enterprises of a people. The very 3pening of the novel expresses the collective
tone of the novel: " We are not l~eopleof yesterday" (7TS 1).According to
Damodar Rao, "the novel's col1ec:tive voice in the form of 'we', with its shared
suffering and group ethic, is reinforced by the author's inspirational and
socialistic affirmation" (89).
Armah's novels are noted fcr their sociological implications.They exhibit
mythic consciousness at the social level as they emphasise the sacredness of
human relationship. There are noble characters who endeavour to come to
terms with others with a spirit of sacrifice and devotion. In the social level,
A m a h successfully portrays different levels of relationship which brings to
light the social structure of the scciety. At times Armah consistently rebukes
and reproaches humanity for the superficialities expressed in life situations.
Like D.H. Lawrence, Armah "expresses his belief in the organic and
biological side of human personality influencing the feeling towards
regeneration, a spirit of renewal i t ) an individual" (Mc Leod 118).Through all
these Armah confesses his faith in civilization, contributing towards the
improvement of human nature. : n Two Thousand Seasons, Armah explores
the possibility of living according to 'the way'. Eustace Palmer in The Growth
of the African Novel writes:
Two Thousand Seasors, delves into the past and in one majestic
sweep of Africa's history seeks to demonstarate how these pure
African values and traclitions which used to exist in an almost prehistoric past were destroyed through the exploits of Arab predators
and European destroy€rs. (221)
Armah brings out the diiference between the native's way and the
attitude of the colonisers. He shatters the colonial myths concerning the Africans
and their societies. Armah protdly asserts that 'their way' is the way of
reciprocity. He uses acerbic expr~!ssionsto portray the colonisers. He shows
them "as beggars turned snake: after feeding" (7T.S 2). To the destroyers
force seemed good and fraud appeared intelligence. But the way of the natives
"begins from coherent understanding. It is a way that aims at preserving
knowledge" (7T.S 39).According to Damodar Rao, Two Thousand Seasons
"is a literay manifesto of the collective credo of a race and a continent" (89).
The novel can be seen as a social epic as it describes the long, hazardous
journey of the people which is ~~ltimately
rewarded. The natives could not
accept a road of life "constructec by a god of fate" (42). They exhibited great
mental prowess and they were dc,eplycommitted to their noble cause. Leaving
behind everything they went in szarch of new places. This resulted in "seeking
unknown places" where their spi~itswould "still have room to move" (7TS42).
The native's venturing out to seek new abodes is marked by a sense of
exile, hope, promise and adventure. During their painful journey they cross
high mountains, the land of h0sti.e ones, and the 'land of an unwonted fertility'.
Meanwhile they could develop cordial relationships with people who were
already settled there. They passed through "frightening forests, strange sudden
sly beasts, treacherous rushing waters and a maddening abundance of
encumbering vegetation" (7T5 49). They spent a hundred seasons in this
painful journey marked by the :,dvent of new generations.
Armah pictures how th s epic journey is ultimately rewarded. The
pathfinders, Noliwe and Ningotne, succeeded in taking them to places where
vegetation, water and animal life offered them safe and secure havens. They
found these enchanting and beauti'ul. That is why even the seers were enthralled
at their very fortune which they found difficult to express. They gave vent to
their feelings: "With what shall the utterer's tongue stricken, with goodness.
driven silent with the quiet force of beauty, with which mention shall the
tongue of the utterers begin a song of praise whose perfect singers have yet to
come?" (TTS 56).According to Damodar Rao, "because of its wide range,
depth and profound human corcerns, the novel [Two Thousand Seasons]
becomes an epic in its presentation, mythopoeic in its texture, historical in
perspective and continental in bearings" (89).
The mythical aspect is fu-ther seen in the role played by Anoa. Her
voice motivates and reinforces the action of the natives as she acts as a
connecting link between generatiois. There are many legends developed around
her. According to these she wa:, exceptional in her nature, possessed with
prophetic power which she shared with the people. Her prophecy was about
the future predicaments of a whole people:
Two Thousand Season:;: a thousand you will spend descending into
abysses that would stop your heart and break your mind merely to
contemplate. The clim J away from there will be just as heavy. For
that alone can you be glad your doors have been so closed, your
faculties are now so blunted. You will need them blunter still, to
make less perceptible the descent of a thousand seasons. Two
Thousand Seasons: a thousand dry, a thousand moist. (TTS 16)
The colonial road, the rocid of the white destroyers is contrary to the
way of the people. "The destroye~stake. That is their way. They know nothing
of reciprocity. The road to death-that
is their road" (7TS 7). Here myth is
descriptive in nature. It shows the nature and behaviour of the destroyers.
Similar is the way of the oppressclrs, a path of crime and violence. They plant
nothing and their harvest is rape and exploitation. The way of the people is
generosity and fertility. Their way s against fragmentation. They aim at creation
and connectedness is their very special trait. Armah writes: "Our vocation
goes against all unconnectednejs. It is a call to create the way again, and
where even the foundations h,ive been assaulted and destroyed, where
restoration has been made impc'ssible, simply to create the way" (TTS8)
Armah stresses the relevar ce of the collective thinking and united action
of the people. Damodar Rao writes: "The need of the moment is to recapture
'the way' of the people which They had lost for reasons both internal and
external. 'The way' defines the nental attitude of a collective psyche and the
culture of a community besides showing the way for the future. It is the path
of virtue, of integral vision anc, wholeness" (94).In other words the way
shows the course of action and the goal of the community.
The novel expresses the social awareness of a people about their
possibilities. The natives were fully aware of the fact that the land originally
belonged to them. Besides they consider themselves very dynamic, not static.
They are a people in motion and change. The destroyers distorted this naked
truth. They utter:
We are not a stagnant p?ople, hating motion. But in that fertile time
before Anoa's utteranc~even our longer journeys were absorbed in
a lasting evenness. Frcrn that long, forgetful peace our exile has
been harsh and steep h3s been our descent.
That we the black people are one people we know. Destroyers will
travel long distances in their minds and out to deny you this truth.
We do not argue with them, the fools. (TTS 3)
Armah shows how the pos'tive traits of the people proved their undoing.
With a prophetic voice, Anoa spoke about the colonizers profiting out of their
generosity. Her exhortation was lo turn away from the path of generosity and
return to reciprocity. As they were exploited by the predators of destroyers,
they need a self examination cf their actions and intentions. The present
situation is an outcome of their extreme hospitality and the loss of 'the way'.
Reciprocity, that is thc way you have forgotten, the giving, the
receiving, the living alternation of the way. The offerers, those givers
who do not receive, the!/ are mere victims. That is what in the heedless
generosity of your blinding abundance you have turned yourselves
into. (TTS 17)
The colonial experience i:; an eye opener to the people. In spite of the
wide-ranging destruction causeti against the conscience of the people they
learned many valuable lessons lrom it. It made them aware of a clear vision
to be followed in life. Besides, they were capable of emerging out victorious
from their cruel colonial dominiince. It taught them that the collective voice
'we' is a powerful weapon against any enemy.
The novel shows its soc al aspects as it echoes the voice of many
generation in exile. The plural vc~iceof 'we' in the beginning chapters invokes
a shared tale and a communal experience. It describes the alienation of a
society, as the natives were drivcln away by the predators from the desert. In
their exile and later in their n e u settlements they were destined to confront
another powerful enemy, the destroyers from the sea.
The identity crises of a society, their search for a new home and the
alienation of a whole community on its own soil are matters of social interest.
The mental and physical struggle,and the hard won freedom and regeneration
are portrayed in the novel. It is a pathetic scene where the natives became
willing slaves of the colonizers.
The long cherished freedom is attained by the use of the violence carried
out by the small group of revolutimaries inspired by the healers. The predators
too used violence to crush them and they were very cunning in their proceedings.
They used guile to exploit the divisions among the caretakers. One guile used
by the predators was to emplcy their religion to capture the souls of the
natives making them 'soulless tt ings'. The new religion, in fact, acts as fraud
on the natives. It manifests in th'? form of cheating and violence.
Armah speaks of the distcrtion of the African culture, together with the
loss of their original purity. The disunity of the African and the domination of
the predators a n d destr0ye.s are revealed through the narrator's
consciousness. Relish for story is as old as humanity and often it entertains
with fantasy, curiosity and desire for insight about reality. The role the narrator
plays between himself and the ~udiencehe presupposes is that of a story
teller, and this marks the mythic quality in Armah. The primary function of
this narrator, as Robert Frazer has observed, is to "enable the envisaged
audience to get its bearings, to ac'lieve a sense of direction preparatory to the
supreme task of reconstruction" (104).
In the very beginning of thc: novel, the narrator speaks about the factors
that led to the distortion of their llistory. He says:
The air everywhere around is poisoned with truncated tales of our
origins. That is also part of the wreckage of our people. What has
been cast abroad is not a thousandth of our history, even if its
quality were truth. The people called our people are not the
hundredth of our peop e . But the haze of this fouled world exists to
wipe out knowledge ol' our way, the way. These mists are here to
keep us lost, the destroyer's easy prey. (TTS 1)
Time is presented in mythic terms. The narrator stands at the cross
roads of time: behind him lie one thousand seasons of the African experience,
years which have seen the rape of the continent by foreign invaders; before
him lie a thousand seasons which promise greater challenges, with the hope
of a better future in the distance Simon Gikandi writes:
What Armah promises us in Two Thousand Seasons, as in The
Healers, is an incomplete fictional movement; he does not offer his
readers easy salvation, for if the present movement of our history is
like that of a spring flowing into the sands of the desert, which
knows no giving, then we cannot find any useful lesson from this
history. The past, which is dominated by predators, and destroyers,
is not one of inspiratior~,it is infertile. Neither does the narrative
offer much hope, since the flow of time is still towards the direction
of death. (21)
The novelist creates an impression of infertility and barrenness which
evokes echoes of The Wasteland. The spring that flows to the desert meets
with extinction instead of regeneration. Many have chosen the way of death
and it cannot be changed. Armah writes: "it is the nature of the spring to
give; it is the nature of the desert :o take" (PXII).
Anoa's prophecy and its im,z~lications
remind one of the role of Tiresias,
the blind seer in The Wasteland. Before Anoa's prophecy, the narrator
observes, 'our migrations were but an echo to the alternation of drought and
rain' (7TS 6).Damodar Rao rightly comments: "Two Thousand Seasons, in
particular, attempts to dismantle the colonialist myths on Africa" (24).
In The Healers, A m a h tl-rows light on the various traditions and
practices of the Asante people. The annual rituals celebrated in Esuano helped
the people think of their ancestors. They had different versions about the
origin of the ritual games. With the passing of years some of these rituals lost
their real significance. Very few remembered the real motive behind these
rituals and celebrations. Armah writes: "At Esuano the remembrance of a
larger community had become a faint remnant from a forgotten past" (TH6).
The rituals at Esuano also rminded the people of their ancestors who
had faced unspeakable difficulties in their search for land. Among them there
were people who could "talk of ancestors who had come travelling great
distances, leading a people in psi?" (TH4). They settled at Esuano as there
they found "clear water of life, flowing by good land". Later, "in gratitude
and in hope, they had enacted each chosen year the ceremonial games, the
rituals of remembrance" (TH 4). Thus myth serves the social function of
teaching a society its glorious pzist such as the settlement of a society, its
origin, growth and so on.
Culture, the rich heritage of a society, expresses the way of life of a
people and can be seen as the sum total of its socio-political, material and
spiritual achievements. Culture hl4ps in shaping the future of a society and it
affects the very thinking of the people.
The Healersmanifests the spirit of the Asante community. There were
various factors that contributed to the unity and combined action of the people.
The rich oral traditions assumed s ~ e c i asignificance
l
through rituals observed
on various occasions such as birth, initiation, marriage and death. O.R.
Dathorne in African Literature in 7he Twentieth Centuryobserves that "African
literature, oral and written, may btz so conceived as a cohesive whole because
it is undertaken by group spokesman for the group and on behalf of the
group" (qtd. in Damodar Rao 17-18).
Legends, traditions and ancestral customs as in Achebe are vividly
traceable in Armah and they co~tributeto the structure and course of his
novels. Armah's creative genius g2ts adequate expression through these kinds
of mythic applications.
Armah analyses the depths of human psyche and shows that each
character's motivations and deed; are linked with his life in the society. Eldred
Jones in %can Literature Today: Myth and History observes that "momentous
events and characters breed almost instant myths" (editorial 2). Such
memorable social events producc, mythology of heroes and villains and often
future generation attribute archetypal qualities to them a s 'good' or 'bad'.
Mark Schorer in the Kenyan Review says that a myth is " a large controlling
image [. . .] which gives philosophic meaning to the facts of ordinary life"
(Vickey 68).
The Healers is a fictional representation of the social processes involved
in the liberation of a people. It can be seen as a miniature representation of
the collective consciousness of 3ny people. It presents "a culmination of
conflicting values set on a course of imminent collision, which however, moves
in the direction of positive change, affirmation and resolution with a clean
narrative, supporting part-his tor!^ and part -fictionn (Damodar Rao 108).
The novel acquires social .ignificance as it describes the disintegration
of the Asante empire during the last quarter of the nineteenth century. This
disintegration was hastened by tile British aggressors who profited from the
disharmony and division of the native tribes. Armah pictures the healing
community acting as a creative anti regenerative force. He expresses his fictional
credo regarding good and evil and this is the central concern of the novel.
The social transformation brought about by the healers is the central
theme in the novel. They live in the forest as a result of their refusal to
become attached to and participzte in the process of disintegration. Damfo,
who is conscious of this disintegration is the harbinger of this social
transformation. He discloses his riind to Densu: "There will be always work
for healers, even when the highest work is done. That highest work, the bringing
together again of the black people, will take centuries" (TH83).
The story form is shown b\ the narrator in the very beginning itself as
in Two Thousand Seasons. He asks: "Is it a story of yesterday, or is it of last
year? [. . .] Is it of that marvello~sblack time before the desert was turned
desert, thirty centuries and more .ago? Or have you let the listener know the
truth: that this story now is not so old -just over a century old?" ( T H 2 ) .
The technique of a collective voice addressing itself to the audience is
another mythic strain in the no~rel.Robert Frazer comments on Armah's
exposition of the collective const:iousness in the novels: "It can be stated
without exaggeration that the devel~pmentof collective unconscious observable
in the later books amounts to a revolution, not only in Armah's art in particular,
but for the African novel in generid" (85).
Besides the oral tradition, Armah makes use of invocation, flashbacks
and digression in the course of the narrative. The collective voice invokes the
master of eloquence for words: "send me words, Mokopu Moflo. Send me
words of eloquence. Words are mere wind, but wind too has always been
part of our work, this work of sowers for the future, the work of story-tellers,
the work of masters in the arts of eloquence" (TH52).
The idea of good and evil is central to Armah's fictional world in The
Healers which underlines his moral vision. He presents two main categories
of people; 'manipulators' and 'irspirers' with their opposing sets of values.
The manipulators curtail the freedom of the natives, supporting the colonizers
like the askari-zombis in Two Thousand Seasons. The inspirers consider it
their noble duty to work for the people and nation promoting national
consolid'ation. Damfo, Densu, Araba Jesiwa are all dedicated to the weal of
society.
Densu, the protagonist, is gven an archetypal stature as he is presented
as the embodiment of nobility anti goodness. He works for the social welfare
of the society and succeeds in binging about social order and justice. He
longs for a society where "there would be no competitors, only participants".
It was an ideal world in which the community members "would be free to
work together in the cool of the morning; they would be free to run, swim,
jump, play, to celebrate health anti strength in the late afternoon; they would
dance to their own songs in the quiet of evenings" (TH39).
The 'saviour myth' is often applied to selfless and dedicated people, like
Gandhiji or Martin Luther King. In The Healers one is reminded of such myths
when the characters like Densu ant1 Damfo are thought of as the moral choices
that Densu makes. He preserves his identity and integrity and helps others to
preserve it. His selfless social actiorls get rewarded. Society needs such saviour
figures as Densu who rejects false and vainglorious promises given by others.
Armah gives a world of m l rder, deceit and intrigue at times which he
contrasts with the world of the healers. Damfo realizes the potential of Densu
and he inspires him with his motivating words. Densu, who is disturbed,
reaches his goal oriented life in the eastern forest. The dialogue between
Damfo and Densu pictures their virtues. Armah gives epic proportions to
these characters.
Similarly Densu's journey to the eastern forest could be seen in epic
proportions. Armah writes: "He was eager to see the healer Damfo again,
eager to talk to him about the future he had already chosen in his mind, a life
spent devoted to the work of healing" (TH46).
Throughout the novel, Amah
speaks of the heroic deeds of Densu.
Armah gives a glimpse into the traditional beliefs and customs of the
society. He speaks of the trial cc)nducted to find out the real murderer of
Appiah; a trial "sure to reveal the murderer" (TH115).The poison prepared
is given to the age group of the prhce. They believe that the real murderer will
die and innocent ones will survive: after this 'poison -bark trial'.
The community had ve y strict laws and unbreakable rules concerning
this custom. The guilty man when dead will not be given a proper burial. "His
body shall be thrown unburied fa- from the paths of men. Animals will shun
the poisoned corpse. The vultures themselves will stay away from it" (TH
122).Armah with great accuracy writes about the rites of this test which adds
to the mythic aspects of the novel. He asserts that myth and rituals are
meaningful as they strengthen tho aspects of social life.
Arrnah discloses another custom of the Asante people. Superstitious
beliefs, though a thing of great humour, seem part of their belief. The king
enjoyed royal prerogatives and hf, had divine qualities attributed to him on
account of his high position. Arnc~ngthem it was unbelievable to allow the
king to travel alone to any place and slaves accompanied him eveywhere. So
there existed the custom of killing slaves when a king died to accompany him
to the underworld. Arrnah writes:
When the time came for a king to go on the last of all journeys, the
journey into death, the royals thought it necessary to provide him
with slaves. Just as slaves had made his days on earth easy, so
slaves should be sent with him to death; they would ease the passage
of his spirit; they would give the spirit all the luxury the body had
grown accustomed to.
S o whenever a king died, the royal youths were permitted-It
was
a duty some turned into a pleasure to raid Kumase after dark and to
slaughter anyone they found. The murdered victims would serve as
slaves of the dead king i n the under world. (TH97)
Araba Jesiwa, Appia's mother discloses her heart's desires to Damfo,
the master healer. Her marriage with royal Bedu was an utter failure and she
was thoroughly depressed as she was unable to conceive a chid. She approached
many promising doctors. There wsre many prescriptions put forward by them
and she obeyed them with great faith. All seemed useless and one of the
practices is given in detail which adds to the mythic structure of the novel:
They stuffed her stomach with scrapings from the barks of innumerable
trees. They fed her scratchings from snakes, rhinos, lizards, spiders,
and scorpions, a most impressive array of beasts. Each doctor promised
with his concoctions to give Araba Jesiwa the key that would unlock
her love- gift and open her to fruitful life. (TH70)
Another aspect that evokes mythic association is the portrayal of forests
and rivers in the novel. Maud Bodkin in The Archetypal Patterns in Poetry
shows "mountain as a seat of b1c:ssedness" (100)at the mythological level.
The same function it serves in A m a h and shows how the dwellers of the
eastern forest worked wonders irl the Asante community. Joseph Campbell
writes in The Hero with a Thous~ndFaces:
For a culture still nurtured in mythology the landscape, as well as
every phase of human existence, is made alive with symbolical
suggestion. The hills and groves have their supernatural protectors
and are associated with popularly known episodes in the local history
of the creation of the world. (43)
Sometimes through dreams "the presence of myth in the human
consciousness" (Righter 4) seeks its external outlet, as in Dostoevsky's The
Possessed or Thomas Mann's Death in Venice or Magic Mountain. Similarly
Armah also uses dreams to express the working of human psyche. After the
burial ofprince Appia, Ababio claimed that he had seen a dream. "The dead
prince had come to him in spirit while he slept, and promised he would reveal
to him a sure way of trapping the murderer" (TH59).Ababio communicated
this dream to his closest friend E:suman. Ababio kept it as a secret until he
received necessary instructions irom the dead prince's spirit. Such details
create mythic consciousness in the novel as often troubled visions are psychic
manifestations of emotional crises.
Armah incorporates many of Densu's dreams too into the novel. The
murder of Appia delayed Densu's journey to the eastern forest. In a dream
Densu saw "a fierce, nameless beast half serpent and half forest cat. The
beast had coiled itself around the body of the prince Appia, still alive, and
Densu saw it bare its fangs to destroy Appia" .( TH 60)
Myth is connected with memory. In the novel, Armah, through the
narrator, speaks of the past times when there was unity and oneness. The
present seems fragmented. The moving away from the binding ideals is
characterised by the changes in the ritualistic observances. Armah writes that
the meanings of these games were "no longer what it had been meant to be.
In the circumstances of fragmentation, the meaning of unity had not been
entirely destroyed, perhaps. But it had been torn to shreds" (TH5).
Frequent references to an1:estors evoke mythical associations. The
drummer in the 'trial scene anncunces the message not only to the living
but even to the dead ancestors. It was a warning to the dead ancestors "of a
coming death among the living" (TH118).The mythic effect is further seen
in the details: "even a complete stranger to the language of the drums could
have understood the master drummer was beating out a message to the
dead" (TH118).
The rituals especially the ceremonial games in The Healers symbolize
the eventual unification of the African people. The writer speaks of its sociocultural significances.
They were not so muck celebrations as invocations of wholeness.
They were the festivals of a people surviving in spite of unbreakable
pain. They were reminders that no matter how painful the journey,
our people would finish it, survive it and thrive again at the end of it,
a s long as our people moved together. (TH4)
There are echoes of the ferrility myth in The Healers. During his visit to
Damfo, Densu offered Ajoa, a guava fruit which she refused to accept. Densu
kept the fruit for three days hoping that he could give it to Ajoa. "In his mind
the fruit was hers [Ajoa's] entirely, hers only" (TH63). As he failed in his
attempt to hand over the fruit, hc: "in despair went and buried it behind the
house where the girl had lived" (64).The love affair between Densu and Ajoa
strengthens the fertility motif as ir the case of Araba Jesiwa's love affair with
Kofi Entsua.
The fertility myth is visible wen in the very beginning of the novel. The
rivers that flowed through Esuano are described in male and female terms.
Nsu Ber, one of the two rivers that flowed by Esuano, was such a 'clear thing
of beauty' (TH3)that people calltzdit a female river. The other Nsu Nyin was
called the male river, as it was "heavy and physically forceful" (TH3).
In the burial scene, the dead prince Appia's grandmother appeared
with all her valuable possessions. Among them she had brought "a fertility
doll, something from her own depiirted days of womanhood and fruitfulness"
(TH57).All this produce mythic ~warenessin the readers.
Like Achebe Armah repeats numbers such as three, seven and nine.
For example "For three days dens^ kept the unaccepted fruit, hoping to give
it to Ajoa when he should find her again" (TH 63). Ajoa who was found
missing came back "in the morning of the third day after her disappearance
from Esuano" (TH 64). After the separation of Araba Jesiwa from Bedu
Addo, she "spent three months of much needed solitude and rest" (76).
According to Damfo, to become a healer one has to undergo "three years of
rigorous training" (101)"The pois.on-bark had boiled over a slow fire at the
palace for three days" (119).Da~nfotaught Densu the seven sacred rules
regarding healing profession.
Malinowski speaks of myth "as the indispensable ingredient of all
culture" (Murray 357). Achebe and Armah, the two famous contemporary
African writers postulate and exemplify Malinowski's observations of myth as
indispensable components of all cultures. In their writings they made use of
materials from the sources of the African heritage, oral and written. Thus the
incorporation of African oral anc written literature and the application of
individual and social elements render mythic consciousness to the novels of
Chinua Achebe and Ayi Kwei Armah.