To what extent do individualist cultural influences via philosophy and economic
change create intergenerational conflicts between more collectivistically oriented older
South Koreans and more individualistically oriented younger South Koreans?
(Count Words: 3472)
Abstract
This essay investigates this question: ​To what extent do individualist cultural
influences via philosophy and economic change create intergenerational conflicts
between more collectivistically oriented older South Koreans and more individualistically
oriented younger South Koreans? ​The author focuses on the influences that the
modern individualist countries (developed countries) that led collectivistic countries
(developing countries) to achieve modernized developments but also increased the
intergenerational conflicts in traditionally collectivist South Korea. Researchers such as
Triandis (1993) and Nelson & Fuvish (2004) noted that individualism is mostly seen in
the cultures of Western Europe and North America, whereas collectivism is mostly seen
in the cultures of Asia, Africa, and parts of Europe and Latin America. Collectivist
countries has been preserving the traditions, they followed the decision of their ancient,
and individualist countries seeks the modern outlook. However, in the 20th and 21st
centuries, some countries have slowly shifted their cultural orientation and outlook due
to modernization, for example, South Korea. Although there are varied factors change
South Korea to modernization, this paper will examine the influence from the
individualist countries through different methods like philosophy, economic influence,
and its impact on intergenerational conflict. Even though there is positive attribution of
led South Korea to modern development, but also increased the conflicts between the
collectivist older generation and the more individualist younger one. In conclusion, when
developing countries went through modernization, the developed countries have been
impacted the collectivist countries to experience the individualist culture. The sudden
transition led the collectivist countries, like South Korea to have the intergenerational
conflict through philosophy, modern technology, and economy influences.
(word count:261)
Table of Contents
Abstract
Introduction
1-3
The origin of South Korea philosophy and lifestyle based on economy
4-6
Different beliefs (religion & philosophy) between generation and its intergenerational
conflict​ ​
7-10
The influences of individualistic country’s economy support, and its intergenerational
conflict
Counter Argument
11-14
15
Conclusion
16-17
Bibliography
18-22
1
Introduction
In humanity, people decide and choose their lifestyle based on habits and beliefs
which are the basis of their culture. Clyde Kluckhohn (1945), an anthropologist, defined
culture
​
as ​“... the complex whole which includes artifacts, beliefs, art, all the other
habits acquired by man as a member of society, and all products of human activity as
determined by these
​ habits.​” Geert Hofstede, Dutch social psychologist who pioneered
the study of culture, also explains “A culture is a population of different, complementary,
and interdependent personalities and
​ conditions.​ Psychologists have been established
the culture could vary through the condition that people lived in, and the way individual
could do in group, which related to the idea of cultural orientation, “the degree to which
individuals are influenced by and actively engage in the traditions, norms, and practices
of a specific culture”, created depends on the position of individual in group and the
condition of living (Sue 2002). Within different perspective, this means, the cultural
orientation is changeable through experiencing other cultural habits and traditions.
However, when there are two contrasting cultural orientations presented
simultaneously, the difference between two cultural orientation, such as the outlook, the
way to perceive and create and maintain self-identity, and interpersonal relationships
can create intergenerational conflicts. Among the developing East Asia, the presence of
the traditional outlook of collectivism, and the modern viewpoint of individualism, at the
same time leads the citizen to not only confuse their own cultural identity, but also as
generations pass, the difference of ages could lead social conflict by do not understand
each other.
2
Hofstede (1991) explained those two cultural orientation “Individualism pertains
to societies in which the ties between individuals are loose... Collectivism as its opposite
pertains to societies in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong,
cohesive ingroups.” As collectivist cultures develop, the concept of individualism like
self-identity and individual’s rights became more common in legal systems. The
identification of individuals as interdependent and responsible and dutiful to group
members is defining the aspects of the cultural construct called collectivism (Triandis
1994). The identification of individuals is the process to approach the individualism,
which means the philosophy of people in influential to transition of collectivism to
individualism. Depending philosophical institutions of generation, people could identify
the cultural orientation (individualism or collectivism). The Western philosophy has the
understanding of group identity and recognizing the distinction of each other. For
example, the Christian faith, Christians are expected to worship the Christian God as
the one true God. Eastern philosophy focuses more on commissions and obligations
rather than belief of God (like the hierarchical structures of India and ancient Japan,
which is correspond to the collectivism form). The identity of religious group was
important to reinforce a legal system which made individual members’ actions to the
responsibility of entire families (Durant 1935). The difference between modernized or
traditional philosophy have created intergenerational conflict in South Korea in areas
such as communication, decision making, and difference with interpreting politics.
However, as South Korea went through modernization with Western Countries foreign
aid like loan. South Korea rapidly achieved economic development thus moving from
3
developing country to developed country (Chung 2007). This hasty transition and
economic factors such as technology development and the emergence of different
lifestyles would give rise to misunderstandings, which affected the intergenerational
conflict of communication, decision making, and different interpretation. This essay will
be investigate to what extent individualistic “foreign” influences via philosophy,
economical development created intergenerational conflict between more
collectivistically oriented older South Koreans and more individualistic younger South
Koreans.
(Word Count: 588)
4
The origin of South Korea philosophy and lifestyle based on economy
Korea is located at China near the west, Japan to the east, and Russia to the
north. Those strong countries have impacted the Korean culture with the international
relationship between Korea and those strong countries. In the past, among the Eastern
Asian countries, China was the most developed country by the technology, territory,
population, language, and having distinct cultures..The eastern countries like Korea and
Japan beliefs about China led them to follow China’s culture, language and lifestyle
(Oster 2014). Throughout the centuries, China’s cultural influence definitely impacted
Korea to form the basic foundation of collectivism. For example, before the Hangul,
Korean language, was invented by King Sejong(1446), Korea used the Chinese as their
language. Like the language, China’s traditional philosophy like confucianism had been
influence the Korean philosophy also. Confucianism is a collectivist based value system
that embraces and regulates the relationship between family and ruler and subject
(Violatti 2013). This collectivistic philosophy be cause the national philosophy. Even
though it still exists today, many ideas faded out with the introduction of Western
religion or philosophy, which introduced the individualistic lifestyle (Myonggu and
Douglas 1967). Before the idea of individualistic style was introduced, South Korea
developed the collectivistic cultural orientation like collective norms, collective interest,
and government-owned poverty. But through the interaction with individualistic
countries, South Koreans were able to recognize the individual right and duty deeper.
Leonard Hobhouse, a British liberal political theorist and sociologist, established that in
5
order to complete the task of philosophy, people have to find the place which each right
and each duty recognized by the plain man would take in the system (Hobhouse 1898).
Because of the long period of cultural isolationism, South Koreans could not recognized
the individual rights and duty. But when they started to realized and understood, they
were able to reflect from the individualistic country’s philosophy, and also lifestyle like
economy, capitalism.
After the Second World War ended, Korea got the freedom back from Japanese
imperialism. In that period, South Korea's economy was not stable to establish and
maintain the capitalism. They had to choose the collectivistic form of government in
order to survive. But by Japanese surrender, the South Korean could build national
sovereignty, which led to format new type of cultural orientation with international
financial aid. There have been influences from the individualistic “foreign” country since
they had international relationships. Especially, United States setted up a democratic
administration with the leadership of Syngman Rhee in South. Based on the United
States supports, South Korea was able to begin the journey of democracy like the
modern western countries. Eventually, the different political beliefs between North
Korea’s communist government and south Korea’s democratic government created
conflict and as a result of the Korean War, the country was divided in half. After Korean
War, with United State’s full aid, the South Korea turned more towards a model of
westernization. “Decline in traditional collectivism and concomitant increase in
individualism, weakening of the vertical structure or hierarchy”(Kim 1994). Through
western aid, South Korea was able to improve the individual rights, which influenced the
6
breaking of vertical structure and hierarchy of filial piety. “These changes came at a time
when materialistic ideas and values were rising and people began flaunting newly
acquired riches”(Cha 1980). Which mean the end of collectivistic economic and the start
of capitalism. The increased individualistic influences of western culture via belief
systems, economic have influences South Korean citizens to embrace a more
international view and realize the individual rights and duties.
(word count: 584)
7
Different beliefs (religion & philosophy) between generation and its
intergenerational conflict
Psychologist Peter Halligan of Cardiff University, defined “belief” as, “a most
powerful component of human nature that has somewhat been neglected, but it has
been capitalised on by marketing agents, politics and religion for the best part of two
millennia.” Based on the concepts, the beliefs have similar and different meaning
between philosophy and religion. Because the philosophy focuses on the lifestyle with
humans and religion used god in the lifestyle (worship). However, philosophy and
religion are the powerful methods, which people would comfort themselves and
persuade others. But as people could change the lifestyle and god, they could also
change their beliefs. In South Korea, because of the westernization, there were various
types of beliefs that have been influenced the lifestyle of people by the change of
philosophy and religion. The quick transition in philosophy and religion created the
intergenerational conflict. Because the each generations could not identify and
understand the lifestyle and god that other generations are believing in.
In history of South Korea, people originally influenced by the Chinese philosophy
of Confucianism, which is focused primarily on everyday concerns in life. The major
feature of Confucianism involves issues related to the family, mora, and the role of the
good controllers. Confucianism encouraged South Koreans to retain the the cultural
orientation of collectivism, which focused on matters as a group, not as individuals
(Violatti 2013). However, through the westernization, people started to forget the
purpose and concept of confucianism such as filial piety (respecting the older),
8
problems of ethics, a community system. ​The confucian institutions did not die out, but
they were extremely weakened ​(​Myonggu and Douglas 1985). For example, the idea of
filial piety in society had resulted the intergenerational arguments. Olders want to gain
the respect about their experience (age) and the previous lifestyle that youngers do not
know based on confucianism, but the youngers focus on the outlook of equality of
humanity, and understanding the confucianism as the duty of olders’ philosophy by life
insurance or elder care system (Denny 2015). The different outlook is going to reveal,
but based on the individual's interpretation, this conflict could deepened. The conflict is
between the olders who focus the respect based on confucianism, and the youngers
who seek for the equality based on individual rights and duties.
In South Korea, since 10th century, people has been believed in Buddhism.
(Starr 1918) Buddhism interestingly shares common beliefs with the philosophy of
confucianism in that it puts more value on groups rather than individuals. However,
Buddhism also instructed that “wealth does not guarantee happiness and also wealth is
impermanent”. As a result, Buddhism minimized the gap between rich and poor, and
established goals for that individuals should seek for happiness rather than the
competing each other for wealth, which represented the concept of collectivistic religion.
But through influence of more individualistic cultures, the religion of Christianity
has been more influential to people. Contrastingly, Christianity mentioned the idea of
capitalism in Bible. Genesis 1:28, “fill the earth and subdue it. Rule over the fish in the
sea and the birds in the sky and over every living creature that moves on the ground.”
reveals the aspect of humans were able to own property. Since we have determination
9
and private property rights, Humans should have the freedom to trade the private
property rights in a free market, which is related to idea of capitalism. The idea and
lifestyle of Capitalism was able to spread out through Christianity. An American novelist
and philosopher, Ayn Road defined capitalism as “a social system based on the
recognition of individual rights, including property rights.” Through understanding the
emphasis of private property, human relationships in religion of Buddhism and
Christianity had the different aspect to value like relationship between humans and God.
The philosophy of confucianism and the religion of Buddhism were undermined led
South Korean young people to think more independently from the group and the
community.
One way the difference between collectivism and individualism has created
intergenerational conflict is in politics. In these days, there are several discussion of
political difference between generations, for example, in Korea, the 2012 president
election, there was clear different distribution of understanding the president. “To the
younger generation, that Park Geun-hye would run for president is offensive” (Han
2012). Because Park Chung-hee , Park’s father, was South Korea’s president, even
though, he achieved the country’s economically miracle, his presidency was a dark
period of human rights and democracy, because the individuals’ rights were ignored in
order to improve the economic issue. Also, in this election, the result reveals the
generation gap. Older voters who remember the period of poverty, want to believe in
previous president’s daughter, although it would be without democracy. “For the
younger generation, though, Park Geun-Hye embodies a throwback to the bad old
10
days” (Han 2012). Younger generations remember the story of students activists who
were labeled as communists. For younger generation, the concept of democracy is
different to elders. Because of this differences, people felt betrayed by having different
perspective that youngers wanted to change the olders’ idea of maintaining (Han 2012).
Western religion and philosophy changed the cultural orientation in South Korea, the
collectivism to individualism. Although the old beliefs were weakened, the old beliefs
were still present, and protected by the older generation like the issue of Korea Parent
Federation in the Republic of Korea, which opposed the modern ideology and idea
about politics, and mostly preserved the traditional form. The new beliefs from
individualism organized with young people had been creating the political
intergenerational conflict.
(word count: 924)
11
The influences of individualistic country’s economy support, and its
intergenerational conflict
After Korean War, when South Korea had difficult time to rebuild the countries,
there were foreign influences from individualist countries like United States. Through
Second World War and the Korean War, many people starved to death, abandoned
their life because of poverty. Even though there were workers, no business was well
and survived (Chaudhuri 1996). After Korean War, South Korea sought loans around $1
billion from United States, comparable to $4 billion in today’s currency (Chaudhuri
1996). Even though the president Chung Hee Park led South Korea to industrial
revolution with cheap labor which overcome the depression with foreign countries
supports. From the presidents Roh Tae Woo (1988) to Roh Moo Hyun (2008), South
Korea established an American partnership (Kim 2005). After Korean War, the Republic
of Korea and the United States also established a military alliance in 1953, which is
called “the relationship forged in blood”. Through this military alliance, South Korea
would be protected from the violence of a communist countries (Kim 2005). Through
these foreign supports, South Koreans were able to overcome the economic depression
in 1950-1997. When foreign cooperation found the possibility of South Korea’s
economic improvement, foreign cooperation started to invest on Korean products. This
collaboration with foreign cooperation influenced positively the foreign relationship
between the Republic of Korea and individualistic countries. These rapid economic
success and improvement led younger generation to experience the economic conflict
12
currently. And through the present economic conflicts on younger generation, the
perspectives based on different generation created the intergenerational conflict in
South Korea.
Through these successful economic developments, South Korea was able to
invest in higher technology. By individualist countries’ economic support, South Korea
was able to experience and develop the technologies. Between 1911-40, the share of
manufacturing in GDP increased from 6% to 28%, and the share of agriculture fell from
76% to 41% (Cha 2008). The higher technologies like IT and semiconductor led South
Korea to modernize like individualist country (Cha 2008). With the technology's ability
like the ability to find the information like internet and phone, and able to travel the long
distance like plane, ship, and car, people would experience and understand different
cultures, and countries easily. Which influenced younger generations to have different
perspective and interpretation toward the foreign. The difference perspective and
interpretation about the foreign matter created the intergenerational conflict between
generation by not understanding each other. Because of the technology developed,
people was able to access the other cultures and countries more, elders were not able
to use the technologies like younger generations.
The higher technology has been influenced the intergenerational to deeper
degree because in the past, people who was able to understand the different culture,
was directly influenced or related to foreign relationship; however, in younger
generation, people could easily learn other customs, tradition, and culture through
Internet. Through individualist country economic influence, South Korea was able to
13
modernize and overcome the economic depression, however; these influences also
created the intergenerational conflict. First at all, this “hyper modernization” has led to
the lack of understanding value and attitude of changes across generations like
attitudes toward the LGBT community, levels of support for unification, and thoughts on
income inequality (Denny 2015). The elder generation has a difficult time understanding
the LGBT community because there were taught those things were not right. Through
foreign countries’ LGBT community existence, minority could established the LGBT
community and obtain their rights. Through this process, the younger generation also
has better knowledge and participation of improving the human rights and minority
rights. Their understanding of the issue of unification is also very different. The
Seoul-based Asan Institute for Policy Studies, released survey data in a report “South
Korean Attitudes toward North Korea and Reunification”, which points to a new South
Korean national identity different from that of North Korea, especially younger
generation (20th) (Denny 2015) (Kim 2015). The report finds that South Koreans in
younger generations are less receptive to the issue of unification than the older
generation. Moreover, younger generation do not consider North Korea as same
“bloodline” as them (Kim 2015). Through the individualist country's influence of rapid
modernization resulted this different perspective based on generation.The
intergenerational conflict would be like lack of understanding, and pre-judging different
generation. Because younger generations were experiencing the problem about the
economic factors like employment rate, financial inability to have own house, and
income (Kin 2013). But the elder generation of high governor position do not agree to
14
younger generations, and avoid the problem like suicide rate by economic system and
income inequality (Kwon 2009). From 1987 to 2005, the Korean National Statistical
Office published an age standardized suicide rates in South Korea increased by 98% in
men (from 15.3 to 30.3 per 100,000) and by 124% in women (from 5.8 to 13.0 per
100,000) (Kwon 2009). However, the older generations avoided to solve the problem
and focus on other subject like aids for North Korea, or big major project like “Four
Major Rivers Project” . Which make the younger generations to have anger against the
older generations and the intergenerational conflict to get deeper. Through the
Intergenerational conflict on economic subject, younger generations to lose dream,
goal, and even life in order to survive.
(word count: 874)
15
Counter Argument
Basically, the intergenerational conflict is a conflict between generations. It could
be mean as anythings like the cultural, social, and economic problems between
generations. There had been individualist country’s influence toward South Korea
Culture. However, the question raises, that the intergenerational conflicts in South
Korea is only caused by the “foreign” influences. There are also different natural factors
that eventually leads to the occasion, such as the time. As time goes, the humanity has
been developed by any kinds such as the technology, philosophy, perspectives,
interpretations. It could argued as the change was going to happen, but the “foreign”
influence just stimulated the speed of the change. Also, in any countries, there were
always have been conflicts between the generations. Mostly, the intergenerational
conflicts began within the old and new ideology. It could be just natural occasion that all
of countries had to pass, because when two different generation gather, and have
proper communication to look forward about their community or country, the concepts of
individualism and collectivism could not be matter to them.
(word count: 174)
16
Conclusion
When South Korea had difficult time to rebuild after the international war, the
Second World War and Korean War, the individualistic countries’ support definitely
helped South Korea’s economic and the outlook toward understanding others. Through
Western countries like United States and European countries, South Korea was able to
receive loans and support in the way of partnerships and military alliances.(Kim 2005).
However, through these economic supports and global outlook, South Korea
modernized. Because elder generation could not keep in same pace as younger
generations are going. The different perspective and interpretation of philosophy,
religion, economic matters (system, and policy) within generations led to create the
intergenerational conflict in South Korea (Kim 2000) (Schattle 2012).
The rapid modernization led the different perspectives between generations to
conflict each other. ​The intergenerational conflict like misunderstanding different lifestyle
and different political outlook ​created the political issue, president election 2012 in
South Korea, the lack of understanding filial piety in social system ​(​Myonggu and
Douglas 1985) (Han 2012).
Also, the rapid economic development led the generations to be “hyper
modernization” (Denny 2015), which mean to lack of understanding values and attitude
changes across generations regarding issues such as the LGBT community because of
different cultural orientation. Elder generations had the moment of focusing on money in
order survive, but as humans realize the concept of rights and duties, younger
17
generations have to focus on the human rights and understanding others, which
develops humanity.
As the counterclaim pointed out the problem that throughout generations, the
intergenerational argument and conflict have been existed, but is it justified to focus on
individualistic country influence led to intergenerational conflict. As generations emerge,
the perspectives vary through cultural, social, economic, and political factors. Although
the perspective could naturally varied through generations, the rapid modernization of
philosophy and economic development to great extent the individualistic cultural
influences via philosophy and economic change create intergenerational conflicts
between collectivially oriented older South Koreans and more individualistically oriented
younger South Koreans.
(Word Count: 328)
18
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